Organic Pollutant Degradation in Water by the Vacuum-Ultraviolet/Ultraviolet/H2O2 Process: Inhibition and Enhancement Roles of H2O2

Vacuum-ultraviolet based advanced oxidation and reduction processes for water treatment

The use of vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) photolysis in water treatment has been gaining significant interest due to its efficacy in degrading refractory organic contaminants and eliminating oxyanions. In recent years, the reactive species driving pollutant decomposition in VUV-based advanced oxidation and reduction processes (VUV-AOPs and VUV-ARPs) have been identified. This review aims to provide a concise overview of VUV photolysis and its advancements in water treatment. We begin with an introduction to VUV irradiation, followed by a summary of the primary reactive species in both VUV-AOPs and VUV-ARPs. We then explore the factors influencing VUV-photolysis in water treatment, including VUV irradiation dose, catalysts or activators, dissolved gases, water matrix components (e.g., DOM and inorganic anions), and solution pH. In VUV-AOPs, the predominant reactive species are hydroxyl radicals (˙OH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and ozone (O3). Conversely, in VUV-ARPs, the main reactive species are the hydrated electron (eaq-) and hydrogen atom (˙H). It is worth noting that VUV-based advanced oxidation/reduction processes (VUV-AORPs) can transit between VUV-AOPs and VUV-ARPs based on the externally added chemicals and dissolved gases in the solution. Increase of the VUV irradiation dose and the concentration of catalysts/activators enhances the degradation of contaminants, whereas DOM and inorganic anions inhibit the reaction. The pH influences the redox potential of ˙OH, the speciation of contaminants and activators, and thus the overall performance of the VUV-AOPs. Conversely, an alkaline pH is favored in VUV-ARPs because eaq- predominates at higher pH.

Promotive Effects of Chloride and Sulfate on the Near-Complete Destruction of Perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) in Brine via Hydrogen-tuned 185-nm UV Photolysis: Mechanisms and Kinetics

Hydrogen-tuned 185 nm vacuum ultraviolet (VUV/H2) photolysis is an emerging technology to destroy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) in brine. This study discovered the promotive effects of two major brine anions, i.e., chloride and sulfate in VUV/H2 photolysis on the hydrated electron (eaq-) generation and perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) destruction and established a kinetics model to elucidate the promotive effects on the steady-state concentration of eaq- ([eaq-]ss). Results showed that VUV/H2 achieved near-complete defluorination of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the presence of up to 1000 mM chloride or sulfate at pH 12. The defluorination rate constant (kdeF) of PFOA peaked with a chloride concentration at 100 mM and with a sulfate concentration at 500 mM. The promotive effects of chloride and sulfate were attributed to an enhanced generation of eaq- via their direct VUV photolysis and conversion of additionally generated hydroxyl radical to eaq- by H2, which was supported by a linear correlation between the predicted [eaq-]ss and experimentally observed kdeF. The kdeF value increased from pH 9 to 12, which was attributed to the speciation of the H·/eaq- pair. Furthermore, the VUV system achieved >95% defluorination and ≥99% parent compound degradation of a concentrated PFCAs mixture in a synthetic brine, without generating any toxic perchlorate or chlorate.

Wet peroxide oxidation process catalyzed by Cu/Al2O3: phenol degradation and Cu2+ dissolution behavior

Catalytic wet peroxide oxidation (CWPO) has become an important deep oxidation technology for organics removal in wastewater treatments. Supported Cu-based catalysts belong to an important type of CWPO catalyst. In this paper, two Cu catalysts, namely, Cu/Al2O3-air and Cu/Al2O3-H2 were prepared and evaluated through catalytic degradation of phenol. It was found that Cu/Al2O3-H2 had an excellent catalytic performance (TOC removal rate reaching 96%) and less metal dissolution than the Cu/Al2O3-air case. Moreover, when the organic removal rate was promoted at a higher temperature, the metal dissolution amounts was decreased. Combined with hydroxyl radical quenching experiments, a catalytic oxidation mechanism was proposed to explain the above-mentioned interesting behaviors of the Cu/Al2O3-H2 catalyst for CWPO. The catalytic test results as well as the proposed mechanism can provide better guide for design and synthesis of good CWPO catalysts.

Novel vacuum UV/ozone/peroxymonosulfate process for efficient degradation of levofloxacin: Performance evaluation and mechanism insight

Vacuum UV (VUV) irradiation has advantage in coupling oxidants for organics removal because VUV can dissociate water to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in situ and decompose oxidants rapidly. In this study, the synergistic activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) by VUV and ozone (O3) was explored via developing a novel integrated VUV/O3/PMS process, and the performance and mechanisms of VUV/O3/PMS for levofloxacin (LEV) degradation were investigated systematically. Results indicated that VUV/O3/PMS could effectively degrade LEV, and the degradation rate was 1.67-18.79 times of its sub-processes. Effects of PMS dosage, O3 dosage, solution pH, anions, and natural organic matter on LEV removal by VUV/O3/PMS were also studied. Besides, hydroxyl radical and sulfate radical were main ROS with contributions of 49.7% and 17.4%, respectively. Moreover, the degradation pathways of LEV in VUV/O3/PMS process were speculated based on density functional theory calculation and by-products detection. Furthermore, synergistic reaction mechanisms in VUV/O3/PMS process were proposed. The energy consumption of VUV/O3/PMS decreased by 22.6%- 88.1% compared to its sub-processes. Finally, the integrated VUV/O3/PMS process showed satisfactory results in removing LEV in actual waters, manifesting VUV/O3/PMS had great application potential and feasibility in removing organics in wastewater reuse.

The overlooked role of UV185 induced high-energy excited states in the dephosphorization of organophosphorus pesticide by VUV/persulfate

Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) recently attracted widespread interests. However, the role of UV₁₈₅ in VUV is only considered to be generating a series of active species, while the effect of photoexcitation has long been overlooked. In this work, the role of UV₁₈₅ induced high-energy excited state for the dephosphorization of organophosphorus pesticides was studied using malathion as a model. Results showed malathion degradation was highly related to radical yield, while its dephosphorization was not. It was UV₁₈₅ rather than UV₂₅₄ or radical yield that was responsible for malathion dephosphorization by VUV/persulfate. DFT calculation results demonstrated that the polarity of P-S bond was further increased during UV₁₈₅ excitation, favoring dephosphorization while UV₂₅₄ did not. The conclusion was further supported by degradation path identification. Moreover, despite the fact that anions (Cl^-, SO₄^2- and NO₃^-) considerably affected radical yield, only Cl^- and NO₃^- with high molar extinction coefficient at 185 nm significantly affected dephosphorization. This study shed light on the crucial role of excited states in VUV based AOPs and provided a new idea for the development of mineralization technology of organophosphorus pesticides.

Roles of radical species in vacuum-UV/UV/peroxydisulfate advanced oxidation processes and contributions of the species to contaminant degradation at different water depths

Vacuum-UV (VUV) (wavelength 185 nm)/ UV (wavelength 254 nm) are applied to improve performances of UV-based advanced oxidation processes. However, the improvements were strongly affected by water depth because of poor VUV transmittance in water. In this study, VUV/UV and peroxydisulfate (PDS) were used to degrade carbamazepine. More SO₄^•- oxidation occurred in VUV/UV/PDS than VUV/UV with similar ^•OH oxidation occurring. The additional SO₄^•- oxidation could be caused by VUV/PDS in superficial water or UV/PDS in deeper water. The synergistic factor for VUV/UV/PDS processes relative to VUV/UV and UV/PDS processes was 1.32. VUV/UV/PDS performances were affected by competition for photon absorption by dissolved organic matter (32-58 % inhibition), radical quenching by CO₃^2-/HCO₃^- and NO₃^-, and conversion of ^•OH and SO₄^•- into reactive chlorine species by Cl^-. Radical probe experiments and steady-state kinetic modeling simulations indicated that 34 %, 25 %, and 40 % of carbamazepine degradation occurring in 2-cm-deep bulk solution was due to ^•OH oxidation through VUV/H₂O, SO₄^•- oxidation through VUV/PDS, and SO₄^•- oxidation through UV/PDS, respectively. Contribution of VUV-driven processes decreased with increasing water depth and became equivalent to contribution of 3.5-cm-deep UV-driven processes, which indicated the importance of optimizing water depth in VUV/UV-advanced oxidation process reactors.

Facilely achieved enhancement of Fenton-like reactions by constructing electric microfields

In this work, we found that the presence of non-active ZnO crystals greatly accelerated the degradation of Bisphenol A (BPA) by 3.7 folds in the peroxymonosulfate (PMS, HSO₅^-)/Co₃O₄ system. Our mechanistic study revealed that the ZnO particles would create negative electric microfields around them, which are closely related with the zeta potentials (ζ) of ZnO and affected by solution pH. According to COMSOL simulation, the electrostatic repulsion between ZnO and PMS would drive HSO₅^- toward active Co₃O₄ surface, leading to the concentration increasing of HSO₅^- around active Co₃O₄ particles, which will then improve the degradation performance. The particle size of ZnO will also affect the promoting effect greatly by COMSOL simulation. Therefore, this study for the first time reveals synergy of electric microfields for enhanced heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions, providing a low-cost and effective strategy for enhanced persulfate catalysis.

VUV/UV oxidation performance for the elimination of recalcitrant aldehydes in water and its variation along the light-path

Vacuum ultraviolet/ultraviolet (VUV/UV) oxidation using a low-pressure mercury lamp emitting dual wavelengths (185 nm (VUV) and 254 nm (UV)) significantly varies in performance along the light-path (l_P), which has not been fully characterized. Therefore, VUV/UV oxidation in solution was investigated at various l_P in terms of the degradation kinetics and mineralization pathway of representative aldehydes with various alkyl-chain lengths. Oxidative degradation of parent aldehydes with shorter alkyl chains was less efficient, specifically the pseudo-zero-order rate constant (k_obs) of formaldehyde was only 51% of that of propionaldehyde (k_obs = 0.078 μM s^-1). In contrast, the mineralization of aldehydes with longer alkyl chains was less efficient because these aldehydes underwent mineralization into more refractory carboxylic byproducts, e.g., oxalic acid. VUV was mainly absorbed by superficial water (l_P < 0.55 cm), which resulted in highly heterogeneous oxidation in homogeneous water. Thus, k_obs of acetaldehyde dramatically decreased from 0.13 to 0.033 μM s^-1 as the total l_P of solution increased from 1.0 to 3.0 cm. On the basis of mineralization pathways proposed above, an iterative kinetic model was developed to characterize the degradation of parent aldehydes and the formation of carboxylic acids along l_P. This model predicted the VUV/UV oxidaton for the first time by considering the fast diffusion of pollutants by limited diffusion of transient radical species. Thus, it realized the prediction of ^•OH concentration at specific water solution and byproduct evolution within specific water solution in turbulent flow regime, wherein ^•OH was predominantly formed in superficial water-layers wherein ^•OH in water-layers of l_P <0.16 cm and <0.81 cm contributed to 50% and 90% of the total oxidation performance, respectively. This result would help to improve the VUV-UV-reactor design in terms of optimizing the thickness of water-layer and turbulence of water-flow.

Preferential Destruction of Micropollutants in Water through a Self-Purification Process with Dissolved Organic Carbon Polar Complexation

Removing micropollutants in real water is a scientific challenge due to primary dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and high energy consumption of current technologies. Herein, we develop a self-purification process for the preferential destruction of various micropollutants in municipal wastewater, raw drinking water, and ultrapure water with humic acid (HA) driven by the surface microelectronic field of Fe⁰-Fe_yC_z/Fe_x-GZIF-8-rGO without any additional input. It was verified that a strongly polar complex consisting of an electron-rich HA/DOC area and an electron-poor micropollutant area was formed between HA/DOC and micropollutants, promoting more electrons of micropollutants in the adsorbed complex to delocalizing to electron-rich Fe species area and be trapped by O₂, which resulted in their surface cleavage and hydrolyzation preferentially. The higher micropollutant degradation efficiency observed in real wastewaters was due to the greater complex polarity of DOC. Moreover, the electron transfer process ensured the stability of the surface microelectronic field and continuous water purification. Our findings provide a new insight into low-energy combined-micropollution water treatment.

Mineralization, characteristics variation, and removal mechanism of algal extracellular organic matter during vacuum ultraviolet/ozone process

Extracellular organic matter (EOM) produced by algal blooms in source water is detrimental to drinking water treatment processes and supplied water quality. Ozonation has been used to treat algal EOM, but it could not mineralize EOM effectively. In this study, mineralization and characteristics variation of EOM by vacuum ultraviolet/ozone (VUV/O₃) and its sub-processes were comprehensively investigated. Results showed that EOM removal in different processes followed the order of VUV/O₃ > UV/O₃ > O₃ > VUV > UV. For VUV/O₃ process, removal efficiencies of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), UV₂₅₄, protein, and polysaccharide at 50 min were 75.6%, 80.8%, 80.1%, and 78.0%, respectively, and fluorescence components received very high removal rates (≥92.8%, at 10 min). The yield of trichloromethane dropped from 102.0 to 30.1 μg/L after treating for 50 min by VUV/O₃. Besides, effects of O₃ dosage, initial pH, and water matrices on EOM removal in VUV/O₃ process were investigated. Moreover, fluorescent molecular probe experiments confirmed that hydroxyl radical and superoxide radical were the main reactive oxygen species (ROS) in VUV/O₃ process, and the transformation of ROS was proposed. The mechanism of EOM removal by VUV/O₃ included VUV photolysis, direct O₃ oxidation, and ROS oxidation. Furthermore, the removal of EOM in filtered water by VUV/O₃ was satisfactory. All results indicated that VUV/O₃ process had great application potential in treating EOM-rich filtered water.

Insight into enhanced Fenton-like degradation of antibiotics over CuFeO2 based nanocomposite: To improve the utilization efficiency of OH/O2- via minimizing its migration distance

In Fenton or Fenton-like processes, the key step is to catalyze H₂O₂ and produce highly reactive OH radicals. More efforts are then focus on designing efficient heterogeneous Fenton catalysts by activating H₂O₂ to generate OH at the highest possible steady state concentration. In this study, using the antibiotic ofloxacin as target organic pollutant, we firstly demonstrate a point of view for improving OH utilization efficiency by regulating surface chemical reactions to minimizing its migration distance to the target pollutant. C doped g-C₃N₄ incorporated CuFeO₂ (CCN/CuFeO₂) exhibited almost ten times higher ofloxacin degradation rate constant than our previously reported CuFeO₂ {012} catalyst (0.1634 vs 0.0179 min^-1). Since similar amount of OH was generated, the different inhibition effect of tert-butyl alcohol and nitrobenzene on the ofloxacin degradation confirmed that the much-enhanced ofloxacin degradation was attributed to the surface Fenton reaction process. According to XPS and EXAFS characterization, the C-O-Cu bond between g-C₃N₄ and CuFeO₂ established a closed-circuit surface Fenton reaction mechanism. H₂O₂ was adsorbed and decomposed into OH/O₂^- over ≡Cu ⁺ site in CuFeO₂. The successful construction of CCN/CuFeO₂ creates a negative surface potential and benefits the enrichment of target antibiotics from water, which greatly reduces the migration distance of OH/O₂^•- to adjacent pollutant and then increases the OH/O₂^- utilization efficiency by avoiding the unwanted quenching. Hence, CCN/CuFeO₂ possesses superior Fenton catalytic activity and long-term stability.

Promotive effects of vacuum-UV/UV (185/254 nm) light on elimination of recalcitrant trace organic contaminants by UV-AOPs during wastewater treatment and reclamation: A review

The use of vacuum-UV/UV (185/254 nm) for trace organic contaminants (TOrCs) elimination during wastewater treatments has attracted much attention. Advanced oxidation processes which combine VUV/UV and additional oxidants (vacuum-UV/UV-based advanced oxidation processes, VUV/UV-AOPs) provide a promising method for eliminating recalcitrant and toxic TOrCs for wastewater reclamation. Researches in this area are increasing but the promoting effects, mechanisms, and influencing factors have not been well summarized. A comprehensive discussion of the limitations of this technique and future research directions is needed. VUV/UV-AOPs have considerable synergistic effects by increasing usage of VUV/UV photons and the oxidant, which increases radical generation. In terms of elimination kinetics, VUV/UV-AOPs outperform conventional UV-AOPs and VUV/UV processes in most cases; a 1.2-87.7-fold increase of the fluence-based kinetic constant is achieved. In terms of energy efficiency per order (EE/O) of TOrCs elimination, the EE/O of VUV/UV-AOPs only accounts for 4% of UV-AOPs and 63% of VUV/UV. However, VUV/UV-AOPs still need to be further investigated. Firstly, although VUV and UV processes have similar radical formation pathways, limited information is available on the quantum yields of photolysis and radical formation of oxidants under VUV irradiation. Secondly, optimization of VUV/UV-AOPs operating conditions, especially oxidant dosage and water-flow patterns, is needed. Thirdly, VUV/UV-AOPs are significantly inhibited by organic and inorganic matters, but the mechanisms of inhibition on VUV/UV scattering, radical quenching, and radical conversion are not well understood. Such inhibition suggests that the use of VUV/UV-AOPs would be limited to relatively clear water treatment, e.g., reverse osmosis effluent for potable water reuse and ultrapure water production. Related research is needed to establish a clearer scheme for VUV/UV-AOPs in terms of the spatial distribution of radical species in the VUV/UV irradiation system and the relevant optimization method for promoting oxidation performance.

Organic pollutant degradation by UV/peroxydisulfate process: Impacts of UV light source and phosphate buffer

In recent years, ultraviolet (UV) based advanced oxidation processes have been extensively studied for degradation of refractory organic pollutants in water and wastewater, and selection of an appropriate UV light source is an important issue. In this study, bench-scale tests were conducted on a mini-fluidic photoreaction system (MFPS) to determine the degradation kinetics of methylene blue (MB) by UV/peroxydisulfate (UV/PDS) process equipped with a low-pressure UV (LPUV), vacuum UV (VUV)/LPUV, or medium-pressure UV (MPUV) mercury vapor lamp. Results indicate that MB degradation by UV/PDS with various light sources all followed the pseudo-first order kinetics, and the photon fluence-based rate constant (k_p,λ^') had a descending order of: VUV/LPUV/PDS ≫ MPUV/PDS > LPUV/PDS. Moreover, it is noted that phosphate buffer (PB) notably inhibited MB degradation: the k_p,LPUV^', k_p,VUV/LPUV^' and k_p,MPUV^' decreased by 35.0%, 44.9% and 37.5% with the PB concentration increasing from 0 to 20 mM, respectively. The maximal decrease in k_p,VUV/LPUV^' was ascribed to a strong competition of PB for VUV photons. Thereafter, pilot-scale tests were conducted to evaluate the practical performance of UV/PDS in terms of the electrical energy consumption per order (E_EO). It was found again that the VUV/LPUV lamp was the optimal light source in UV/PDS for organic pollutant degradation. This study helps optimize the UV/PDS process for its practical application to water and wastewater treatment.

Hemin functionalized hybrid aerogel-enabled electrochemical chip for real-time analysis of H2O2

Herein, a novel hemin functionalized hybrid aerogel (He@GMA) is synthesized and applied to an electrochemical chip for real-time analysis of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

Degradation of micropolluants in flow-through VUV/UV/H2O2 reactors: Effects of H2O2 dosage and reactor internal diameter

The degradation of atrazine (ATZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and metoprolol (MET) in flow-through VUV/UV/H₂O₂ reactors was investigated with a focus on the effects of H₂O₂ dosage and reactor internal diameter (ID). Results showed that the micropollutants were degraded efficiently in the flow-through VUV/UV/H₂O₂ reactors following the pseudo first-order kinetics (R² > 0.92). However, the steady-state assumption (SSA) kinetic model being vital in batch reactors was found invalid in flow-through reactors where fluid mixing was less sufficient. With the increase of H₂O₂ dosage, the ATZ removal efficiency remained almost constant while the SMX and MET removal was enhanced to different extents, which could be explained by the different reactivities of the pollutants towards HO^•. A larger reactor ID resulted in lower degradation rate constants for all the three pollutants on account of the lower average fluence rate, but the change in energy efficiency was much more complicated. In reality, the electrical energy per order (E_EO) of the investigated VUV/UV/H₂O₂ treatments ranged between 0.14-0.20, 0.07-0.14 and 0.09-0.26 kWh/m³/order for ATZ, SMX and MET, respectively, with the lowest E_EO for each pollutant obtained under varied H₂O₂ dosages and reactor IDs. This study has demonstrated the efficiency of VUV/UV/H₂O₂ process for micropollutant removal and the inadequacy of the SSA model in flow-through reactors, and elaborated the influential mechanisms of H₂O₂ dosage and reactor ID on the reactor performances.

Disinfection by-product (DBP) research in China: Are we on the track?

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed during water disinfection has drawn significant public concern due to its toxicity. Since the first discovery of the trihalomethanes in 1974, continued effort has been devoted on DBPs worldwide to investigate the formation mechanism, levels, toxicity and control measures in drinking water. This review summarizes the main achievements on DBP research in China, which included: (1) the investigation of known DBP occurrence in drinking water of China; (2) the enhanced removal of DBP precursor by water treatment process; (3) the disinfection optimization to minimize DBP formation; and (4) the identification of unknown DBPs in drinking water. Although the research of DBPs in China cover the whole formation process of DBPs, there is still a challenge in effectively controlling the drinking water quality risk induced by DBPs, an integrated research framework including chemistry, toxicology, engineering, and epidemiology is especially crucial.

Degradation mechanism of tributyl phosphate by UV/H2O2 treatment and parameters optimization towards the design of a pilot reactor

While activated sludge treatment is currently the preferred process for the removal of tributyl phosphate (TBP) at the mg.L^-1 level, it is well known that this recalcitrant molecule is incompletely degraded, stimulating research into alternative approaches, such as advanced oxidation. The aim of this study was to characterize the degradation mechanism of TBP during ultraviolet/H₂O₂ treatment using ³¹P NMR, ionic chromatography and total organic carbon analysis. The effects of initial pH, amount of oxidant and pollutant concentration were also assessed using an experimental design approach. The results of this parametric study show that ultraviolet/H₂O₂ photo-oxidation efficiently degrades TBP at concentrations up to 600 mg.L^-1, with >90% phosphate release and up to 95% removal of total organic carbon within 1 h. The data also show that the main reaction intermediates are short carboxylic acids, resulting from the released alkyl groups, meaning that an interesting application of this process may be to rapidly pre-treat industrial effluent upstream of activated sludge reactors.

Generation of hydroxyl radicals by metal-free bifunctional electrocatalysts for enhanced organics removal

Low yields of H₂O₂ and a narrow range of appropriate pH values have been two major drawbacks for electro-Fenton (EF) process. Herein, metal-free electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) were developed with nitrogen and sulfur co-doped electrochemically exfoliated graphene (N, S-EEGr) electrocatalysts, which was confirmed as an outstanding bifunctional catalyst for synchronous generation and activation of H₂O₂ via (2 + 1) e^- consecutive reduction reactions. Specifically, two elements (N, S) in metal-free N, S-EEGr-CF cathode synergize to promote the formation of H₂O₂ followed by its activation. With N, S-EEGr-CF cathode, phenol of initial 50 mg L^-1 could be effectively removed within pH 3-11 and 6.25 mA cm^-2, and 100% removal efficiency could be achieved within 15-min even at neutral pH. The pseudo-first-order rate constant for phenol removal in metal-free EAOPs with N,S-EEGr-CF at neutral pH was 10 times higher than that with EF process. Detection of active species, coupled with decay kinetics with specific trapping agents, confirmed that OH was the dominant oxidizing species promoting removal efficiencies of organics (phenol, antibiotics and dyes) at pH 3 and pH 7. In the actual wastewater treatment, the synergistic effect of bifunctional catalyst would also be used for improving the degradation efficiency of organics. Thus, the metal-free EAOPs with N,S-EEGr-CF cathode may serve as an alternative in wastewater treatment with a broadened range of solution pH values and avoiding Fe²⁺ (catalyst) addition.

Emerging Contaminants: An Overview of Recent Trends for Their Treatment and Management Using Light-Driven Processes

The management of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in water bodies is particularly challenging due to the difficulty in detection and their recalcitrant degradation by conventional means. In this review, CECs are characterized to give insights into the potential degradation performance of similar compounds. A two-pronged approach was then proposed for the overall management of CECs. Light-driven oxidation processes, namely photo/Fenton, photocatalysis, photolysis, UV/Ozone were discussed. Advances to overcome current limitations in these light-driven processes were proposed, focusing on recent trends and innovations. Light-based detection methodology was also discussed for the management of CECs. Lastly, a cost–benefit analysis on various light-based processes was conducted to access the suitability for CECs degradation. It was found that the UV/Ozone process might not be suitable due to the complication with pH adjustments and limited light wavelength. It was found that EEO values were in this sequence: UV only > UV/combination > photocatalyst > UV/O3 > UV/Fenton > solar/Fenton. The solar/Fenton process has the least computed EEO < 5 kWh m−3 and great potential for further development. Newer innovations such as solar/catalyst can also be explored with potentially lower EEO values.

Construction of Porous Tubular In2S3@In2O3 with Plasma Treatment-Derived Oxygen Vacancies for Efficient Photocatalytic H2O2 Production in Pure Water Via Two-Electron Reduction

Tubular In₂O₃ was fabricated by the annealing of In-MIL-68 and further treated by Ar plasma to yield oxygen vacancies (O_v) followed by the growth of In₂S₃ nanoflowers. Unexpectedly, the resulting porous In₂S₃@In₂O₃ composites were discovered to display a broad visible-light response and especially enhanced capacities for efficient photocatalytic production of H₂O₂ in pure water, with a rate of 4.59 μmol·g^-1·min^-1. An apparent quantum yield of 28.9% at 420 nm can also be expected without the use of noble metals or organic scavengers. Herein, the high light utilization might be profited from their porous tubular heterostructure for powerful "light captivity". Moreover, the Ar plasma-derived O_v sites on the composites might tune the H₂O₂ generation route from the single-electron reduction to the two-electron one toward the significantly enhanced photocatalysis, as validated by the Koutecky-Levich plots. This work demonstrates a new perspective of designing porous heterostructures with the advantages of high light harvest and plasma-derived O_v active sites. Importantly, it may provide a promising defect-induced strategy of two-electron reduction triggered by the plasma treatment for the efficient photocatalytic H₂O₂ production under visible light.

Overview of toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in Ibero-American freshwaters: Challenges for risk management and opportunities for removal by advanced technologies

The increasing occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms worldwide represents an important threat for both the environment and public health. In this context, the development of risk analysis and management tools as well as sustainable and cost-effective treatment processes is essential. The research project TALGENTOX, funded by the Ibero-American Science and Technology Program for Development (CYTED-2019), aims to address this ambitious challenge in countries with different environmental and social conditions within the Ibero-American context. It is based on a multidisciplinary approach that combines ecology, water management and technology fields, and includes research groups from Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru and Spain. In this review, the occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in freshwaters from these countries are summarized. The presence of cyanotoxins has been confirmed in all countries but the information is still scarce and further monitoring is required. In this regard, remote sensing or metagenomics are good alternatives at reasonable cost. The risk management of freshwaters from those countries considering the most frequent uses (consumption and recreation) has been also evaluated. Only Spain and Peru include cyanotoxins in its drinking water legislation (only MC-LR) and thus, there is a need for regulatory improvements. The development of preventive strategies like diminishing nutrient loads to aquatic systems is also required. In the same line, corrective measures are urgently needed especially in drinking waters. Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) have the potential to play a major role in this scenario as they are effective for the elimination of most cyanotoxins classes. The research on the field of AOPs is herein summarized considering the cost-effectiveness, environmental character and technical applicability of such technologies. Fenton-based processes and photocatalysis using solar irradiation or LED light represent very promising alternatives given their high cost-efficiency. Further research should focus on developing stable long-term operation systems, addressing their scale-up.

Formation of Nitrite and Hydrogen Peroxide in Water during the Vacuum Ultraviolet Irradiation Process: Impacts of pH, Dissolved Oxygen, and Nitrate Concentration

Photolysis via vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) irradiation is a robust technology capable of inactivating pathogens and degrading micropollutants, and therefore, its application has recently attracted great interest. However, VUV irradiation of water may yield nitrite (NO₂^-, a regulated carcinogenic contaminant) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂, a compound linked to aging, inflammation, and cancer), thus motivating us to better understand its risks. By applying a novel H₂O₂ detection method insensitive to coexisting compounds, this study clearly observed concurrent and substantial formations of NO₂^- and H₂O₂ during VUV irradiation of various synthetic and real waters. Increasing pH and/or decreasing oxygen promoted the conversion of nitrate (NO₃^-) into NO₂^- but suppressed the H₂O₂ formation, suggesting that there was a transition of radicals from oxidizing species like hydroxyl radicals to reducing species like hydrogen atoms and hydrated electrons. Under low light dose conditions, both NO₂^- and H₂O₂ were formed concurrently; however, under high radiation dosage conditions, the patterns conducive to NO₂^- formation were opposite to those conducive to H₂O₂ formation. Real water irradiation proved the formation of NO₂^- and H₂O₂ at levels near to or greater than current drinking water regulatory limits. Hence, the study reminds of a holistic view of benefits and disbenefits of a VUV process.

Transformation of acetaminophen in solution containing both peroxymonosulfate and chlorine: Performance, mechanism, and disinfection by-product formation

With the fast development of peroxymonosulfate (PMS)-dominating processes in drinking water and wastewater treatment, residual PMS is easy to come across chlorine as these processes are usually followed by secondary chlorine disinfection. The synergistic effect of PMS and chlorine on the degradation of micro-organic pollutants is investigated by selecting acetaminophen (ACT) as a reference compound for the first time in this study. Unlike conventional PMS or chlorine activation which generates reactive species such as hydroxyl radical (HO^•), sulfate radical (SO₄^•-), chlorine radical (Cl^•), and singlet oxygen (¹O₂), the efficient ACT removal is attributed to the direct catalytic chlorination by PMS due to the significantly enhanced consumption of chlorine along with negligible change of PMS concentration at neutral condition, and the same reaction pathways in both PMS/chlorine and chlorine processes. The kinetic study demonstrates that ACT oxidation by PMS/chlorine follows second order reaction, and the degradation efficiency can be promoted at alkaline conditions with peak rate constants at pH 9.0-10.0. The presence of chloride can enhance the removal of ACT, while ammonium and humic acid significantly retard ACT degradation. Higher formation of selected disinfection by-products (DBPs) is observed in the PMS/chlorine process than in the sole chlorination. This study highlights the important role of PMS in organic pollutants degradation and DBPs formation during the chlorination process.

Electrospray-Printed Three-Tiered Composite Membranes with Enhanced Mass Transfer Coefficients for Phenol Removal in an Aqueous-Aqueous Membrane Extractive Process

The aqueous-aqueous membrane extractive process is an ideal approach to remove recalcitrant organics from highly saline and harsh wastewater. However, it is still challenging to develop highly efficient membranes for the extractive process. In this work, three-tiered polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) nanofiber/nonwoven fabric composite membranes were prepared by electrospinning and electrospray printing for the first time. An ultrathin and defect-free PDMS selective layer was fabricated on the surface of a PVDF/nonwoven fabric nanofibrous substrate by electrospray printing. Meanwhile, the thicknesses of the PDMS selective layer were able to be finely controlled by electrospray printing. The novel three-tiered composite membrane #N3-1 with the thinnest PDMS layer (3.0 ± 0.4 μm) and a thin and porous supporting layer showed an exceptionally high k₀ of 37.9 ± 2.8 × 10^-7 m/s and an excellent salt rejection above 99.95% over a 105 h continuous operation. Moreover, #N3-1 exhibited outstanding k₀ at feed pH of 2 and 11 over 100 h without loss of salt rejection. In addition, the effects of the nonwoven fabric supporting layer on the phenol mass transfer coefficient (k₀, m/s) of resultant extractive membranes were also studied symmetrically. A thin and porous nonwoven supporting layer #N3 was capable of improving the k₀ of resultant composite membrane significantly.

Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation for mitigating dissolved organic nitrogen and formation of haloacetonitriles

The main objective of this work was to investigate the feasibility of using vacuum ultraviolet (VUV, 185 + 254 nm) and ultraviolet (UV, 254 nm) for the reduction of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) and haloacetonitrile formation potential (HANFP) of surface water and treated effluent wastewater samples. The results showed that the reduction of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), DON, hydrophobicity (HPO), absorbance at 254 nm (UV₂₅₄), and fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (FEEM) of both water samples by VUV was higher compared to using UV. The addition of H₂O₂ remarkably improved the performances of VUV and UV. VUV/H₂O₂ exhibited the highest removal efficiency for DOC and DON. Even though HANFP increased at the early stage, its concentration decreased (19-72%) at the end of treatment (60 min). Decreases in DON (30-41%) and DOC (51-57%) led to HANFP reduction (53-72%). Moreover, FEEM revealed that substantial reduction in soluble microbial product-like compounds (nitrogen-rich organic) had a strong correlation with HANFP reduction, implying that this group of compounds act as a main precursor of HANs. The VUV/H₂O₂ system significantly reduced HANFP more than UV/H₂O₂ and therefore is suitable for controlling HAN precursors and HAN formation in drinking water and reclaimed wastewater.

Understanding and modeling the formation and transformation of hydrogen peroxide in water irradiated by 254 nm ultraviolet (UV) and 185 nm vacuum UV (VUV): Effects of pH and oxygen

Understanding ultraviolet photolysis induced by low pressure mercury lamp that emits both 254 nm ultraviolet (UV₂₅₄) and 185 nm vacuum UV (VUV₁₈₅) is currently challenging due to the copresence of multiple direct and indirect photochemical processes involving a series of highly-reactive radicals. Herein we examined the formation and transformation of H₂O₂ in water, which is both a precursor and a product of radicals, under various pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) conditions. The trends show that H₂O₂ increased rapidly at early stage and then remained steady in DO-rich water or declined somewhat in DO-poor water, ultimately leading to higher steady-state H₂O₂ in DO-rich water. The maximum H₂O₂ contents nonetheless were similar among waters with different DO, suggesting that H₂O₂ in this system was mostly generated by hydroxyl radical (OH) recombination, which is an oxygen-independent H₂O₂ formation pathway, rather than by reduced oxygen via hydrogen atom (H) or hydrated electron (e_aq^-), which is an oxygen-dependent pathway. Increasing pH (from 6.3 to 10.0) or bicarbonate dosage dramatically decreased H₂O₂ formation too. Mathematically, the fates of H₂O₂ as a function of pH, DO, and time were well modeled (R² ≥ 0.92), in which the rates of H₂O₂ formation and destruction were greater in DO-poor water than those in DO-rich water. In addition, we found that the steady-state concentrations of OH used for degradation of p-chlorobenzoic acid, an OH probe, correlated well with the OH levels used for H₂O₂ formation (R² = 0.98). These results hence may help better understand the UV/VUV process via H₂O₂ evolutions.

Enhancement of micropollutant degradation in UV/H2O2 process via iron-containing coagulants

The low molar absorption coefficient of H₂O₂ limits the ultraviolet (UV)/H₂O₂ process, making it a desirable target to enhance the UV/H₂O₂ process for organic micropollutant degradation. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of iron-containing coagulants (Fe-coagulants) on micropollutant degradation by UV/H₂O₂ process. Three typical Fe-coagulants (i.e., polymeric ferric sulfate, polymeric aluminum ferric sulfate, and FeCl₃) exhibited the enhancement of sulfamethazine degradation during the UV/H₂O₂ process. The maximum increasing ratio of the degradation rate constant reached 40%. The pH and Fe-coagulant concentration effects, as well as residual H₂O₂ were examined. The principal mechanism of micropollutant degradation enhancement via the Fe-coagulants was the photo-Fenton-like reaction between Fe(III) on the Fe-coagulant surface and H₂O₂ under UV irradiation. Then the influence of Fe-coagulant particle size was discussed. Smaller particles (<0.22 μm), with a lower iron content, a larger specific surface area, and a stronger optical scattering effect, exhibited a greater enhancement on the UV/H₂O₂ process as compared with larger particles (>0.22 μm). Finally, the enhancement effect of the Fe-coagulants was verified on two water samples from a water treatment plant, which were either pre-coagulation or sand filtered samples. This study explored an existing heterogeneous catalysis process in drinking water treatment, which provides additional information for coagulant selection and improvements to the treatment process for micropollutant removal.

Degradation of imipramine by vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) system: Influencing parameters, mechanisms, and variation of acute toxicity

Degradation of imipramine (IMI) in the VUV system (VUV₁₈₅ + UV₂₅₄) was firstly evaluated in this study. Both HO^• oxidation and UV₂₅₄ direct photolysis accounted for IMI degradation. The quantum yields of UV₂₅₄ direct photolysis of deprotonated and protonated IMI were 1.31×10^-2 and 3.31×10^-3, respectively, resulting in the higher degradation efficiency of IMI at basic condition. Increasing the initial IMI concentration lowered the degradation efficiency of IMI. While elevating reaction temperature significantly improved IMI degradation efficiency through the promotion of both the quantum yields of HO^• and the UV₂₅₄ direct photolysis rate. The apparent activation energy was calculated to be about 26.6 kJ mol^-1. Negative-linear relationships between the k_obs of IMI degradation and the concentrations of HCO₃^-/CO₃^2-, NOM and Cl^- were obtained. The degradation pathways were proposed that cleavage of side chain and hydroxylation of iminodibenzyl and methyl groups were considered as the initial steps for IMI degradation in the VUV system. Although some high toxic intermediate products would be produced, they can be further transformed to other lower toxic products. The good degradation efficiency of IMI under realistic water matrices further suggests that the VUV system would be a good method to degrade IMI in aquatic environment.

Micropollutant Degradation by the UV/H2O2 Process: Kinetic Comparison among Various Radiation Sources

Kinetic comparisons of micropollutant degradation by ultraviolet (UV) based advanced oxidation processes among various radiation sources are an important issue, yet this is still a challenge at present. This study investigated comparatively the kinetics of sulfamethazine (SMN) degradation by the UV/H₂O₂ process among three representative radiation sources, including low-pressure mercury UV (LPUV, monochromatic), medium-pressure mercury UV (MPUV, polychromatic), and vacuum UV(VUV)/UV (dual wavelengths causing different reaction mechanisms) lamps. Experiments were conducted with a newly developed mini-fluidic MPUV photoreaction system and a previously developed mini-fluidic VUV/UV photoreaction system. Measured and modeled results both indicate that the photon fluence-based SMN degradation rate constant ( k_p^') followed a descending order of VUV/UV/H₂O₂ > MPUV/H₂O₂ (200-300 nm) > LPUV/H₂O₂, and the k_p^' of the MPUV lamp was dependent on the wavelength range selected for photon fluence calculation. Analysis of potential errors revealed that a shorter effective path-length could have a lower error, and the maximum errors for the MPUV/H₂O₂ and LPUV/H₂O₂ processes in this study were 7.7% and 18.2%, respectively. This study has developed a new method for kinetic comparisons of micropollutant degradation by UV-AOPs among various radiation sources at bench-scale, which provides useful reference to practical applications.