Control of Maillard Reactions in Foods: Strategies and Chemical Mechanisms

Bacillus licheniformis and Wickerhamiella versatilis: Sources of the pleasant smoky and fruity flavors of soybean paste

4-Vinylguaiacol (4-VG) and 4-Ethylguaiacol (4-EG) are key aromatic compounds that contribute to the characteristic smoky and soy-like aromas of soybean paste, thereby influencing its overall flavor. 4-EG in soybean paste reached 13.76 mg/kg through the inoculation of two bacterial strains: Bacillus licheniformis, which promotes the production of 4-VG, and Wickerhamiella versatilis, which enhances the generation of 4-EG. The results indicated that the 4-VG produced by Bacillus licheniformis during fermentation can be converted into 4-EG by Wickerhamiella versatilis. Furthermore, Wickerhamiella versatilis promoted the development of ethyl ester flavors, which added sweet and fruity compounds to the soybean paste. Notably, the levels of alcohols and esters increased by 59 and 22 times, respectively, while the organic acid concentration increased by 1.5 times. This study underscored that both B. licheniformis and W. versatilis significantly enhance appealing smoky and fruity flavors through the production of 4-EG and aromatic compounds.

Cost-effective production of meaty aroma from porcine cells for hybrid cultivated meat

Cultivated meats are typically hybrids of animal cells and plant proteins, but their high production costs limit their scalability. This study explores a cost-effective alternative by hypothesizing that controlling the Maillard and lipid thermal degradation reactions in pure cells can create a meaty aroma that could be extracted from minimal cell quantities. Using spontaneously immortalized porcine myoblasts and fibroblasts adapted to suspension culture with a 1 % serum concentration, we developed a method to isolate flavor precursors via freeze-thawing. Thermal reaction conditions were optimized to enhance aroma compound production. Chemical profiling demonstrates that myoblasts produce an aroma profile closer to pork meat than fibroblasts, although serum reduction decreased aroma yield. Sensory analysis supported these findings. Incorporating the optimized aroma extract - derived from just 1.2 % (w/w) cells - into plant proteins resulted in a hybrid cultivated meat with 78.5 % sensory similarity to pork meat, but with a significant 80 % reduction in production costs.

Inhibition effect and mechanism of hydrocolloids on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in meat products: A review

Hydrocolloids are another potential exogenous additive and shows efficient effect in minimizing the formation of toxic by-products during high-temperature processing attribute to their unique structure and high solubility. Therefore, this review provided for the first time comprehensive summary and proposed new insights into the inhibitory effect and mechanism of hydrocolloids on HAAs formation in meat products. Effects of the combined use of hydrocolloids and polyphenols on the HAAs formation inhibitory effects were discussed and highlighted as well. Hydrocolloids, used alone or with polyphenols, can effectively inhibit HAAs formation. Among some common hydrocolloids, carrageenan and chitosan have significant inhibition effect on HAAs formation. Their water retention properties, free radical scavenging ability, and inhibition of Maillard reaction were elucidated as the in-depth mechanism for inhibiting the HAAs formation. This review can provide theoretical reference for hydrocolloids effectively controlling HAAs formation in thermal-processed food, and reducing their harm to human health.

Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysate process of Volvariella volvacea and analysis of volatile flavor compounds in Maillard reaction

BACKGROUND

Edible fungi seasoning not only enhances umami flavor but also improves nutritional value in the production of traditional Chinese cuisine. Volvariella volvacea is a typical tropical and subtropical tasty edible fungus, with an annual production in China reaching 330, 000 tons, accounting for 80% of the global yield. Therefore, the high-value utilization of V. volvacea has become one of the current research hotspots. This study aimed to determine the optimal reaction conditions for the enzymatic hydrolysate and Maillard reaction (MR) products of V. volvacea and to identify the odor compounds in the enzymatic hydrolysate and MR products of V. volvacea to enhance the umami taste of V. volvacea.

RESULTS

The optimal conditions for enzymatic hydrolysate were a solid/liquid ratio of 1:10, pH 5.5, enzyme concentration of 4000 U g-1 (cellulase:Protamex™ = 1:1), a cellulase hydrolysis time of 90 min, followed by ProtamexTM hydrolysis for 120 min, resulting in optimal umami. An MR was performed to further release umami compounds in V. volvacea. The optimal conditions for the MR were determined to be 3% xylose, 5% cysteine, 110 °C, 80 min, and pH 6.0. Finally, odor compounds before and after the MR of V. volvacea were analyzed using two-dimensional gas chromatography-olfactometry-mass spectrometry. The results revealed that chicoric ketone (sweet) was the most abundant (125.78 ± 11.71 μg kg-1), followed by furfural (bread; 107.21 ± 2.83 μg kg-1) and 2-methylfuran (chocolate; 90.27 ± 2.66 μg kg-1).

CONCLUSION

This study provides more information for further studies on the umami compounds of V. volvacea and a theoretical basis for the development and utilization of V. volvacea. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chitosan-gallic acid conjugate with enhanced functional properties and synergistic wound healing effect

Chitosan-gallic acid conjugates were synthesized by carbodiimide method and characterized by physicochemical methods (UV-vis, FTIR, 1H NMR, TGA). The FTIR and NMR assays confirmed that the chemical interaction occurred solely due to the formation of an amide bond. It was established that by varying the ratio of the components during synthesis it is possible to obtain conjugates with desired conjugation ratio, grafting efficiency and gallic acid content up to 8.09 ± 1.72 %, 70.51 ± 9.45 % and 79.9 ± 2.4 μg gallic acid/mg chitosan, respectively. Chitosan-gallic acid conjugate with a 5 % conjugation ratio demonstrated excellent antioxidant properties: the IC50 value for ABTS radical scavenging activity was 0.0073 ± 0.0001 mg/mL. In vitro tests showed that conjugation of chitosan with gallic acid provided the antiglycemic activity of the material and its good biocompatibility. A low level of cytotoxicity was recorded in the HaCaT cell line model (IC50 was 1030.4 μg/mL). The received eco-friendly chitosan-gallic acid conjugate effectively inhibited the growth of thermophilic spore-forming bacteria G. thermodenitrificans and the resistant to classical antibiotics strain A. palidus. The results of an in vivo comparative analysis showed that chitosan-gallic acid conjugate had excellent wound healing properties due to the synergism of the polysaccharide and the natural antioxidant.

Synthetic coalification of microalgae through hydrothermal carbonization: strategies for enhanced hydrochar characteristics and technological advancements

This review explores the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of microalgae through a comprehensive evaluation of the influence of process parameters on the resultant products. The findings revealed that HTC of microalgae takes place at lower temperatures (170 - 250 °C) compared to lignocellulosic feedstocks, and the resulting hydrochar and hydrolysate have a higher N-content. Additionally, secondary char production varies based on reaction conditions, with yields between 4 % and 35 %. The interaction between carbohydrates and nitrogenous compounds in the hydrolysate at varying reaction severities was discussed, underlining the extent of nitrogen fixation in the hydrochar and total organic C-content of up to 26.8 g L-1. The article also suggests strategies to improve hydrochar properties by assessing different technical strategies and emphasizing future direction research. In summary, this review underscores the potential of microalgal HTC as a sustainable approach for applications in energy and environmental applications via process optimization and technological upgradation.

Health-related compounds and Maillard reaction products in dry and steam roasted purple carrots (Daucus carota L.)

The effect of the roasting conditions, particularly of the use of steam, on the composition and properties of purple carrots was assessed. The results evidenced that the roasting conditions significantly impacted anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity, whereas polyphenols, acrylamide and hydroxymethyl furfural were barely affected. In particular, decreases in anthocyanin varied from 238.5 to 72.9 mg EC3G/g DW after roasting at 90 °C, for 15 min in dry mode. Reductions in DPPH activity ranged from 12.40 to 4.17 mg TE/g DW after roasting at 180 °C for 30 min in dry mode. Interestingly, the use of steam enabled anthocyanins and antioxidant activity to be preserved when temperatures around 90 °C were applied. In these same conditions, polyphenols increased from 8.3 to 12.0 mg GAE/g DW. Acrylamide and hyrdroxymethylfurfural were mostly avoided as long as temperatures around 180 °C were not used. These results are commercially interesting to obtain healthy purple carrot-based products.

Microencapsulation using a novel wall material prepared via Maillard reaction-derived mung bean protein-peach gum conjugates to enhance stability and functionality of chia seed oil

This study investigated the potential of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) derived from mung bean protein isolate (MBPI) and peach gum (PG) conjugates as wall materials for microencapsulating chia seed oil (CSO). Four formulations (MMRP1%-4%) were prepared using spray-drying and compared to a commercial sample (CMMRP). The MMRP4% formulation exhibited the highest encapsulation yield (91 %) and encapsulation efficiency (96 %), along with favorable physical properties, including a spherical shape and smooth surface. All formulation showed significantly greater stability during storage at 4 °C compared to 25 °C. After 30 days of storage, the MMRP4% formulation exhibited significantly higher oxidative stability, as evidenced by lowest peroxide values (0.3 and 0.24 mEq O2/kg CSO at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively). Furthermore, the MMRP4% formulation displayed the slowest decrease in DPPH radical scavenging activity, reaching 6.6 % at 4 °C and 10.4 % at 25 °C after 30 days, compared to 14.2 % and 20.9 % for CMMRP samples, correspondingly. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the effectiveness of MRPs as encapsulants for CSO. Overall, the results suggest that CSO microencapsulated with MRPs of MBPI-PG can be a valuable addition to various food products for long-term storage.

AGEs in cooked meat: Production, detection, and mechanisms of its inhibition by plant extracts

With the growing demand for food safety and nutrition, the challenge of ensuring the quality of cooked meat products while reducing the accumulation of AGEs during processing needs urgent attention. In this study, the patterns of AGEs production, detection methods, quality contribution, and molecular mechanisms of its inhibition by natural plant-based extracts (NPBE) in cooked meat products were comprehensively reviewed. NPBE can effectively reduce the accumulation of AGEs in meat by binding to AGEs precursors and reducing glycosylation sites. It has also been shown to significantly remove off-flavour, and inhibit protein carbonylation. The potential for synergistic inhibition of AGE formation using NPBE and exogenous physical field treatments such as pulsed electric fields, microwave irradiation, thermal cycling of air, and ultrasound was emphasized, as well as the urgent need for the development of portable AGE detectors integrated with artificial intelligence and big data analytical models. This study indicates the future research direction for inhibiting the generation of AGEs in cooked meat products, which can promote and guide the practical application of NPBE in cooked meat products.

Ultraprocessed Foods and Neuropsychiatric Outcomes: Putative Mechanisms

A body of evidence indicates an association between ultraprocessed foods (UPFs) and health outcomes. Most of it has been obtained through preclinical studies, although a number of observational studies substantiate how a high intake of these products increases the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders, and an increasing amount of dietary intervention studies confirm these findings. The aim of this narrative review is to describe some of the putative mechanisms involved in the deleterious effects of a high intake of UPFs on neuropsychiatric outcomes. A myriad of unhealthy actions may be associated with the consumption of UPFs, and some mechanisms are being discussed. They include UPFs' high caloric density; their high sugar, sodium, and additives content and low amounts of fiber; and a high palatability that induces overconsumption, acting as obesogens. Moreover, thermal treatment of these foods generates oxidative products such as glycotoxins, lipotoxins, and acrolein, all of which affect the brain. The chemical products act, directly or indirectly, on the gut microbiome and affect the gut-brain axis, causing neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neurodegeneration. UPFs also exert various epigenetic effects that affect mental health and might explain the intergenerational inheritance of neuropsychiatric disorders. A diet containing a high proportion of these foods has a low nutritional density, including bioactive protective agents such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds that promote eubiosis. The evidence shows that UPFs intake affects neuropsychiatric outcomes such as neurodegeneration, cognitive decline, dementia, and mood disorders and reinforces the need to promote a healthy dietary pattern throughout all life stages, thus interfering with the current commercial determinants of health.

Investigation of noncovalent interaction between chelate-soluble pectin from muskmelon and selected volatile during thermal processing using multiple spectroscopy and molecular dynamics

The effect of thermal processing on the binding between methional and chelated-soluble pectin obtained from muskmelon was investigated. Particle size measurements demonstrated that the formed complex between methional and chelated-soluble pectin exhibited small sizes after thermal processing. Pyrene fluorescence analysis showed that the interaction between methional and pectin occurred in the hydrophilic region. Fourier transform infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis revealed that the interaction between chelated-soluble pectin and methional was driven by hydrogen bonding, which was mainly present between carboxyl groups of pectin and the aldehyde groups of methional using the molecular dynamics simulation. Thermal processing can increase the binding rate of methional to pectin to 16 %, affecting its release. This work provided new insight into controlling the volatile release from thermally processed food during thermal processing.

Treatment options of nitrogen heterocyclic compounds in industrial wastewater: From fundamental technologies to energy valorization applications and future process design strategies

Nitrogen heterocyclic compounds (NHCs) widely exist in industrial wastewater and presented significant environmental and health risks due to their toxicity and persistence. This review addressed the challenges in treating NHCs in industrial wastewater, focusing on developing sustainable and efficient treatment processes. While various technologies, including adsorption, advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AOPs/ARPs), and microbial treatments, have been studied at the experimental stage of treating synthetic wastewater, scale-up for industrial applications is imperative. After analyzing the characteristics of NHCs and evaluating different treatment methods with the aid of efficiency and cost-benefit analysis, efficient detoxification while maximizing energy recovery constitutes a critical requirement in treating NHC-containing wastewater. Hence, we proposed a comprehensive strategy combining hydrolysis-acidification pretreatment enhanced by electro-assisted micro-aeration with methanogenic anaerobic digestion as core treatment units. The process design for NHC-containing wastewater treatment should consider the dynamic balance between removal efficiency, energy consumption, and ammonia recovery, incorporating environmental and economic impacts through life cycle assessment and technical-economic analysis. The potential of machine learning in optimizing operational parameters, predicting effluent quality, and supporting process design decisions is promising. To develop interpretable and practical solutions, the integration of data-driven approaches with mechanistic understanding and prior knowledge is indispensable. This review provided novel insights into sustainable NHC treatment strategies in the context of energy valorization and artificial intelligence advancement, offering guidance for future research and industrial applications.

Sterilized Processed Cheese: Principles, Technological Aspects, and Properties: A Review

Sterilized processed cheese is a dairy product with prolonged shelf life compared to regular processed cheese. The extension of durability is made possible by the thermosterilization of processed cheese, while regular processed cheese is submitted to pasteurization process during manufacturing. Sterilized processed cheese can be classified as long-life foods and their shelf life may reach up to 24 months, if stored at ambient temperature (approx. 25 ± 1 °C). This fact is an advantage over regular processed cheese, which has a shelf life of only around 6 months. Sterilized processed cheese finds application in everyday life when refrigeration facilities are not available; i.e., it is intended for regular retail. However, their most important use is for storage in state material reserves and, moreover, for catering for members of the armed forces and/or members of the integrated rescue system. This review aimed to gather general information on sterilized processed cheeses, their characterization, usage and production. Furthermore, the review discusses the principles of sterilization and factors affecting the course of sterilization focusing on the setting the sterilization limits and sterilization parameters in order to maximize end-product quality. Moreover, last part of the review is devoted to the effect of sterilization and long-term storage on the qualitative parameters of sterilized processed cheese.

Insight into the effect of GSH curing treatment on the flavor formation of chicken meat

Glutathione (GSH) is an important precursor of meat flavor. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of GSH-curing on the flavor of cooked chicken. GSH-cured chicken with different concentrations and uncured chicken (blank) were roasted separately and comprehensively analyzed in terms of flavors, odor-active compounds, free amino acids, and fatty acids profile. Volatile flavor compounds were analyzed using solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) along with GC-MS, GC-O/AEDA, and odor activity value (OAV) calculations. The results showed that the contents of most flavors derived from the Maillard reaction increased due to GSH-curing treatment, such as 2-methylthiophene, 3-methylthiophene, 2-methylthiazole, and 5-methylthiazole, while the lipid degradation flavors reduced, like hexanal, heptanal, and (E,E)-2,4-decadienal. In particular, during sensory analysis, the cured sample with 1.6 mmol GSH had the greatest roasted meaty odor. In addition, GSH curing results in the increased formation of key odor-active substances (OAV ≥ 1), such as 2-acetylthiazole.

Thermal stability of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol glucosides in fresh-cut bitter melon fruit

Charantin in M. charantia fruit comprises stigmasterol glucoside (STG) and β-sitosterol glucoside (BSG). Despite numerous studies on charantin quantification and health beneficial bioactivity, thermal stability of two components remains unclear. This study investigated the thermal stability of BSG and STG in the fruit growth stages (S1-S5). Freeze-dried fruit contained approximately twice higher BSG than STG, with the content tending to decrease during fruit maturation. A dramatic decrease in content was observed between S2 and S3, with a reduction of 70 % for BSG and 75 % for STG. In thermal processing, BSG significantly degraded above 30 °C treatments, while STG remained stable. It was found that the thresholds of thermal stability were approximately 10 °C for BSG and 30 °C for STG. Therefore, minimal thermal processing or freeze-drying is recommended for preserving charantin in the fruit.

Novel technologies, effects and applications of modified plant proteins by Maillard reaction and strategies for regulation: A review

With an increase in awareness of health, environmental conservation and animal welfare, the market for plant proteins is expanding. However, the low solubility and poor functional properties of plant proteins near the isoelectric point limit their application in food processing. Glycosylation refers to the structural modification of proteins by introduction of polysaccharides to form protein-polysaccharide conjugates in the early stages of Maillard reaction. Glycosylation is a green and efficient method that has been proved to produce modified proteins with superior solubility, emulsifying and forming properties. Glycosylation and the application of protein-carbohydrate conjugates have become research hotspots in recent years. This paper presented a comprehensive review of the effects of glycosylation on the functional properties of plant proteins and the mechanisms of non-thermal physical treatments assisted glycosylation. It was demonstrated that glycosylation modified the structure of plant proteins and improved their functional properties. Non-thermal physical treatments assisted glycosylation increased the reactive sites of plant proteins and further improved their functional properties. Protein-carbohydrate conjugates could be applied in delivery systems, films, emulsifiers and other applications, which have significant research prospects in food applications.

Emerging technologies in reducing dietary advanced glycation end products in ultra-processed foods: Formation, health risks, and innovative mitigation strategies

The widespread consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) results from industrialization and globalization, with their elevated content of sugar, fat, salt, and additives, alongside the formation of dietary advanced glycation end products (AGEs), generating considerable health risks. These risks include an increased incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. This review explores the mechanisms of AGE formation in UPFs and evaluates emerging technologies and additives aimed at mitigating these risks. Both thermal methods (air frying, low-temperature vacuum heating, microwave heating, and infrared heating) and non-thermal techniques (high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, and cold plasma) are discussed for their potential in AGE reduction. Additionally, the review evaluates the efficacy of exogenous additives, including amino acids, polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and nanomaterials, in inhibiting AGE formation, though results may vary depending on the specific additive and food matrix. The findings demonstrate the promise of these technologies and additives for reducing AGEs, potentially contributing to healthier food processing practices and the promotion of improved public health outcomes.

Effects of different drying methods on the chemical components and activities of Taihang chrysanthemum (Opisthopappus taihangensis)

Although the health benefits of chrysanthemums have been widely studied, there is a paucity of knowledge regarding Taihang chrysanthemum (Opisthopappus taihangensis). This study compared indoor shade drying, heat drying and freeze drying on the chemical profile and health-related activities of O. taihangensis. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS and other assays were used to evaluate changes in composition and antioxidant, antibacterial and enzyme inhibitory activities. Different drying methods significantly affected compositions and bioactivities of O. taihangensis. Lipids, phenylpropanoids and polyketides were the most abundant. Freeze-drying maintained bioactive compounbds like phenylpropanoids and superior antioxidant activities. Freeze-dried O. taihangensis also displayed robust antibacterial activity against Streptococcus hemolyticus-β and effective inhiition of pancreatic lipase. These results suggest O. taihangensis is a useful source of functional compounds.

Acrylamide: An approach to its knowledge and importance for roasted coffee

Acrylamide (AA) has been classified as a toxic, harmful, and carcinogenic substance since 2002, and therefore it is currently widely studied. When functional amino and carbonyl groups of asparagine and reducing sugars are condensed into Schiff bases, they are transformed into AA molecules at temperatures >120 °C. This mechanism is known as the Maillard reaction and is considered the main AA pathway. Simultaneously, desired browning and sensory properties are developed. However, changes in chemical composition of the matrix, properties, and secondary reactions trigger intermediary synthesis, destabilizing the medium and leading to new AA molecules. Coffee has become the most consumed beverage worldwide. Therefore, the World Health Organization established recommended benchmark levels of AA concentrations that could be detected in roasted coffee beans and by-products (<850 μg/kg). Trace levels of AA can differ between samples due to roasting and brewing conditions, and the analytical and extraction methods chosen for sample analysis.

Metabolic insights into the mechanism of soybean reddening during storage

BACKGROUND

Soybean reddening during storage and transportation has caused great concern due to the serious economic loss. However, the mechanism of reddening has not been clearly elucidated. In this study, metabolomics was employed to investigate the reasons for soybean reddening during storage.

RESULTS

The results of multivariate statistical analysis showed that the metabolite level of red soybean was significantly different from that of normal soybean. The differentially expressed metabolites were mainly enriched by biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and amino acid metabolism. Metabolism analysis showed that the biosynthesis of cyanidin and betalains was enhanced in reddening soybean. In addition, it was found that phenolic and flavonoid compounds decreased, while quinones, furans and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural increased in reddening soybeans compared to normal soybeans.

CONCLUSION

The upregulation of cyanidin and betalains was the main reason for soybean reddening. Besides, the oxidation of phenols and flavonoids, as well as Maillard reaction, also contributed to the color change. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Protein-bound and free glycation compounds in human milk: A comparative study with minimally processed infant formula and pasteurized bovine milk

The role of the Maillard reaction and the accumulation of non-enzymatic glycation compounds in human milk have been scarcely considered. In this study, we investigated the proteins most susceptible to glycation, the identity of the corresponding modified residues and the quantitative relationship between protein-bound and free glycation compounds in raw human milk and, for comparison, in minimally processed infant formula and pasteurized bovine milk. In human milk, total protein-bound lysine modifications were up to 10% of the counterparts in infant formula, while Nε-carboxymethyllysine reached up to 27% of the concentration in the other two products. We demonstrated that the concentration of free pyrraline and methylglyoxal-hydroimidazolone were of the same order of magnitude in the three milk types. Our results delineate how the occurrence of some glycation compounds in human milk can be an unavoidable part of the breastfeeding and not an exclusive attribute of infant formulas and pasteurized bovine milk.

Porous carbons with complex 3D geometries via selective laser sintering of whey powder

In addition to the inherent limitations of carbons to melt or flow, a vast majority of carbon precursors deforms during carbonisation, with stereolithography of thermoset resins being the preferred technology for 3D printing of carbons. An alternative is now presented with the possibility of using a melting-based technology, selective laser sintering (SLS), to fabricate 3D structures that withstand carbonisation. The key factor that makes this happen is whey powder, a natural, abundant and cheap by-product of the dairy industry. When heating the whey powder with a laser at 180-200 ºC for a few seconds, whey particles sinter, and 3D structures are obtained layer-by-layer. Carbonisation of the sintered whey structures brings about 3D porous carbons with excellent mechanical properties that preserve the SLS printed form albeit an isotropic shrinkage (approx. 23%). Melanoidins are identified as responsible for both the sintering and the thermoset behaviour during carbonisation of the whey powder.

Identification of Lactose-Derived α-Dicarbonyl Compounds in Dairy Products and Elucidation of Their Formation Mechanism

α-Dicarbonyl compounds (α-DCs) generated from carbohydrates play a key role in food quality and safety as precursors. Lactose contributes to α-DCs generation in dairy products; however, α-DCs with intact lactose carbons have not been investigated so far. This study aimed to identify lactose-derived α-DCs, clarify the mechanism of its formation using model incubations, and investigate the distribution and contents of α-DCs in dairy products. From the heated lactose and lysine solution, four new α-DCs derivatives were isolated by column chromatography and preparative HPLC and identified as lactosone, 1-deoxylactosone (1-DL) and its epimer, and 1,5-dideoxylactoson-4-ene (1,5-DDLE) by MS and NMR analyses. 1-DL, 1-DL epimer, and 1,5-DDLE were specifically formed from Amadori compounds of lactose and could be indicators of lactose-associated Maillard reaction. These α-DCs were abundantly contained in thermally processed dairy products, especially infant formulas and whey protein, and affected by ingredients and manufacturing process.

Effects of Maillard Reaction Durations on the Physicochemical and Emulsifying Properties of Chickpea Protein Isolate

This study investigated the physicochemical and emulsifying properties of chickpea protein isolate (CPI)-citrus pectin (CP) conjugates formed via the Maillard reaction across varying reaction durations. CPI and CP were conjugated under controlled dry-heating conditions, and the resulting conjugates were characterized by measuring their particle size, zeta potential, solubility, thermal stability, surface hydrophobicity, and emulsifying properties. The results showed that as reaction duration increased, the particle size and zeta potential of the CPI-CP conjugates increased significantly, reaching a maximum particle size of 1311.33 nm and a zeta potential of -35.67 mV at 12 h. Moreover, the Maillard reaction improved the solubility, thermal stability, and hydrophobicity of the CPI. Glycosylation increased the emulsifying activity index (EAI) and emulsifying stability index (ESI) of the CPI to 145.33 m2/g and 174.51 min, respectively. Optimal emulsions were achieved at a protein concentration of 1.5 wt% and a 10% volume fraction of the oil phase. The Maillard reaction promoted the interfacial protein content and the thickness of the interfacial layer while decreasing the droplet size and zeta potential of the emulsion. Additionally, the emulsion prepared with CPI-CP-12 h showed outstanding long-term stability. These results demonstrate that a moderate Maillard reaction with CP effectively enhances the physicochemical and emulsifying characteristics of CPI.

Effects of phenolic acids on tetramethylpyrazine formation via room temperature spontaneous ammoniation of acetoin

In this study, we aim to investigate the effects of phenolic acids on tetramethylpyrazine (TTMP) formation in low-temperature environments and discuss its possible mechanism. The results demonstrate that TTMP formation kinetics via acetoin (ACT) ammonification was determined to be pseudo-zero-order reaction, which transitions to a pseudo-first-order kinetic model upon high gallic acid concentrations. The TTMP formation in samples spiked with phenolic acids was significantly higher than the control group. The response surface results that the production of TTMP increases with the extension of time align with the TTMP content trend in vinegar aging. At pH 7.0, TTMP formation was 56 and 70 times higher than at pH 3.0 and pH 11.0, respectively. The findings indicate that phenolic acids can alter reactive imine intermediates associated with the formation of pyrazinyl radicals. This study provides valuable insights into enhancing the characteristic pyrazine flavor and improving quality control in fermented foods.

Multifunctional fructose-crosslinked fibroin film with a developed β-sheet structure for advanced food packaging

The replacement of petroleum-based plastic packaging with sustainable biopolymer-based materials is still a significant challenge. In the current study, we present a novel approach to impart the multifunctionality of fibroin film through a facile fructose-mediated crosslinking process. By generating a synergistic effect by inducing the transition to β-sheet structure and introducing covalent bonds within the fibroin chain, we effectively controlled the physicochemical characteristics of fibroin film, resulting in exceptional mechanical properties surpassing previous fibroin-based films. The fructose-crosslinked fibroin films exhibited exceptional mechanical properties, including a toughness of 3767.73 kPa and a Young's modulus of 3.06 GPa, surpassing previously reported fibroin-based films. The films also demonstrated excellent optical properties, with 98.49 % transmittance at 700 nm. Moisture stability was significantly enhanced, as the incorporation of fructose reduced water solubility by increasing β-sheet crystallinity and improved bulk water retention through its hygroscopic properties. Additionally, Maillard reaction products formed during crosslinking provided superior ultraviolet shielding and enhanced antioxidant properties, making the films ideal for active food packaging. The multifunctionality of fructose-crosslinked fibroin film significantly improves food storage stability when used in sustainable and eco-friendly food packaging applications. This high-performance fructose-mediated crosslinked fibroin film with a developed β-sheet structure emerges as a promising alternative to petroleum-based materials, offering a sustainable solution for the advanced packaging field.

Facile synthesis of magnetic ionic covalent organic framework and dispersive magnetic solid phase extraction of aromatic amino acid oxidation products in thermally processed foods

Aromatic amino acid oxidation products (AAAOPs) are newly discovered risk substances of thermal processes. Due to its significant polarity and trace level in food matrices, there are no efficient pre-treatment methods available to enrich AAAOPs. Herein, we proposed a magnetic cationic covalent organic framework (Fe3O4@EB-iCOF) as an adsorbent for dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction (DMSPE). Benefiting from the unique charged characteristics of Fe3O4@EB-iCOF, AAAOPs can be enriched through electrostatic interaction and π-π interactions. Under the optimal DMSPE conditions, the combined HPLC-MS/MS method demonstrated good linearity (R2 ≥ 0.990) and a low detection limit (0.11-7.5 μg·kg-1) for AAAOPs. In addition, the method was applied to real sample and obtained satisfactory recoveries (86.8 % ∼ 109.9 %). Especially, we applied this method to the detection of AAAOPs in meat samples and conducted a preliminarily study on its formation rules, which provides a reliable basis for assessing potential dietary risks.

Improvement of properties and olfactory attributes of isolated protein from edible insects by roasting

The characteristics of proteins extracted from two kinds of edible insects (Gryllus Bimaculatus and Tenebrio Molitor, for G.B and T.M, respectively) were compared after roasting at 180 °C for 15 min and 200 °C for 10 min, respectively. The amino acid content decreased by roasting, and the degree of decrease varied depending on the type of edible insect and roasting temperature. Antioxidant activity increased by 5.2-11.3% following roasting, with no significant differences by roasting temperature. The results of Infrared (IR) spectrum and gas chromatography (GC) analysis revealed that compounds contributing to a strong waxy scent and sour taste decreased, whereas those associated with aroma and floral scent increased as a result of roasting. In conclusion, roasting led to an enhancement in the olfactory characteristics of proteins extracted from edible insects, and roasting at 180 °C for 20 min for G.B and 200 °C for 15 min for T.M could be considered optimal.

Polyphenols as reactive carbonyl substances regulators: A comprehensive review of thermal processing hazards mitigation

Reactive carbonyl species (RCS) are a class of compounds with one or more C = O structures with highly reactive electrophilic properties. This comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted role of RCS in thermally processed foods, where they serve as both crucial intermediates in the development of food color and flavor, as well as precursors of potentially harmful compounds. By exploring the carbonyl pool concept, the impact of RCS equilibrium on the formation and reduction of hazardous substances such as acrylamide, hydroxymethylfurfural, advanced glycation end-products, and heterocyclic amines was elucidated. The review particularly emphasizes the regulatory effects of polyphenols on the carbonyl pool, highlighting their potential to reduce the levels of RCS and their associated hazards. Furthermore, the dual role of polyphenols in both mitigating and enhancing to the formation of RCS and their associated hazards was discussed. This review offers valuable insights into strategies for inhibiting RCS and their associated hazards.

Comparative characterization of flavor precursors and volatiles in Chongming white goat of different ages by UPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS

Age has a significant impact on goat meat flavor. However, reporting the effects of age on free amino acid (FAAs), lipid profiles and aromas of goat meat is limited. Here, the FAAs, lipid profiles and aromas in the Chongming white goat with 12 months and 24 months were investigated in this study. A total 1164 lipids were identified using lipidomics, including 31 subclasses. Multivariate statistical analysis showed that 201 lipids had significant changes, FFA, TG and DG increased with goat age. Furthermore, the pathway analysis indicated that glycerophospholipid metabolism and glycerolipid metabolism were the key pathways that relate to lipid profile changes during goat growth. Thirty-five volatile compounds were identified, among them, 14 aromas with odor activity value greater than 1 were considered as potential characteristic aroma compounds of Chongming white goat meat. These findings reveal the FAAs, lipids, and aromas profiles in Chongming white goat meat are affected by age, which provides a basis for improving goat meat flavor.

Effect of ohmic heating-assisted glycation reaction on the properties of soybean protein isolate-chitosan complexes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the progress of glycation reaction reactions by conventional heating and ohmic heating (OH) treatment, and the effect of different electric field intensities on the structure, physical and chemical and functional properties of glycosylated proteins. The findings demonstrated that OH treatment was more efficacious than conventional heating in reducing the free amino group and increasing the absorbance at 420 nm. Concurrently, the α-helix and β-sheet content of soy protein isolate (SPI)-chitosan (CS) complexes exhibited a reduction to 18.01 % and 28.67 %, respectively, while the UV absorption peak demonstrated an increase in conjunction with the escalation of electric field intensity. When the electric field intensity was 6 V/cm, the emulsification activity index and emulsion stability index of SPI-CS complexes were found to be 95.52 m2/g and 55.60 min, respectively. The foaming capacity and foaming stability were found to be 148.33 % and 115.59 % respectively, while the solubility was also up to 91.37 %. Additionally, the air/water interface properties demonstrated a notable enhancement. The functional properties of the complexes were demonstrably enhanced following the application of an OH treatment. The aforementioned statement provided a theoretical foundation for the implementation of OH treatment.

A rich-nutritious cultured meat via bovine myocytes and adipocytes co-culture: Novel Prospect for cultured meat production techniques

Cultured meat, an emerging meat production technology, has reduced environmental burden as well as provide healthier and more sustainable method of meat culture. Fat in cultured meat is essential for enhancing texture, taste, and tenderness. However, current cultured meat production method is limited to single-cell type. To meet the consumer demands for cultured meat products, it is crucial to develop new methods for producing cultured meat products that contain both muscle and fat. In this study, cell viability and differentiation were promoted by controlling the ratio and cultivation conditions of myocytes and adipocytes. The total digestibility of cultured meat exceeded 37%, higher than that of beef (34.7%). Additionally, the texture, appearance, and taste of the co-cultured meat were improved. Collectively, this research has great promise for preparing rich-nutritious and digestion cultured meat.

Investigation of Maillard reaction products in plant-based milk alternatives

Over the past decade, plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs) have gained increasing popularity. Several processing technologies, including heat treatment, are usually employed during their production in order to replicate the properties of cow's milk. These processes can trigger the Maillard reaction, producing Maillard reaction products (MRPs) and amino acid cross-links, which may alter the nutritional profile and digestibility of PBMAs. This study investigates PBMAs available in the Scandinavian market to assess their MRP and amino acid cross-link concentrations, aiming to understand the relationship between the formation of these heat-induced compounds and the specific chemical composition of individual PBMAs. Two types of UHT-treated cow's milk and ten UHT-processed PBMAs from different brands were analyzed. Quantitative analyses included early-stage MRPs (Amadori products detected as furosine), intermediate MRPs (α-dicarbonyl compounds and furans), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), acrylamide, and amino acid cross-links (lanthionine and lysinoalanine). Protein, carbohydrate, and amino acid profiles were also assessed using LC-MS and HPLC methods. PBMAs were found to differ substantially in carbohydrate and protein content, with soy-based drinks containing higher protein and rice and oat drinks having more carbohydrates. Essential amino acid (EAA) levels were found lower in all PBMAs, impacting their nutritional quality. MRP levels, such as furosine and AGEs, varied across PBMAs, indicating different heat-processing intensities. Specific α-dicarbonyl compounds, like 3-deoxyglucosone, were more concentrated in PBMAs than in UHT-treated cow's milk, and compounds like HMF, furfural, and acrylamide were also found in some PBMAs. Finally, correlations were observed between sugar content, α-dicarbonyls, and AGEs, which offer insights into possible chemical transformations in PBMAs during processing.

Effect of ultra-high pressure heat-assisted technology combined with L-cysteine on the color of ready-to-eat shrimp during storage

This study used ultra-high pressure processing (HPP) heat-assisted technology combined with L-cysteine (L-cys) to process ready-to-eat (RTE) shrimp. Subsequently, the effects of physical field and chemical modifications on the color of RTE shrimp were studied. The results showed that the RTE shrimp treated with HPP-Heat-L-cys showed better performance in terms of brightness value (65.25) and astaxanthin (AST) content (0.71 μg/g) during storage, maintaining the original color of RTE shrimp effectively. In addition, it was observed that the application of HPP-Heat-L-cys significantly delayed phenol oxidation, lipid oxidation, and Maillard reaction compared with traditional HPP or heat treatments. Specifically, the total phenolic content of RTE shrimp treated with HPP-Heat-L-cys was higher than that of other samples, but the TBARS and browning index were lower. Furthermore, HPP-Heat-L-cys could delay the production of dark products (such as 2-methylanthraquinone, p-benzoquinone, lipofuscin and melanin), ultimately safeguarding the color stability of RTE shrimp during storage.

Optimization of the foam-mat drying process to develop high-quality tomato powder: A response surface methodology approach

This research aimed to estimate the optimum formulation of process parameters in making tomato powder with optimal physicochemical properties using foam-mat drying. The egg albumin (EA) concentration (1-5%), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) concentration (1-1.5 %), and drying temperature (60-70 °C) were employed as independent variables in optimizing through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) in combination with Box-Behnken experimental design (BBD). Based on the total 17 runs of BBD, foam-mat dried powder showed physicochemical properties such as 0.18-0.33 g/cm3 foam density, 178.54-350 % foam expansion, 40-94 % foam stability, 46.80-62 % water soluble index (WSI), 1.13-2.96 water absorption index (WAI), 1.51-2 °Brix TSS, 2.30-3.98 mg/100 mL ascorbic acid, 0.22-0.38 % titratable acidity, and color (L∗: 29.26-48.07, a∗: 9.73-16.86, and b∗: 6.81-21.56). Furthermore, the ANOVA findings revealed the correlation of determination (R2) exceeding 85 % for the models, suggesting that the interaction between the responses and the prediction of the implied model is suitable. The optimal formulation from RSM was 4.59 % EA, 0.70 % CMC, and 60 °C drying temperature. Under the optimized conditions, the experimental values were 0.19 ± 0.03 g/cm3 foam density, 346.60 ± 3.35 % foam expansion, 89.05 ± 2.80 % foam stability, 55.56 ± 3.22 % WSI, 2.49 ± 0.09 WAI, 1.84 ± 0.15 °Brix TSS, 2.93 ± 0.10 mg/100 mL ascorbic acid, 0.39 ± 0.02 % titratable acidity, 46.95 ± 6.35 L∗, 17.54 ± 1.50 a∗, and 21.85 ± 0.74 b∗. The optimized parameters were verified, and there was good agreement between the experimental results and the predicted values (residual standard error (RSE) ≤ 5).

Development and Quality Enhancement of Fried Fish Cake Prototype with Transglutaminase, Trehalose, and Herbal Oil for Room Temperature Distribution

This study focuses on developing a fried fish cake prototype with improved quality and extended shelf-life, enabling room-temperature distribution through an innovative high-temperature and high-process retort method. Surimi-based products typically necessitate cold storage and a refrigerated distribution system, affecting their physical properties and flavor while escalating costs. By incorporating Transglutaminase (TGase), trehalose, and herbal oils, and optimizing the heating process using the response surface methodology, this research addresses challenges related to changes in physical properties, color, and off-flavors during high-temperature and high-pressure treatment. The addition of 0.37% ACTIVA-K TGase significantly enhanced gel strength by promoting protein cross-linking, while 0.75% trehalose improved color stability by suppressing browning, thus enhancing visual appeal. A 0.1% concentration of bay oil effectively enhanced the flavor profile by masking undesirable odors without compromising the sensory quality. Optimized processing conditions maximized DPPH radical scavenging activity, whiteness, and gel strength, ensuring superior product quality and safety. Nutritional analysis confirmed a balanced composition of moisture, protein, essential amino acids, and minerals, in accordance with Korean national standards for acid values. Microstructural examination revealed a uniform network structure, contributing to excellent texture and sensory evaluations. Shelf-life predictions indicated a storage duration of approximately 19 months, surpassing commercially available products and offering a competitive edge. This novel approach allows surimi-based products to be stored and distributed at room temperature, while also providing the potential for increased profitability.

Cold plasma technology: does it have a place in food processing?

In recent years, there has been a growing demand for alternative food processing technologies that can improve food safety while preserving the nutritional quality of food products. Traditional thermal processing methods can lead to nutrient loss and degradation, prompting the exploration of novel approaches. Cold plasma (CP) technology, an emerging non-thermal food processing technique, has gained significant attention for its potential in the food industry. We provide herein, an introduction to CP and an overview of the technology, highlighting its potential advantages in safety, efficiency, and environmental friendliness.

Sesame lignans modulate aroma formation in sesame oil through the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation in model systems

The unknown effect of sesame lignans on aroma formation in sesame oil via the Maillard reaction (MR) and lipid oxidation was investigated. Sesamin, sesamolin, or sesamol was added to 3 models: lysine+glucose (MR), cold-pressed sesame oil (SO), and MR + SO, and were heated at 120 °C for 60 min. All three lignans suppressed SO oxidation while increasing DPPH scavenging ability (p < 0.05). Lignans increased depletions of lysine and glucose and MR browning (p < 0.05). Lignans reduced most aroma-active pyrazines, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters (p < 0.05). Sesamol and sesamolin increased perceptions of the preferable aromas of nutty, roasted sesame, and popcorn while reducing the undesirable green and rancid aromas (p < 0.05). Sesamol demonstrated a stronger effect on lipid oxidation, MR browning, aroma formation, and sensory perception than sesamin and sesamolin. This study suggests that sesame lignans can modulate aroma formation and sensory perception of sesame oil by interacting with the MR and lipid oxidation pathways.

Monascus pigments suppress fructose-mediated BSA glycation by trapping methylglyoxal and covalent binding to proteins

In this study, four Monascus pigments (ankaflavin, AK; monascin MS; rubropunctatin, O1; monascorubrin, O2) were proved to exhibit considerable anti-glycation properties in bovine serum albumin (BSA)-fructose model. AK (40.62 %) and MS (48.38 %) were found to exert lower inhibitory effects on the formation of fluorescent advanced glycation end products (AGEs) than aminoguanidine (59.4 %), while O1 (90.64 %) and O2 (93.82 %) displayed much stronger abilities. AK and MS could trap methylglyoxal (MGO) with maximum capture rates of 85.67 % and 84.90 %, respectively, and only mono-MGO adducts of them were detected. LC-Orbitrap MS/MS analysis revealed that four pigments significantly altered the type and reduced the number of the glycated sites and they all covalently bound to BSA, with O1 and O2 possessing high reactivity. Altogether, AK and MS suppressed fluorescent AGEs formation mainly via trapping MGO and covalently interacting with BSA, and blocking free amino groups was the dominant mechanism for O1 and O2. These findings presented new insights into Monascus pigments as dietary supplement for inhibiting protein glycation.

Elucidation of the structural changes of hemicellulose and cellulose in sunflower seed during roasting

This study evaluated the structural changes in hemicellulose and cellulose from sunflower seeds before and after roasting at 160°C, 190°C, and 220°C. Sugar composition, molecular weight, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, thermogravimetric, and NMR analyses were utilized to determine the structural properties of these polysaccharides and detect the volatile compounds. The results showed that roasting destroyed the microstructure of these hemicelluloses and cellulose. Glucose and arabinose of hemicellulose were more easily degraded than other sugars during roasting. The galacturonic acid content increased from 7.8% to 46.66% after roasting. The hemicellulose obtained at 220°C had a backbone of D-xylose residues with a β-(1→4)-linkage. The molecular weight of cellulosic polysaccharides decreased with the increase of roasting temperature. The crystallinity increased from 28.92% to 31.86% revealing that mainly the amorphous regions of cellulosic polysaccharides were destroyed by roasting. After roasting, the volatile compounds of these polysaccharides were rich in furfural, which was produced by caramelization and the Maillard reaction, contributing to the characteristic aroma of roasted sunflower seeds. This study provides some information on the relationship between structural changes of polysaccharides and the formation of flavor during roasting sunflower seeds.

Exploring Maillard reaction markers and melanoidins to investigate toxicological and antioxidant profiles of optimized expanded snacks from corn/common bean mixtures

BACKGROUND

Extrusion cooking of cereal-legume flour mixture is an innovative strategy to introduce nutrient-enriched ready-to-eat snacks to the market. However, this thermal process triggers the formation of compounds that could impact safety aspects of these products. Maillard reaction markers and the end products known as melanoidins were evaluated to assess the toxicological and bioactive profiles of extruded snacks from corn-plus-common-bean-flour combinations. Different molecular weight fractions were isolated and purified to analyze their antioxidant activity and to investigate the role of melanoidins.

RESULTS

The snack formulated with an 84:16 ratio of corn:common bean flours exhibited an enhanced toxicological profile. It displayed the lowest levels of acrylamide and furanic compounds, along with reduced blockage of lysine residues in the protein. Extrusion increased the antioxidant activity of uncooked flours (30 to 64%) and total phenolic compounds (26 to 50%), and decreased the available lysine (-72.7 to -79.5%). During the fractionation process, it was established that compounds within the range of 3-10 kDa made the greatest contribution to antioxidant activity. The fraction greater than 10 kDa, which included melanoidins, displayed 7 to 33% lower antioxidant activity. The purification of the fraction greater than 10 kDa revealed that pure melanoidins represented approximately one-third of the antioxidant activity in that fraction. Non-covalent adducts linked to the melanoidin core therefore had a relevant role in the antioxidant action of formulated snacks.

CONCLUSION

This investigation illustrates the importance of considering both potential risks and associated benefits of compounds formed during the Maillard reaction while developing new extruded snacks. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Novel Pink Pigments Produced by Thermal Interaction of Theaflavins, Theanine, and Glucose: Color Formation, Isolation, and Structural Characterization

A color-deepening effect of theaflavins on the theanine-glucose thermal reaction model was revealed. Generated chromogenic intermediates in the initial stage and an accelerated browning rate through the promoted degradation of theanine-glucose Amadori rearrangement product in the intermediate and final stages are responsible for the color-deepening effect. Four pink-to-red theaflavin-theanine intermediates were verified as theaflavinies referencing the nuclear magnetic resonance and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry information on theaflavins and l-theanine, including one accurately identified as theaflavinie 4. Theaflavinie 4 showed two maximum absorption peaks at 401 and 506 nm with parallel intensities, which resulted in a significant dichromic color change from pale pink to orange and red. Theaflavinies also could undergo further thermal reactions to yield brown polymers under higher temperatures (130 and 140 °C). This research provided new insight into realizing thermally formed polymers during black tea processing, which may be formed by oxidation products and amino acids or proteins through non-enzymatic thermal reactions.

Influence of Software Settings on the Identification Rate, Quantification Results, and Reproducibility in Profiling Post-Translational Modifications by Microflow Liquid Chromatography-Ion Mobility-Quadrupole Time-Of-Flight Analysis Using PEAKS Software

The influence of data evaluation parameters on qualitative and quantitative results of untargeted shotgun profiling of enzymatic and nonenzymatic post-translational modifications (PTMs) was investigated in a model of bovine whey protein α-lactalbumin heated with lactose. Based on the same raw data, individual adjustments to the protein database and enzyme settings of PEAKS studio software increased the identification rate from 27 unmodified peptides to 48 and from 322 peptides in total to 535. The qualitative and quantitative reproducibility was also assessed based on 18 measurements of one sample across three batches. A total of 570 peptides were detected. While 89 peptides were identified in all measurements, the majority of peptides (161) were detected only once and mostly based on nonindicative spectra. The reproducibility of label-free quantification (LFQ) in six measurements of the same sample was similar after processing the data by either the PTM algorithm or the LFQ algorithm. In both cases, about one-third of the peptides showed a coefficient of variation of above 20%. However, the LFQ algorithm increased the number of quantified peptides from 75 to 179. Data are available at the PRIDE Archive with the data set identifier PXD050363.

Fermentation and its effect on the physicochemical and sensory attributes of cocoa beans in the Colombian Amazon

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the basic raw material to produce chocolate and other derivatives such as cocoa butter, cocoa powder and cocoa liquor (cocoa paste), which requires a fermentation process that affects its chemical composition and sensory profile. The objective of this study was to monitor the biochemical, physical and sensory changes during fermentation of cocoa beans in cocoa bean processing plants in the department of Caquetá, Colombia. During fermentation, the temperature of the mass and the pH of the pulp and beans were monitored at the different cocoa bean processing plants (Sites ASOACASAN ASA, COMICACAO CMI, COMCAP COC). Also, at two points during fermentation (days 4 and 7), physical properties of the bean were determined, such as variables related to bromatological composition, polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity as sensory attributes at the different sites. An increase in dough temperature was found, however the pH of the cotyledon decreased during the fermentation process and the fat and moisture content varied with fermentation time. At the site level, total polyphenol content (TPC), total flavonoids (TF), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) contents were statistically different, with COC being different from the other sites. The TPC was higher at the COC site (507 mg gallic acid equivalent GAE/g Cocoa) with respect to the other sites (< 360 mg GAE/g Cocoa). The TF content followed a similar behavior to TPC, with significant differences between sites and differences between fermentation times for ASA. The TF was higher in COC (309.1 mg catechin/g cocoa) with respect to CMI (215.6 mg catechin/g cocoa) and ASA (185.7 mg catechin/g cocoa). Values in DPPH ranged from 5869.3 to 7781.8 μmol Trolox/g cocoa and for the FRAP assay ranged from 369.8 to 606.7 mg ascorbic acid AA/g cocoa among the sites. It was found that the time and management of the fermentation process has a significant impact on the parameters (biochemical, physical and sensory) of cocoa beans. Therefore, it is necessary to standardize the fermentation process to achieve a quality product that meets the needs of the market.

Quantitative NMR Analysis of Marine Macroalgae for AGE Inhibition by Methylglyoxal Scavenging

Reactive carbonyl species (RCS) induce a fundamental form of biological stress that has driven the evolution of diverse mechanisms for minimizing its impact on organismal health. The complications that accompany uncontrolled hyperglycemia exemplify the health implications when RCS stress exceeds the body's capacity to prevent the excessive formation of advanced glycation end-products. Presented here is a novel quantitative NMR (qNMR) technique for evaluating scavengers of the prominent sugar-derived carbonyl methylglyoxal (MGO). This tool was employed to screen the chemical diversity of marine macroalgae extracts, with a focus on species that have a history of consumption by the World's healthiest populations and are subject to global scale aquacultural production. Fucus vesiculosus demonstrated the highest capacity for inhibiting glycation and scavenging MGO. Additionally, the Chondrus cripsus, Gracilaria vermiculophyla, and Gracilaria tikvahiae extracts had a high capacity for scavenging MGO, representing the first report of this activity. This new qNMR methodology presented is highly applicable for screening extracts and compounds from diverse sources, and the results highlight the potential of macroalgae extracts to be employed as RCS and AGE targeting therapeutics and food additives.

The inhibition effect and mechanism of typical hydrocolloids on the formation of heterocyclic amines: A study based on quantum chemical computation analysis

Hydrocolloids, as thickeners, have been receiving increasing attention from researchers. Although they exhibit significant free radical quenching abilities, which demonstrate potential heterocyclic amines (HAs) inhibitory capabilities by blocking the free radical pathway, the inhibitory effect and mechanism are still unclear. This study investigated the effects of three typical hydrocolloids (alginic acid, chitosan, and carrageenan) on both free and bound HAs in fried meatballs, along with their mechanisms of free radical quenching using density functional theory. The result showed that all three hydrocolloids can effectively inhibit the generation of HAs. The maximum inhibition rate reached 33.33% for free HAs and 23.18% for bound HAs. Phenylacetaldehyde, glyoxal and methyl glyoxal, were significantly inhibited, indicating that hydrocolloids alleviated the production of HAs by inhibiting the generation of intermediates. At moment, three hydrocolloids effectively inhibited the generation of total free radicals. Frontier orbital and density functional theory analysis revealed that carrageenan had the lowest HOMO-LUMO energy gaps, ionization potential, highest nucleophilic index, chemical potential, and was more likely to react with free radicals. The results of this study indicate that three hydrocolloids can effectively inhibit HAs and provide theoretical support for their applications in food processing and safety.

Role of galacturonic acid in acrylamide formation: Insights from structural analysis

Acrylamide (AA) is a neoformed compound in heated foods, mainly produced between asparagine (Asn) and glucose (Glc) during the Maillard reaction. Galacturonic acid (GalA), the major component of pectin, exhibits high activity in AA formation. This study investigated the pathway for AA formation between GalA and Asn. Three possible pathways were proposed: 1) The carbonyl group of GalA directly interacts with Asn to produce AA; 2) GalA undergoes an oxidative cleavage reaction to release α-dicarbonyl compounds, which subsequently leads to AA production; 3) 5-formyl-2-furancarboxylic acid, the thermal degradation product of GalA, reacts with Asn to generate AA. Structural analysis revealed that the COOH group in GalA accelerated intramolecular protonation and electron transfer processes, thereby increasing the formation of AA precursors such as decarboxylated Schiff base and α-dicarbonyl compounds, promoting AA formation. This study provides a theoretical basis and new insights into the formation and control of AA.

Recent approaches in the application of antimicrobial peptides in food preservation

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are small peptides existing in nature as an important part of the innate immune system in various organisms. Notably, the AMPs exhibit inhibitory effects against a wide spectrum of pathogens, showcasing potential applications in different fields such as food, agriculture, medicine. This review explores the application of AMPs in the food industry, emphasizing their crucial role in enhancing the safety and shelf life of food and how they offer a viable substitute for chemical preservatives with their biocompatible and natural attributes. It provides an overview of the recent advancements, ranging from conventional approaches of using natural AMPs derived from bacteria or other sources to the biocomputational design and usage of synthetic AMPs for food preservation. Recent innovations such as structural modifications of AMPs to improve safety and suitability as food preservatives have been discussed. Furthermore, the active packaging and creative fabrication strategies such as nano-formulation, biopolymeric peptides and casting films, for optimizing the efficacy and stability of these peptides in food systems are summarized. The overall focus is on the spectrum of applications, with special attention to potential challenges in the usage of AMPs in the food industry and strategies for their mitigation.

Internal exposure to heat-induced food contaminants in omnivores, vegans and strict raw food eaters: biomarkers of exposure to acrylamide (hemoglobin adducts, urinary mercapturic acids) and new insights on its endogenous formation

The urinary mercapturic acids N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA) and N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA) are short-term biomarkers of exposure from acrylamide and its metabolite glycidamide, respectively. The medium-term exposure to acrylamide and glycidamide is monitored by the adducts N-(2-carbamoylethyl)-Val (AA-Val) and N-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-Val (GA-Val) in hemoglobin (Hb), respectively. Three questions were addressed by application of these biomarkers in two diet studies including 36 omnivores, 36 vegans and 16 strict raw food eaters (abstaining from any warmed or heated food for at least four months): first, what is the internal acrylamide exposure following a vegan or a raw food diet in comparison to that in omnivores? Second, did the exposure change between 2017 and 2021? And third, what is the stability over time of AAMA/GAMA excretion compared to that of AA-Val/GA-Val levels in Hb between both time points? Median urinary AAMA excretion per day in non-smoking omnivores, vegans and raw food eaters were 62.4, 85.4 and 15.4 µg/day, respectively; the corresponding median AA-Val levels were 27.7, 39.7 and 13.3 pmol/g Hb, respectively. Median levels in strict raw food eaters were about 25% (AAMA excretion) and 48% (AA-Val) of those in omnivores. In comparison to 2017, AAMA and GAMA excretion levels were hardly altered in 2021, however, levels of AA-Val and GA-Val in 2021 slightly increased. There was a weak correlation between AAMA excretion levels determined four years apart (rS = 0.30), and a moderate correlation between levels of AA-Val (rS = 0.55) in this timeframe. Our data in strict raw food eaters confirm a significant endogenous formation to acrylamide in a size range, which is-based on the levels of AA-Val-distinctly higher than reported previously based on levels of urinary AAMA excretion. The relatively lower AAMA excretion in raw food eaters likely represents a lower extent of glutathione conjugation due to missing hepatic first-pass metabolism in case of endogenous formation of acrylamide, which leads to a higher systemic exposure.

Inhibition of Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine and Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine formation in beef, chicken, and fish meat: A comparative study of oven frying and air frying with a marinade-containing Micromeria fruticosa

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of marinating beef, chicken, and fish with Micromeria fruticosa (M. fruticosa) on the inhibition of Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL) and Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML). Furthermore, our objective was to examine how different cooking techniques, temperatures, and durations affect the creation of CEL and CML in these meat products. The study began with the characterization of M. fruticosa. Subsequently, meat samples were marinated using an M. fruticosa-containing marinade and stored at 4 ± 1°C for 24 h. Following storage, the meats underwent cooking in an oven at 200°C for 12 min and in an air fryer at 250°C for 8 min. Subsequently, pH, color, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), as well as CEL and CML analyses were conducted. M. fruticosa had high levels of biological activity and bioactive content. Moreover, increasing the M. fruticosa ratio in the marinade demonstrated a reduction in TBARS, CML, and CEL formation. This study concludes that M. fruticosa can be effectively used as a marinade component for meat, inhibiting the formation of CEL and CML. In conclusion, this research underscores the significant potential of M. fruticosa in reducing the synthesis of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) during meat processing. These results not only enhance our comprehension of the complex relationship between plant extracts and meat quality but also present encouraging prospects for fostering healthier and safer cooking methods.