Lewis Pair Polymerization: Perspective on a Ten-Year Journey

Controlled anionic polymerization mediated by carbon dioxide

Anionic polymerizations of vinyl monomers are powerful synthetic platforms for making well-defined materials. However, these reactions are extremely sensitive to moisture and oxygen, require the use of highly purified reagents, must be run at low temperatures, and use hazardous and difficult-to-handle alkyl lithium initiators. Together, these drawbacks limit the practicality of these polymerizations and impede their widespread usage. On this basis, the development of a user-friendly anionic polymerization process for methacrylates is a grand challenge. Here we report an anionic polymerization of methacrylates mediated by CO2 that can be run at elevated temperatures and uses an easy-to-handle solid initiator. The reversible addition of CO2 to the enolate chain end efficiently tempers the reactivity of the anion, giving polymers with narrow molar mass distributions and excellent molecular weight targeting at elevated temperatures. Our scalable and more user-friendly CO2-mediated method improves the accessibility and safety of anionic polymerizations and facilitates the production of a variety of polymeric materials.

Vinyl polymers with fully degradable carbon backbones enabled by aromatization-driven C-C bond cleavage

Degradation of carbon-backbone polymers, which make up most plastics, remains a formidable challenge owing to strong and inert main-chain C-C bonds. While incorporation of comonomers that generate backbone radicals under certain conditions can induce degradation of the polymer chain, such strategies yield complex oligomer mixtures. Here we report aromatization-driven C-C bond cleavage as a viable and powerful strategy to endow the degradability into carbon backbones using acrylic polymers as a model example. The key to this new strategy is the efficient, living, alternating addition copolymerization of acrylates with simple, commercially available and biorenewable coumarin using a frustrated Lewis pair cooperative catalyst. The resulting acrylic copolymers are strong, transparent thermoplastics with key thermal, optical, mechanical properties comparable or superior to poly(methyl methacrylate). Under strong base, alternating copolymers can completely degrade at room temperature through efficient cleavage of main-chain C-C bonds utilizing aromatization as a thermodynamic driving force, to generate pure, pharmaceutically valuable molecules, thus affording durable, robust yet fully degradable carbon-backbone acrylic polymers.

Chemoselective Ring-Opening Polymerization of α-Methylene-δ-valerolactone Catalyzed by a Simple Organoaluminum Complex to Prepare Closed-Loop Recyclable Functional Polyester

α-Methylene-δ-valerolactone (MVL) as a bio-renewable bifunctional monomer has shown great promise to prepare closed-loop recyclable polyester with pendent functionalizable double bond. However, the chemoselective ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of MVL still faces challenges including low polymerization temperature, expensive catalyst as well as high catalyst loading. In this contribution, we present the chemoselective and controlled ROP of MVL using a simple organoaluminum complex [MeAl(BHT)2] (BHT=2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoxy), which can be easily prepared from commercially available trimethylaluminum and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol without purification. MeAl(BHT)2 exhibits much higher catalytic activity (TOF=668 h-1) than that of MeAl[Salen] (TOF=89 h-1), a commonly used organoaluminum catalyst. The high chemoselectivity and activity of MeAl(BHT)2 is proposed to originate from the cooperative activation of propagating chain-ends and monomers via the "coordination-insertion" mechanism. Remarkably, high-molecular-weight P(MVL)ROP can be prepared in bulk using MeAl(BHT)2, which is not accessible by the previous catalysts. This study may advance the development of closed-loop recyclable polymers considering the easy preparation, low cost and good catalytic performance of MeAl(BHT)2.

Highly Tolerant Living/Controlled Anionic Polymerization of Dialkyl Acrylamides Enabled by Zinc Triflate/Phosphine Lewis Pair

Living polymerizations of polar vinyl monomers have been successful for decades. However, they still suffer the following challenges: fast propagation, air-moisture tolerance, and negligible side reactions even at elevated temperatures. Here, we developed an unprecedented polymerization that overcomes these limitations using a Lewis pair catalyst. The anionic polymerization of dialkyl acrylamides proceeded in a living/controlled matter using Zn(OTf)2/PPh3 within a wide temperature range of 25-100 °C for short times (1-10 min) even under open-air conditions. The recovery and reuse of Zn(OTf)2 without loss of polymerization activity were observed to be possible. The polymerization was retarded by excess Zn(OTf)2, the additive methanol, and water, indicating equilibriums of the propagating species with them. The putative propagating zinc triflate-ate complex was tolerant to the protic additives and significantly selective for the propagation.

Mesoionic N-Heterocyclic Olefins as Initiators for the Lewis Pair Polymerization of Epoxides

Mesoionic N-heterocyclic olefins (mNHOs) have recently emerged as a novel class of highly nucleophilic and super-basic σ-donor compounds. Making use of these properties in synthetic polymer chemistry, it is shown that a combination of a specific mNHO and a Mg-based Lewis acid (magnesium bis(hexamethyldisilazide), Mg(HMDS)2) delivers poly(propylene oxide) in quantitative yields from the polymerization of the corresponding epoxide (0.1 mol% mNHO loading). The initiation mechanism involves monomer activation by the Lewis acid and direct ring-opening of the monomer by nucleophilic attack of the mNHO, forming a zwitterionic propagating species. Modulation of the mNHO properties is thereby a direct tool to impact initiation efficiency, revealing a sterically unencumbered triazole-derivative as particularly useful. The joint application of mNHOs together with borane-type Lewis acids is also outlined, resulting in high conversions and fast polymerization kinetics. Importantly, while molar mass distributions remain relatively broad, indicating faster propagation than initiation, the overall molar masses are significantly lower than found in the case of regular NHOs, underlining the increased nucleophilicity and ensuing improved initiation efficiency of mNHOs.

Topology Controlled All-(Meth)acrylic Thermoplastic Elastomers by Multi-Functional Lewis Pairs-Mediated Polymerization

It remains challenging to synthesize all-(meth)acrylic triblock thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), due to the drastically different reactivities between the acrylates and methacrylates and inevitable occurrence of side reactions during polymerization of acrylates. By taking advantage of the easy structural modulation features of N-heterocyclic olefins (NHOs), we design and synthesize strong nucleophilic tetraphenylethylene-based NHOs varying in the number (i.e. mono-, dual- and tetra-) of initiating functional groups. Its combination with bulky organoaluminum [iBuAl(BHT)2] (BHT=bis(2,6-di-tBu-4-methylphenoxy)) constructs Lewis pair (LP) to realize the living polymerization of both acrylates and methacrylates, furnishing polyacrylates with ultrahigh molecular weight (Mn up to 2174 kg ⋅ mol-1) within 4 min. Moreover, these NHO-based LPs enable us to not only realize the control over the polymers' topology (i.e. linear and star), but also achieve triblock star copolymers in one-step manner. Mechanical studies reveal that the star triblock TPEs exhibit better mechanical properties (elongation at break up to 1863 % and tensile strength up to 19.1 MPa) in comparison with the linear analogs. Moreover, the presence of tetraphenylethylene group in the NHOs entitled the triblock TPEs with excellent AIE properties in both solution and solid state.

Organoboron-mediated polymerizations

The scientific community has witnessed extensive developments and applications of organoboron compounds as synthetic elements and metal-free catalysts for the construction of small molecules, macromolecules, and functional materials over the last two decades. This review highlights the achievements of organoboron-mediated polymerizations in the past several decades alongside the mechanisms underlying these transformations from the standpoint of the polymerization mode. Emphasis is placed on free radical polymerization, Lewis pair polymerization, ionic (cationic and anionic) polymerization, and polyhomologation. Herein, alkylborane/O2 initiating systems mediate the radical polymerization under ambient conditions in a controlled/living manner by careful optimization of the alkylborane structure or additives; when combined with Lewis bases, the selected organoboron compounds can mediate the Lewis pair polymerization of polar monomers; the bicomponent organoboron-based Lewis pairs and bifunctional organoboron-onium catalysts catalyze ring opening (co)polymerization of cyclic monomers (with heteroallenes, such as epoxides, CO2, CO, COS, CS2, episulfides, anhydrides, and isocyanates) with well-defined structures and high reactivities; and organoboranes initiate the polyhomologation of sulfur ylides and arsonium ylides providing functional polyethylene with different topologies. The topological structures of the produced polymers via these organoboron-mediated polymerizations are also presented in this review mainly including linear polymers, block copolymers, cyclic polymers, and graft polymers. We hope the summary and understanding of how organoboron compounds mediate polymerizations can inspire chemists to apply these principles in the design of more advanced organoboron compounds, which may be beneficial for the polymer chemistry community and organometallics/organocatalysis community.

Mechanistic Insight Into the Reactivity of Frustrated Lewis Pairs: Liquid-State NMR Studies

Frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) have been widely investigated as promising catalysts due to their metal-free feature and ability to activate small molecules. Over the last few years, the structure, dynamics and interactions between the Lewis centers and their effects on the reactivity with different substrates have been studied. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a powerful tool in studying the reaction intermediates, kinetics and mechanism of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs). Various NMR experiments have been applied to precisely determine the association or cooperativity of FLPs and one or two-dimensional spectra were obtained. Herein, insights coming from NMR spectroscopy for FLPs are presented, the structure and reactivity of FLPs in solution are described, and their effects on the kinetics and mechanism of different substrates are also illustrated in this review.

Cyclic and Linear Tetrablock Copolymers Synthesized at Speed and Scale by Lewis Pair Polymerization of a One-Pot (Meth)acrylic Mixture and Characterized at Multiple Levels

Cyclic block copolymers (cBCP) are fundamentally intriguing materials, but their synthetic challenges that demand precision in controlling both the monomer sequence and polymer topology limit access to AB and ABC block architectures. Here, we show that cyclic ABAB tetra-BCPs (cABAB) and their linear counterpart (lABAB) can be readily obtained at a speed and scale from one-pot (meth)acrylic monomer mixtures, through coupling the Lewis pair polymerization's unique compounded-sequence control with its precision in topology control. This approach achieves fast (<15 min) and quantitative (>99%) conversion to tetra-BCPs of predesignated linear or cyclic topology at scale (40 g) in a one-pot procedure, precluding the needs for repeated chain extensions, stoichiometric addition steps, dilute conditions, and postsynthetic modifications, and/or postsynthetic ring-closure steps. The resulting lABAB and cABAB have essentially identical molecular weights (Mn = 165-168 kg mol-1) and block degrees/symmetry, allowing for direct behavioral comparisons in solution (hydrodynamic volume, intrinsic viscosity, elution time, and refractive indices), bulk (thermal transitions), and film (thermomechanical and rheometric properties and X-ray scattering patterns) states. To further the morphological characterizations, allylic side-chain functionality is exploited via the thiol-ene click chemistry to install crystalline octadecane side chains and promote phase separation between the A and B blocks, allowing visualization of microdomain formation.

Flexible NHC-aryloxido aluminum complex and its zwitterionic imidazolium aluminate precursor in ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone

Anionic donor-functionalized NHC (N-heterocyclic carbene) complexes of Al are rare. We report one such case here, an NHC-aryloxido AlMe2 complex [Al(L)Me2] (2), following a stepwise synthesis from the proligand [HO-4,6-tBu2-C6H2-2-CH2{CH(NCHCHNAr)}]Br [LH2Br; Ar = 2,6-iPr2-C6H3 (Dipp)] and AlMe3via the zwitterionic intermediate [Al(LH)Me2Br] (1). The ligand's flexibility in 2 is evident from the conformational fluxionality revealed by VT-1H NMR spectroscopic analysis. The ∠O-Al-C (ca. 100.5°) bite angle is also wider than the ∠O-Ti-C (ca. 80.6°) as seen in our recently reported Ti complex [Ti(L)(NMe2)2Br]. DFT analysis showed that the CNHC-Al bond is significantly ionic, as is the CNHC-Ti bond. Both 1 and 2 are active in the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone (CL). 2, similar to [Ti(L)(NMe2)2Br], exhibits bifunctional MLC-type monomer activation, but only at an elevated temperature. However, the 2/BnOH combination is catalytically active at room temperature, likely through a zwitterionic [Al(LH)Me2(OBn)]. The 1/BnOH combination follows a similar mechanism but surprisingly at a faster rate.

Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles via Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly: Morphology Evolution and Function Regulation

Liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LC NPs) are a kind of polymer NPs with LC mesogens, which can form special anisotropic morphologies due to the influence of LC ordering. Owing to the stimuli-responsiveness of the LC blocks, LC NPs show abundant morphology evolution behaviors in response to external regulation. LC NPs have great application potential in nano-devices, drug delivery, special fibers and other fields. Polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) method can synthesize LC NPs at high solid content, reducing the harsh demand for reaction solvent of the LC polymers, being a better choice for large-scale production. In this review, we introduced recent research progress of PISA-LC NPs by dividing them into several parts according to the LC mesogen, and discussed the improvement of experimental conditions and the potential application of these polymers.

Sterically demanding binaphthol-based chiral diboranes for metal-free and isotactic poly(propylene oxide)

Chiral diborane polymerization catalysts with 3,3'-disubstituted binaphthol-backbones are presented. These compounds deliver isotactic poly(propylene oxide) from racemic monomer with isotactoc diad (m) and triad (mm) placements of up to 92% and >80%, respectively. The resulting polyether is well-defined, of high molar mass and semi-crystalline.

1,3-Pentadiene-Assistant Living Anionic Terpolymerization: Composition Impact on Kinetics and Microstructure Sequence Primary Analysis

The combination of a living anionic technology and a unique alternating strategy provided an exciting opportunity to prepare novel and well-defined poly(1,3-pentadiene-co-syrene-co-1,1-diphenylethylene) resins consisting of three alternating sequences of modules (A/B/C zwitterions). "A" being Styrene (St)/1,3-pentadiene (PD), "B" being diphenylethylene (DPE)/PD, "A" being DPE/St, respectively, A wide composition range of new polyolefin resins, i.e., poly (A-co-B), poly (A-co-C), and poly (B-co-C), with controlled molecular weight and very narrow molecular weight and composition distributions have been prepared by a one-pot living characteristic method. In the section of kinetic analysis, the terpolymer yields and kinetic parameters were strongly dependent on the feed/comonomer ratio as well as the content of the alternating structure. The competition copolymerization behaviors of A/B, B/C, and A/C were studied in detail in this work. By contrast, the microstructure and the thermal property of the resulting terpolymer were investigated via Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. The results of 1H NMR tracking the change of [Aromatic ring]/[C=C] value indicated the distinctive copolymer-ization behavior of the selective "alternating-modules". The glass transition temperature (T_g) was very sensitive to the terpolymer composition. By contrast to poly(A-ran-B) with only one obvious T_g, there were two T_gs in the A/C and B/C copolymerization cases. Moreover, the desirable high T_g ~ 140 °C resin was limited to the terpolymers with up to 50 mol % DPE. Finally, the "ABC-X" mechanism was proposed to interpret the unique terpolymerization behavior, which belongs to the classical "bond-forming initiation" theory.

Catenane formation of a cyclic poly(alkyl sorbate) via chain-growth polymerization induced by an N-heterocyclic carbene and ring-closing without extreme dilution

1,3-Di-tert-butylimidazol-2-ylidene (NHCtBu), a typical N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC), was previously found to induce the anionic chain-growth polymerization of ethyl sorbate (ES) in the presence of an aluminum Lewis acid, i.e., methylaluminum bis(2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoxide) (MAD), in which the neighboring of α-terminal dienolate with a propagating anion induced cyclization without highly diluted conditions, after monomer depletion, to give the cyclic poly(ES). In this paper, we report that catenane formation occurs by two-step polymerization of ethyl sorbate (ES), in which, after complete monomer (ES) consumption ([ES]₀/[NHCtBu]₀ = 100/1) in toluene followed by purification by reprecipitation, a second addition of ES monomer ([ES]₀/[ NHCtBu]₀ = 20/1) in another pot (in toluene or tetrahydrofuran (THF)) resulted in catenane formation, namely a polycatenane. TEM images of a sample from the second step polymerization in THF revealed particles of polycatenane structure consisting of cyclic poly(ES) with sizes ranging from 200 to 1000 nm, showing that this NHCtBu triggered chain polymerization and successive cyclization without highly diluted conditions enabled us to fabricate the intended polycatenane in the successive two-step polymerization.

Reversed Controlled Polymerization (RCP): Depolymerization from Well-Defined Polymers to Monomers

Controlled polymerization methods are well-established synthetic protocols for the design and preparation of polymeric materials with a high degree of precision over molar mass and architecture. Exciting recent work has shown that the high end-group fidelity and/or functionality inherent in these techniques can enable new routes to depolymerization under relatively mild conditions. Converting polymers back to pure monomers by depolymerization is a potential solution to the environmental and ecological concerns associated with the ultimate fate of polymers. This perspective focuses on the emerging field of depolymerization from polymers synthesized by controlled polymerizations including radical, ionic, and metathesis polymerizations. We provide a critical review of current literature categorized according to polymerization technique and explore numerous concepts and ideas which could be implemented to further enhance depolymerization including lower temperature systems, catalytic depolymerization, increasing polymer scope, and controlled depolymerization.

Cationic ring-opening polymerization of N-benzylaziridines to polyamines via organic boron

This communication reports the synthesis of cyclic polyamines via the cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) of N-benzylaziridines initiated by tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane. The debenzylation of these polyamines afforded water-soluble polyethylenimine derivatives. The electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and density functional theory results revealed that the CROP proceeded via the activated chain end intermediates.

Recyclable cyclic bio-based acrylic polymer via pairwise monomer enchainment by a trifunctional Lewis pair

The existing catalyst/initiator systems and methodologies used for the synthesis of polymers can access only a few cyclic polymers composed entirely of a single monomer type, and the synthesis of such authentic cyclic polar vinyl polymers (acrylics) devoid of any foreign motifs remains a challenge. Here we report that a tethered B-P-B trifunctional, intramolecular frustrated Lewis pair catalyst enables the synthesis of an authentic cyclic acrylic polymer, cyclic poly(γ-methyl-α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone) (c-PMMBL), from the bio-based monomer MMBL. Detailed studies have revealed an initiation and propagation mechanism through pairwise monomer enchainment enabled by the cooperative and synergistic initiator/catalyst sites of the trifunctional catalyst. We propose that macrocyclic intermediates and transition states comprising two catalyst molecules are involved in the catalyst-regulated ring expansion and eventual cyclization, forming authentic c-PMMBL rings and concurrently regenerating the catalyst. The cyclic topology of the c-PMMBL polymers imparts an ~50 °C higher onset decomposition temperature and a much narrower degradation window compared with their linear counterparts of similar molecular weight and dispersity, while maintaining high chemical recyclability.

Synthesis of Linear to Cyclic Polylactide via a One-Pot Step-Wise Ring-Opening Polymerization and Back-Biting Reaction of Ring Closure Using Magnesium Complexes

The controllable synthesis of cyclic polylactide remains a challenging topic so far. In this work, a new strategy of one-pot step-wise ring-opening polymerization (ROP) followed by a back-biting reaction of ring closure was reported, in which one magnesium atrane-like complex {N,N-bis[3,5-di-cumyl-2-benzyloxy]-[2-(2-aminoethoxy)ethoxy]magnesium} was utilized to initiate the ROP of lactide using 4-dimethylaminopyridine as a co-catalyst; then, macrocyclic polylactides were liberated out via increasing temperature after complete depletion of the monomer in which a back-biting reaction was utilized as a ring-closure method. The living feature at the first ROP stage can be proved well by the controllable molecular weights ranging from 3.10 to 34.70 kDa and narrow molecular weight distributions of linear polylactides obtained after quenching the reaction. The final cyclic polylactides with molecular weights (vs polystyrene) ranging from 2.50 to 16.10 kDa can be achieved too after the back-biting reaction of ring closure. Although a shoulder peak at the gel permeation chromatography profile appears when the ratio of monomer:initiator is high up to 100:1 or 200:1, this system is suitable for the controllable syntheses of cyclic polylactides with desirable modest molecular weights.

Two-Dimensional Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework ZIF-L: A Promising Catalyst for Polymerization

Here, for the first time, a 2D and leaf-like zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-L) is reported for the synthesis of ultrahigh molecular weight (UHMW) poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) with Mn up to 1390 kg mol−1. This synthesis method is a one-step process without any co-catalyst in a solvent-free medium. SEM, PXRD, FT-IR, TGA, and nitrogen sorption measurements confirmed the 2D and leaf-like structure of ZIF-L. The results of PXRD, SEM, TGA demonstrate that the catalyst ZIF-L is remarkably stable even after a long-time polymerization reaction. Zwitterionic Lewis pair polymerization (LPP) has been proposed for the catalytic performance of ZIF-L on methyl methacrylate (MMA) polymerization. This MMA polymerization is consistent with a living system, where ZIF-L could reinitiate the polymerization and propagates the process by gradually growing the polymer chains.

Zinc-Mediated Allylation-Lactonization One-Pot Reaction to Methylene Butyrolactones: Renewable Monomers for Sustainable Acrylic Polymers with Closed-Loop Recyclability

Despite biomass-derived methylene butyrolactone monomers having great potential in substituting the petroleum-based methacrylates for synthesizing the sustainable acrylic polymers, the possible industrial production of these cyclic monomers is unfortunately not practical due to moderate overall yields and harsh reaction conditions or a time-consuming multistep process. Here we report a convenient and effective synthetic approach to a series of biomass-derived methylene butyrolactone monomers via a zinc-mediated allylation-lactonization one-pot reaction of biorenewable aldehydes with ethyl 2-(bromomethyl)acrylate. Under simple room-temperature sonication conditions, near-quantitative conversions (>90%) can be accomplished within 5-30 min, providing pure products with high isolated yields of 70-80%. Their efficient polymerizations with a high degree of control and complete chemoselectivity were enabled by the judiciously chosen Lewis pair catalyst based on methylaluminum bis(2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenoxide) [MeAl(BHT)₂] Lewis acid and 3-diisopropyl-4,5-dimethylimidazol-2-ylidene (I ⁱ Pr) Lewis base, affording new poly(methylene butyrolactone)s with high thermal stability and thermal properties tuned in a wide range as well as pendant vinyl groups for postfunctionalization. Through the development of an effective depolymerization setup (370-390 °C, ca. 100 mTorr, 1 h, a muffle furnace), thermal depolymerizations of these polymers have been achieved with monomer recovery up to 99.8%, thus successfully constructing sustainable acrylic polymers with closed-loop recyclability.

Mechanism of Spatial and Temporal Control in Precision Cyclic Vinyl Polymer Synthesis by Lewis Pair Polymerization

In typical cyclic polymer synthesis via ring-closure, chain growth and cyclization events are competing with each other, thus affording cyclic polymers with uncontrolled molecular weight or ring size and high dispersity. Here we uncover a mechanism by which Lewis pair polymerization (LPP) operates on polar vinyl monomers that allows the control of where and when cyclization takes place, thereby achieving spatial and temporal control to afford precision cyclic vinyl polymers or block copolymers with predictable molecular weight and low dispersity (≈1.03). A combined experimental and theoretical study demonstrates that cyclization occurs only after all monomers have been consumed (when) via conjugate addition of the propagating chain end to the specific site of the initiating chain end (where), allowing the cyclic polymer formation steps to be regulated and executed with precision in space and time.

Boron-Based Lewis Pairs Catalyzed Living, Regioselective and Topology-Controlled Polymerization of (E, E)-alkyl Sorbates

It remains as a great challenge to realize living and controlled polymerization of renewable monomers by the boron-based Lewis pairs. Here we employ strong nucleophilic N-heterocyclic olefins (NHOs) or N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) as Lewis bases (LBs), and boron-based compounds as Lewis acids (LAs) to construct LPs for polymerization of alkyl sorbates, including (E, E)-methyl sorbate (MS) and (E, E)-ethyl sorbate (ES). Systematic investigation reveal that the combinations of B(C₆ F₅ )₃ with appropriate acidity and steric hindrance, and strong nucleophilic NHOs promote living and controlled polymerization of alkyl sorbates in 100% 1,4-addition manner, furnishing polymers with predicted molecular weight (M_w up to 56.6 kg/mol) and narrow molecular weight distribution (Đ as low as 1.12). Furthermore, topology analysis shows that NHC1/B(C₆ F₅ )₃ LP produced PMS possessing cyclic structure. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Main-Chain Fluoropolymers with Alternating Sequence Control via Light-Driven Reversible-Deactivation Copolymerization in Batch and Flow

Polymers with regulated alternating structures are attractive in practical applications, particularly for main-chain fluoropolymers. We for the first time enabled controlled fluoropolymer synthesis with alternating sequence regulation using a novel fluorinated xanthate agent via a light-driven process, which achieved on-demand copolymerization of chlorotrifluoroethylene and vinyl esters/amides under both batch and flow conditions at ambient pressure. This method creates a facile access to fluoropolymers with a broad fraction range of alternating units, low dispersities and high chain-end fidelity. Moreover, a two-step photo-flow platform was established to streamline the in-situ chain-extension toward unprecedented block copolymers continuously from fluoroethylene. Influences of structural control were illustrated with thermal and surface properties. We anticipate that this work will promote advanced material engineering with customized fluoropolymers.

Comparison of Imine- and Phosphinimine-Supported Indium Complexes: Tuning the Reactivity for the Sequential and Simultaneous Copolymerization of Lactide and ε-Caprolactone

Imine- and phosphinimine-supported indium complexes were used as catalysts in the polymerization of racemic lactide and ε-caprolactone as well as their copolymerization by the sequential and simultaneous addition of monomers. Tuning the electronics and sterics of the indium centers by either (i) changing the nature of the nitrogen donors and (ii) coordinating a hemilabile side group had a significant effect on the reactivity of the complexes, their stability, and their control in the synthesis of block copolymers. Specifically, the imine-supported complex (5) showed the highest activity in the homo- and copolymerization of the cyclic esters, in contrast to the phosphinimine-supported complex (7), which was significantly slower and less stable. The presence of morpholine and thiomorpholine hemilabile side groups either reduced the activity or prevented the formation of alkoxide complexes.

Activation of Small Molecules and Hydrogenation of CO2 Catalyzed by Frustrated Lewis Pairs

The chemistry of frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) is widely explored in the activation of small molecules, the hydrogenation of CO2, and unsaturated organic species. A survey of several experimental works on the activation of small molecules by FLPs and the related mechanistic insights into their reactivity from electronic structure theory calculation are provided in the present review, along with the catalytic hydrogenation of CO2. The mechanistic insight into H2 activation is thoroughly discussed, which may provide a guideline to design more efficient FLP for H2 activation. FLPs can activate other small molecules like, CO, NO, CO2, SO2, N2O, alkenes, alkynes, etc. by cooperative action of the Lewis centers of FLPs, as revealed by several computational analyses. The activation barrier of H2 and other small molecules by the FLP can be decreased by utilizing the aromaticity criterion in the FLP as demonstrated by the nucleus independent chemical shift (NICS) analysis. The term boron-ligand cooperation (BLC), which is analogous to the metal-ligand cooperation (MLC), is invoked to describe a distinct class of reactivity of some specific FLPs towards H2 activation.

The versatile roles of neutral donor ligands in tuning catalyst performance for the ring-opening polymerization of cyclic esters

The use of neutral donor ligands is an effective strategy to modify catalyst structure and performance in the synthesis of sustainable polymers through the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of cyclic esters.

Chemoselective Ring-Opening Copolymerization of Five-Membered Cyclic Carbonates and Carbonyl Sulfide toward Poly(thioether)s

Five-membered cyclic carbonate (5-CC) has the advantages of wide availability, low toxicity, and low volatility, but extremely low ring strain makes it a thermodynamically "non-polymerizable" monomer. This work, for the...

Chiral Diboranes as Catalysts for the Stereoselective Organopolymerization of Epoxides

It is demonstrated that stereoselective polymerization of epoxides, long a domain of metal-based compounds, can also be achieved via the application of organocatalysts. A simple two-step synthesis starting from widely available 1,1′-bi-2-naphthol (BINOL) backbones yields diboranes which, in tandem with organobases, deliver isotactic-enriched (it) polyethers from the homopolymerization of racemic propylene oxide (PO) and other epoxides. Thereby, isotactic diad contents of up to 88% can be achieved, resulting in well-defined (1.1 < Đ_M < 1.3) polyethers with high molar masses (M_n > 100 000 g mol⁻¹). Notably, it is also possible to grow it-enriched sequences of PPO on aliphatic polyester-type initiators, thus enabling the incorporation of stereocontrolled polyether blocks in more complex polymer architectures. It is expected that this ability will greatly benefit the preparation of polyether-containing additives. The BINOL-type diboranes can be readily modified, suggesting further potential as a platform from which optimized catalysts can be developed.

Chiral diborane catalysts deliver well-defined isotactic-enriched polyether, whereby also polyester-type macroinitiators can be employed.

Sequentially bridging anionic addition and ring-opening polymerization by cooperative organocatalysis: Well-defined block copolymers from methacrylates and cyclic esters

Organocatalytic sequential block copolymerization of dissimilar monomers with distinct chemical characteristics is great challenging, usually involving the integration of different polymerization mechanism. In this contribution, we reported the synthesis of...

Highly Tunable Metal-Free Ring Opening Polymerization of Glycidol into Various Controlled Topologies Catalyzed by Frustrated Lewis Pairs

Controlling the topology of a polymer is essential in determining its physical properties and processing. Even after numerous studies, obtaining a diverse array of topologies, particularly within the framework of...

One-Step Synthesis of Lignin-Based Triblock Copolymers as High-Temperature and UV-Blocking Thermoplastic Elastomers

This work utilizes frustrated Lewis pairs consisting of tethered bis-organophosphorus superbases and a bulky organoaluminum to furnish the highly efficient synthesis of well-defined triblock copolymers via one-step block copolymerization of lignin-based syringyl methacrylate and n-butyl acrylate, through di-initiation and compounded sequence control. The resulting thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) exhibit microphase separation and much superior mechanical properties (elongation at break up to 2091 %, tensile strength up to 11.5 MPa, and elastic recovery up to 95 % after 10 cycles) to those of methyl methacrylate-based TPEs. More impressively, lignin-based tri-BCPs can maintain TPEs properties up to 180 °C, exhibit high transparency and nearly 100 % UV shield, suggesting potential applications in temperature-resistant and optical devices.

Diverse Uses of the Reaction of Frustrated Lewis Pair (FLP) with Hydrogen

The articulation of the notion of "frustrated Lewis pairs" (FLPs) emerged from the discovery that H₂ can be reversibly activated by combinations of sterically encumbered main group Lewis acids and bases. This has prompted numerous studies focused on various perturbations of the Lewis acid/base combinations and the applications to organic reductions. This Perspective focuses on the new directions and developments that are emerging from this FLP chemistry involving hydrogen. Three areas are discussed including new applications and approaches to FLP reductions, the reductions of small molecules, and the advances in heterogeneous FLP systems. These foci serve to illustrate that despite having its roots in main group chemistry, this simple concept of FLPs is being applied across the discipline.

Synthesis of Diverse Polycarbonates by Organocatalytic Copolymerization of CO2 and Epoxides: From High Pressure and Temperature to Ambient Conditions

Organophosphazenes combined with triethylborane (TEB) were selected as binary organocatalyts for the copolymerization of CO₂ and epoxides. Both the activity and selectivity were highly dependent on the nature of phosphazenes. 2,4,6-Tris[tri(1-pyrrolidinyl)-iminophosphorane]-1,3,5-triazine (C₃ N₃ -Py-P₃ ) with a relatively low basicity (pK_a =26.5 in CD₃ CN) and a bulky molecular size (φ=1.3 nm) exhibited an unprecedented efficiency (TON up to 12240) and selectivity (>99 % polymer selectivity and >99 % carbonate linkages) toward copolymerization of CO₂ and cyclohexene oxide (CHO), and produced CO₂ -based polycarbonates (CO₂ -PCs) with high molar masses (M_n up to 275.5 kDa) at 1 MPa of CO₂ and 80 °C. Surprisingly, this binary catalytic system achieved efficient CO₂ /CHO copolymerization with TOF up to 95 h^-1 at 1 atm pressure and room temperature.

Lewis Pair Catalyzed Regioselective Polymerization of (E,E)-Alkyl Sorbates for the Synthesis of (AB)n Sequenced Polymers

In this contribution, Lewis pairs (LPs) composed of N-heterocyclic olefins (NHOs) with different steric hindrance and nucleophilicity as Lewis bases (LBs) and Al-based compounds with comparable acidity but different steric hindrance as Lewis acids (LAs) were applied for 1,4-selective polymerization of (E,E)-methyl sorbate (MS) and (E,E)-ethyl sorbate (ES). The effects of steric hindrance, electron-donating ability, and acidity of LPs on MS and ES polymerization were systematically investigated. High catalytic activity and high initiation efficiency can be achieved, leading to the formation of PMS with 100 % 1,4-selectivity, tunable molecular weight (M_w up to 333 kg mol^-1 ), and narrow molecular weight distribution (MWD). Block copolymerization of ES and methyl methacrylate (MMA) was also realized. Meanwhile, this system can be applied to other homologous conjugated diene substrates. Furthermore, simple chemical reactions can efficiently convert PMS to different polymers with strict (AB)_n sequence structures, such as poly(sorbic acid), poly(propylene-alt-methyl acrylate), poly(propylene-alt-acrylic acid), poly(propylene-alt-allyl alcohol), and poly(ethylene-alt-2-butylene).