1
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Nnamdi FU, Sullivan R, Gorin B, Organ MG. Eliminating Bimolecular Decomposition to Address Sustainability in Cross-Coupling: Supported Pd-PEPPSI-IPent Cl. Org Lett 2025; 27:3865-3870. [PMID: 40178303 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.5c00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2025]
Abstract
Fine-chemical manufacturing, with its dismal E-factors, has been known for decades as being one of the worst contributors to the well-being of the environment. Further, mining practices that pursue precious metals used in catalysis lead to considerable destruction of the environment. Further contributing to this is the necessity for high catalyst loads due to the limited mortality of organometallic complexes in solution. Bimolecular decomposition (BD), in particular, is a significant contributor to this problem. Assisting in the sustainability of chemical synthesis is flow chemistry, whose "just-in-time" nature produces chemicals as needed, eliminating vast stockpiles of chemicals associated with batch manufacturing. In this work, Pd-PEPPSI-IPentCl, a high-reactivity, high-selectivity Pd catalyst, has been mounted onto the surface of silica, of which the spacing has eliminated BD. This material has been loaded into packed beds and used in Negishi coupling and Buchwald-Hartwig amination, where the active catalyst has shown tremendous resiliency while producing valuable small-molecule products with deft selectivity and speed with residence time in the order of minutes under mild conditions (e.g., Negishi couplings conducted at room temperature).
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred U Nnamdi
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation (CCRI), University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Ryan Sullivan
- Eurofins CDMO Alphora, Incorporated, 2070 Hadwen Road, Mississauga, Ontario L5K 2C9, Canada
| | - Boris Gorin
- Eurofins CDMO Alphora, Incorporated, 2070 Hadwen Road, Mississauga, Ontario L5K 2C9, Canada
| | - Michael G Organ
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation (CCRI), University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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2
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Stevens R, Palmer HEP, Miah AH, Burley GA. Factors to Consider for Synthesis in 1536-Well Plates─An Amide Coupling Case Study for PROTAC Synthesis. J Org Chem 2025; 90:2192-2200. [PMID: 39895090 PMCID: PMC11833857 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.4c02456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2024] [Revised: 01/06/2025] [Accepted: 01/21/2025] [Indexed: 02/04/2025]
Abstract
Ultra high-throughput chemistry carried out in 1536-well plates is increasingly utilized for reaction optimization protocols and direct-to-biology (D2B) platforms, where nanomolar quantities of the final product are directly assessed for biochemical or cellular activity without purification. As their popularity increases, it is crucial that the synthesis of these molecules is reliable and reproducible. Research in our laboratories has identified several nuances of amide couplings when performed on the nanoscale that result in poor translation from 1536-well plates to batch-scale reactions. This case study presents a nanoscale amide coupling reaction to synthesize 700 PROTAC molecules, which identified a range of factors crucial to reaction success on the nanoscale, despite having no influence on reaction conversion in batch. This work presents a guide for high-throughput chemists to consider when working in 1536-well plates and their importance in drawing conclusions from nanoscale synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Stevens
- Modality
Platform Technologies, GSK, Stevenage SG1 2NY, U.K.
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1BX, U.K.
| | - Harry E. P. Palmer
- Modality
Platform Technologies, GSK, Stevenage SG1 2NY, U.K.
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1BX, U.K.
| | - Afjal H. Miah
- Modality
Platform Technologies, GSK, Stevenage SG1 2NY, U.K.
| | - Glenn A. Burley
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1BX, U.K.
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3
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Düker J, Philipp M, Lentner T, Cadge JA, Lavarda JE, Gschwind RM, Sigman MS, Ghosh I, König B. Cross-Coupling Reactions with Nickel, Visible Light, and tert-Butylamine as a Bifunctional Additive. ACS Catal 2025; 15:817-827. [PMID: 39839851 PMCID: PMC11744660 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.4c07185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2024] [Revised: 12/11/2024] [Accepted: 12/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2025]
Abstract
Transition metal catalysis is crucial for the synthesis of complex molecules, with ligands and bases playing a pivotal role in optimizing cross-coupling reactions. Despite advancements in ligand design and base selection, achieving effective synergy between these components remains challenging. We present here a general approach to nickel-catalyzed photoredox reactions employing tert-butylamine as a cost-effective bifunctional additive, acting as the base and ligand. This method proves effective for C-O and C-N bond-forming reactions with a diverse array of nucleophiles, including phenols, aliphatic alcohols, anilines, sulfonamides, sulfoximines, and imines. Notably, the protocol demonstrates significant applicability in biomolecule derivatization and facilitates sequential one-pot functionalizations. Spectroscopic investigations revealed the robustness of the dynamic catalytic system, while elucidation of structure-reactivity relationships demonstrated how computed molecular properties of both the nucleophile and electrophile correlated to reaction performance, providing a foundation for effective reaction outcome prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Düker
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
| | - Maximilian Philipp
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
| | - Thomas Lentner
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
| | - Jamie A. Cadge
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 1400 E, Salt Lake City 84112, Utah, United States
| | - João E.
A. Lavarda
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
| | - Ruth M. Gschwind
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
| | - Matthew S. Sigman
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 1400 E, Salt Lake City 84112, Utah, United States
| | - Indrajit Ghosh
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
- Nanotechnology
Centre, Centre for Energy and Environmental Technologies, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava-Poruba 708 00, Czech Republic
| | - Burkhard König
- Fakultät
für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität
Regensburg, Regensburg 93040, Germany
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4
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Velasco PQ, Hippalgaonkar K, Ramalingam B. Emerging trends in the optimization of organic synthesis through high-throughput tools and machine learning. Beilstein J Org Chem 2025; 21:10-38. [PMID: 39811684 PMCID: PMC11730176 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.21.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2025] Open
Abstract
The discovery of the optimal conditions for chemical reactions is a labor-intensive, time-consuming task that requires exploring a high-dimensional parametric space. Historically, the optimization of chemical reactions has been performed by manual experimentation guided by human intuition and through the design of experiments where reaction variables are modified one at a time to find the optimal conditions for a specific reaction outcome. Recently, a paradigm change in chemical reaction optimization has been enabled by advances in lab automation and the introduction of machine learning algorithms. Therein, multiple reaction variables can be synchronously optimized to obtain the optimal reaction conditions, requiring a shorter experimentation time and minimal human intervention. Herein, we review the currently used state-of-the-art high-throughput automated chemical reaction platforms and machine learning algorithms that drive the optimization of chemical reactions, highlighting the limitations and future opportunities of this new field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Quijano Velasco
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Singapore 138634, Republic of Singapore
| | - Kedar Hippalgaonkar
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Singapore 138634, Republic of Singapore
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117544, Republic of Singapore
| | - Balamurugan Ramalingam
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Singapore 138634, Republic of Singapore
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore 627833, Republic of Singapore
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5
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Stevens R, Shrives HJ, Cryan J, Klimaszewska D, Stacey P, Burley GA, Harling JD, Battersby DJ, Miah AH. Expanding the reaction toolbox for nanoscale direct-to-biology PROTAC synthesis and biological evaluation. RSC Med Chem 2024:d4md00760c. [PMID: 39720740 PMCID: PMC11664481 DOI: 10.1039/d4md00760c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2024] [Accepted: 11/13/2024] [Indexed: 12/26/2024] Open
Abstract
High-throughput chemistry (HTC) and direct-to-biology (D2B) platforms allow for plate-based compound synthesis and biological evaluation of crude mixtures in cellular assays. The rise of these workflows has rapidly accelerated drug-discovery programs in the field of targeted protein degradation (TPD) in recent years by removing a key bottleneck of compound purification. However, the number of chemical transformations amenable to this methodology remain minimal, leading to limitations in the exploration of chemical space using existing library-based approaches. In this work, we expanded the toolbox by synthesising a library of degraders in D2B format. First, reaction conditions are established for performing key medicinal chemistry transformations, including reductive amination, SNAr, palladium-mediated cross-coupling and alkylation, in D2B format. Second, the utility of these alternative reactions is demonstrated by rapidly identifying developable PROTACs for a range of protein targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Stevens
- Modality Platform Technologies, GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow G1 1BX UK
| | | | - Jenni Cryan
- Discovery Biology and Screening, GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | | | - Peter Stacey
- Discovery Biology and Screening, GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Glenn A Burley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow G1 1BX UK
| | - John D Harling
- Modality Platform Technologies, GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | | | - Afjal H Miah
- Modality Platform Technologies, GSK Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
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6
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Xu L, Zhu J, Shen X, Chai J, Shi L, Wu B, Li W, Ma D. 6-Hydroxy Picolinohydrazides Promoted Cu(I)-Catalyzed Hydroxylation Reaction in Water: Machine-Learning Accelerated Ligands Design and Reaction Optimization. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202412552. [PMID: 39189301 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202412552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Hydroxylated (hetero)arenes are privileged motifs in natural products, materials, small-molecule pharmaceuticals and serve as versatile intermediates in synthetic organic chemistry. Herein, we report an efficient Cu(I)/6-hydroxy picolinohydrazide-catalyzed hydroxylation reaction of (hetero)aryl halides (Br, Cl) in water. By establishing machine learning (ML) models, the design of ligands and optimization of reaction conditions were effectively accelerated. The N-(1,3-dimethyl-9H- carbazol-9-yl)-6-hydroxypicolinamide (L32, 6-HPA-DMCA) demonstrated high efficiency for (hetero)aryl bromides, promoting hydroxylation reactions with a minimal catalyst loading of 0.01 mol % (100 ppm) at 80 °C to reach 10000 TON; for substrates containing sensitive functional groups, the catalyst loading needs to be increased to 3.0 mol % under near-room temperature conditions. N-(2,7-Di-tert-butyl-9H-carbazol-9-yl)-6-hydroxypicolinamide (L42, 6-HPA-DTBCA) displayed superior reaction activity for chloride substrates, enabling hydroxylation reactions at 100 °C with 2-3 mol % catalyst loading. These represent the state of art for both lowest catalyst loading and temperature in the copper-catalyzed hydroxylation reactions. Furthermore, this method features a sustainable and environmentally friendly solvent system, accommodates a wide range of substrates, and shows potential for developing robust and scalable synthesis processes for key pharmaceutical intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanting Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Lu, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Jiazhou Zhu
- Suzhou Novartis Technical Development Co., Ltd., #18-1, Tonglian Road, Bixi Subdistrict, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215537, China
| | - Xiaodong Shen
- Suzhou Novartis Technical Development Co., Ltd., #18-1, Tonglian Road, Bixi Subdistrict, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215537, China
| | - Jiashuang Chai
- Chang-Kung Chuang Institute, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuang Lu, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Suzhou Novartis Technical Development Co., Ltd., #18-1, Tonglian Road, Bixi Subdistrict, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215537, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Suzhou Novartis Technical Development Co., Ltd., #18-1, Tonglian Road, Bixi Subdistrict, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215537, China
| | - Wei Li
- Suzhou Novartis Technical Development Co., Ltd., #18-1, Tonglian Road, Bixi Subdistrict, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215537, China
| | - Dawei Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Lu, Shanghai, 200032, China
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7
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Johnson NA, Xue Y, Panzner MJ, Youngs WJ, Tessier CA. Investigation of Phosphazene Superbase Interactions with [PCl 2N] 3. Inorg Chem 2024; 63:20281-20285. [PMID: 39418475 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c03002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the reaction between phosphazene superbases and a chlorophosphazene trimer ([PCl2N]3) has been investigated. In this room temperature reaction, the phosphazene superbase (Me2N)3PN(Me2N)2P═NEt, commonly known as P2Et, was shown to behave as a nucleophile, displacing one of the chlorides from [PCl2N]3 and producing the tadpole-like structure 1. The reaction described herein is one of the few instances of a phosphazene superbase behaving as a nucleophile rather than a Brønsted base. Once formed, this structure contains contrasting reactivity, containing a weakly basic phosphazene head while maintaining a highly basic phosphazene tail of the tadpole. The mechanism of the reaction was explored by investigating the potential energy surface through density functional theory calculations at the B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) level of quantum mechanical theory. It was determined that the reaction of P2Et with [PCl2N]3 followed a stepwise process beginning with the substitution of P2Et onto [PCl2N]3 with the concurrent loss of chloride. Subsequently, the chloride attacks the ethyl group of the P2Et moiety, and ethyl chloride is released, producing 1. Compound 1 was further characterized via 31P NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and X-ray crystallography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio 44805, United States
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Yuan Xue
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Oberlin College and Conservatory, Oberlin, Ohio 44074, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Matthew J Panzner
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Wiley J Youngs
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Claire A Tessier
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
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8
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Strauss MJ, Liu KX, Greaves ME, Dahl JC, Kim ST, Wu YJ, Schmidt MA, Scola PM, Buchwald SL. Cu-Catalyzed Amination of Base-Sensitive Aryl Bromides and the Chemoselective N- and O-Arylation of Amino Alcohols. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:18616-18625. [PMID: 38924516 PMCID: PMC11375568 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c05246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
We report a general and functional-group-tolerant method for the Cu-catalyzed amination of base-sensitive aryl bromides including substrates possessing acidic functional groups and small five-membered heteroarenes. The results presented herein substantially expand the scope of Cu-catalyzed C-N coupling reactions. The combination of L8, an anionic N1,N2-diarylbenzene-1,2-diamine ligand, along with the mild base NaOTMS leads to the formation of a stable yet reactive catalyst that resists deactivation from coordination to heterocycles or charged intermediates. This system enables the use of low catalyst and ligand loadings. Exploiting the differences in nucleophile deprotonation in C-O and C-N coupling reactions catalyzed by Cu·L8 we developed a method to chemoselectively N- and O-arylate a variety of amino alcohol substrates. Employing NaOt-Bu as the base resulted exclusively in C-O coupling when the amino alcohols featured primary alcohols and more hindered amines or aniline groups. Utilizing NaOTMS enabled the ability to override the steric-based selectivity of these reactions completely and exclusively promoted C-N coupling regardless of the structure of the amino alcohol. The ability to invert the observed chemoselectivity is distinct from previously described methods that require protecting group manipulations or rely entirely on steric effects to control reactivity. These results substantially improve the scope of Cu-catalyzed C-N coupling reactions using N1,N2-diarylbenzene-1,2-diamine ligands and introduce a new chemoselective method to arylate amino alcohols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Strauss
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Kaylee X Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Wellesley College, 106 Central St., Wellesley, Massachusetts 02481, United States
| | - Megan E Greaves
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jakob C Dahl
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Seoung-Tae Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yong-Jin Wu
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol Myers Squibb, 250 Water St., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02141, United States
| | - Michael A Schmidt
- Chemical Process Development, Bristol Myers Squibb, 1 Squibb Dr. New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901, United States
| | - Paul M Scola
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol Myers Squibb, 250 Water St., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02141, United States
| | - Stephen L Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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9
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Sujansky SJ, Hoteling GA, Bandar JS. A strategy for the controllable generation of organic superbases from benchtop-stable salts. Chem Sci 2024; 15:10018-10026. [PMID: 38966380 PMCID: PMC11220602 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc02524e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Organic superbases are a distinct class of strong base that enable numerous modern reaction applications. Despite their great synthetic potential, widespread use and study of superbases are limited by their air sensitivity and difficult preparation. To address this, we report air-stable carboxylate salts of BTPP and P2-t-Bu phosphazene superbases that, when added to solution with an epoxide, spontaneously generate freebase. These systems function as effective precatalysts and stoichiometric prereagents for superbase-promoted addition, substitution and polymerization reactions. In addition to improving the synthesis, shelf stability, handling and recycling of phosphazenes, this approach enables precise regulation of the rate of base generation in situ. The activation strategy effectively mimics manual slow addition techniques, allowing for control over a reaction's rate or induction period and improvement of reactions that require strong base but are also sensitive to its presence, such as Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Sujansky
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Garrett A Hoteling
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Jeffrey S Bandar
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
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10
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King-Smith E, Berritt S, Bernier L, Hou X, Klug-McLeod JL, Mustakis J, Sach NW, Tucker JW, Yang Q, Howard RM, Lee AA. Probing the chemical 'reactome' with high-throughput experimentation data. Nat Chem 2024; 16:633-643. [PMID: 38168924 PMCID: PMC10997498 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01393-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
High-throughput experimentation (HTE) has the potential to improve our understanding of organic chemistry by systematically interrogating reactivity across diverse chemical spaces. Notable bottlenecks include few publicly available large-scale datasets and the need for facile interpretation of these data's hidden chemical insights. Here we report the development of a high-throughput experimentation analyser, a robust and statistically rigorous framework, which is applicable to any HTE dataset regardless of size, scope or target reaction outcome, which yields interpretable correlations between starting material(s), reagents and outcomes. We improve the HTE data landscape with the disclosure of 39,000+ previously proprietary HTE reactions that cover a breadth of chemistry, including cross-coupling reactions and chiral salt resolutions. The high-throughput experimentation analyser was validated on cross-coupling and hydrogenation datasets, showcasing the elucidation of statistically significant hidden relationships between reaction components and outcomes, as well as highlighting areas of dataset bias and the specific reaction spaces that necessitate further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma King-Smith
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Xinjun Hou
- Pfizer Research and Development, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Neal W Sach
- Pfizer Research and Development, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Qingyi Yang
- Pfizer Research and Development, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Alpha A Lee
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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11
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Ivanytsya MO, Subotin VV, Gavrilenko KS, Ryabukhin SV, Volochnyuk DM, Kolotilov SV. Advances and Challenges in Development of Transition Metal Catalysts for Heterogeneous Hydrogenation of Organic Compounds. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202300300. [PMID: 38063808 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202300300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Actual problems of development of catalysts for hydrogenation of heterocyclic compounds by hydrogen are summarized and discussed. The scope of review covers composites of nanoparticles of platinum group metals and 3d metals for heterogeneous catalytic processes. Such problems include increase of catalyst activity, which is important for reduction of precious metals content; development of new catalytic systems which do not contain metals of platinum group or contain cheaper analogues of Pd; control of factors which make influence on the selectivity of the catalysts; achievement of high reproducibility of the catalyst's performance and quality control of the catalysts. Own results of the authors are also summarized and described. The catalysts were prepared by decomposition of Pd0 and Ni0 complexes, pyrolysis of Ni2+ and Co2+ complexes deposited on aerosil and reduction of Ni2+ in pores of porous support in situ. The developed catalysts were used for hydrogenation of multigram batches of heterocyclic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mykyta O Ivanytsya
- L. V. Pisarzhevskii Institute of Physical Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Prosp. Nauky 31, 03028, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of High Technologies, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Volodymyrska Street 60, 01601, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Vladyslav V Subotin
- L. V. Pisarzhevskii Institute of Physical Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Prosp. Nauky 31, 03028, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Konstantin S Gavrilenko
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Chemical Department, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Volodymyrska Street 60, 01601, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Serhiy V Ryabukhin
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of High Technologies, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Volodymyrska Street 60, 01601, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Murmanska Street 5, 02660, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Dmytro M Volochnyuk
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of High Technologies, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Volodymyrska Street 60, 01601, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Murmanska Street 5, 02660, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Sergey V Kolotilov
- L. V. Pisarzhevskii Institute of Physical Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Prosp. Nauky 31, 03028, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Enamine Ltd., 78 Winston Churchill St., 02094, Kyiv, Ukraine
- Institute of High Technologies, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Volodymyrska Street 60, 01601, Kyiv, Ukraine
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12
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Taylor CJ, Pomberger A, Felton KC, Grainger R, Barecka M, Chamberlain TW, Bourne RA, Johnson CN, Lapkin AA. A Brief Introduction to Chemical Reaction Optimization. Chem Rev 2023; 123:3089-3126. [PMID: 36820880 PMCID: PMC10037254 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
From the start of a synthetic chemist's training, experiments are conducted based on recipes from textbooks and manuscripts that achieve clean reaction outcomes, allowing the scientist to develop practical skills and some chemical intuition. This procedure is often kept long into a researcher's career, as new recipes are developed based on similar reaction protocols, and intuition-guided deviations are conducted through learning from failed experiments. However, when attempting to understand chemical systems of interest, it has been shown that model-based, algorithm-based, and miniaturized high-throughput techniques outperform human chemical intuition and achieve reaction optimization in a much more time- and material-efficient manner; this is covered in detail in this paper. As many synthetic chemists are not exposed to these techniques in undergraduate teaching, this leads to a disproportionate number of scientists that wish to optimize their reactions but are unable to use these methodologies or are simply unaware of their existence. This review highlights the basics, and the cutting-edge, of modern chemical reaction optimization as well as its relation to process scale-up and can thereby serve as a reference for inspired scientists for each of these techniques, detailing several of their respective applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor J. Taylor
- Astex
Pharmaceuticals, 436 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0QA, U.K.
- Innovation
Centre in Digital Molecular Technologies, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Alexander Pomberger
- Innovation
Centre in Digital Molecular Technologies, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
| | - Kobi C. Felton
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.
| | - Rachel Grainger
- Astex
Pharmaceuticals, 436 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0QA, U.K.
| | - Magda Barecka
- Chemical
Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Chemistry
and Chemical Biology Department, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Cambridge
Centre for Advanced Research and Education in Singapore, 1 Create Way, 138602 Singapore
| | - Thomas W. Chamberlain
- Institute
of Process Research and Development, School of Chemistry and School
of Chemical and Process Engineering, University
of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K.
| | - Richard A. Bourne
- Institute
of Process Research and Development, School of Chemistry and School
of Chemical and Process Engineering, University
of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K.
| | | | - Alexei A. Lapkin
- Innovation
Centre in Digital Molecular Technologies, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.
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13
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Ruck RT, Strotman NA, Krska SW. The Catalysis Laboratory at Merck: 20 Years of Catalyzing Innovation. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c05159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca T. Ruck
- Department of Process Research & Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey07065, United States
| | - Neil A. Strotman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Clinical Supplies, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey07065, United States
| | - Shane W. Krska
- Chemistry Capabilities Accelerating Therapeutics, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey07033, United States
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14
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Fabrication and Catalytic Performance of A New Diaminopyridine Pd(II) Monolayer Supported on Graphene Oxide for Catalyzing Suzuki Coupling Reaction. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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15
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Lops C, Pengo P, Pasquato L. Highly Efficient Darzens Reactions Mediated by Phosphazene Bases under Mild Conditions. ChemistryOpen 2022; 11:e202200179. [PMID: 36207800 PMCID: PMC9547082 DOI: 10.1002/open.202200179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The highly basic and poorly nucleophilic phosphazene base P1 -t-Bu promotes the Darzens condensation of α-halo esters with aromatic aldehydes affording α,β-epoxy esters in nearly quantitative yields under mild conditions and in short reaction times. The more basic P4 -t-Bu phosphazene was found useful with low reactivity aldehydes. These reactions can be performed in aprotic organic solvents of low polarity, thus minimizing the hydrolysis of α,β-epoxy esters which often accompanies the base-promoted Darzens condensations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmine Lops
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of TriesteVia L. Giorgieri 134127TriesteItaly
- Aptuit – an Evotec CompanyVia A. Fleming 437135VeronaItaly
| | - Paolo Pengo
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of TriesteVia L. Giorgieri 134127TriesteItaly
| | - Lucia Pasquato
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of TriesteVia L. Giorgieri 134127TriesteItaly
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16
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Ni P, Yang L, Shen Y, Zhang L, Ma Y, Sun M, Cheng R, Ye J. Synthesis of Phenols from Aryl Ammonium Salts under Mild Conditions. J Org Chem 2022; 87:12677-12687. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pufan Ni
- Engineering Research Centre of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry, Ministry of Education; Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Engineering Research Centre of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry, Ministry of Education; Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yi Shen
- Engineering Research Centre of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry, Ministry of Education; Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Engineering Research Centre of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry, Ministry of Education; Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yueyue Ma
- School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Maolin Sun
- School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ruihua Cheng
- School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jinxing Ye
- Engineering Research Centre of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry, Ministry of Education; Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
- School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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17
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Katagiri K, Kuriyama M, Yamamoto K, Demizu Y, Onomura O. Organocatalytic Synthesis of Phenols from Diaryliodonium Salts with Water under Metal-Free Conditions. Org Lett 2022; 24:5149-5154. [PMID: 35822911 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c01989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The metal-free synthesis of phenols from diaryliodonium salts with water was developed by using N-benzylpyridin-2-one as an organocatalyst. In this process, sterically congested, functionalized, and heterocycle-containing iodonium salts were smoothly converted to the desired products, and the clofibrate and mecloqualone derivatives were also synthesized in high yields. In addition, the gram-scale experiment was successfully carried out with 10 mmol of a sterically congested substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotone Katagiri
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | - Masami Kuriyama
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | - Kosuke Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
| | - Yosuke Demizu
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Osamu Onomura
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
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18
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Li Z, Song E, Ren R, Zhao W, Li T, Liu M, Wu Y. Pd-Pd/PdO as active sites on intercalated graphene oxide modified by diaminobenzene: fabrication, catalysis properties, synergistic effects, and catalytic mechanism. RSC Adv 2022; 12:8600-8610. [PMID: 35424835 PMCID: PMC8984910 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra00658h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pd-Pd/PdO nanoclusters well dispersed on intercalated graphene oxide (GO) (denoted as GO@PPD-Pd) were prepared and characterized. GO@PPD-Pd exhibited high catalytic activity (a TOF value of 60 705 h-1) during the Suzuki coupling reaction, and it could be reused at least 6 times. The real active centre was Pd(200)-Pd(200)/PdO(110, 102). A change in the Pd facets on the surface of PdO was a key factor leading to deactivation, and the aggregation and loss of active centres was also another important reason. The catalytic mechanism involved heterogeneous catalysis, showing that the catalytic processes occurred at the interface, including substrate adsorption, intermediate formation, and product desorption. The real active centres showed enhanced negative charge due to the transfer of electrons from the carrier and ligands, which could effectively promote the oxidative addition reaction, and Pd(200) and the heteroconjugated Pd/PdO interface generated in situ also participated in the coupling process, synergistically boosting activity. Developed GO@PPD-Pd was a viable heterogeneous catalyst that may have practical applications owing to its easy synthesis and stability, and this synergistic approach can be utilized to develop other transition-metal catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Li
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
| | - Erran Song
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
| | - Ruirui Ren
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
| | - Wuduo Zhao
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
| | - Tiesheng Li
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
| | - Minghua Liu
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 Henan Province P. R. China
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhongguancun North First Street 2 Beijing 100190 P. R. China
| | - Yangjie Wu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University Kexuedadao 100 Zhengzhou 450001 P. R. China (+)86-371-67766667
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19
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Hao L, Auni A, Ding G, Li X, Xu H, Li T, Zhang Q. Selective hydroxylation of aryl iodides to produce phenols under mild conditions using a supported copper catalyst. RSC Adv 2021; 11:25348-25353. [PMID: 35478897 PMCID: PMC9036948 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04112f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to the high activity and low-cost, copper-based catalysts are promising candidates for transforming aromatic halides to yield phenols. In this work, we report the selective hydroxylation of aromatic iodides to produce phenols using an atomically dispersed copper catalyst (Cu-ZnO-ZrO2) under mild reaction conditions. The reactions were conducted without the use of additional organic ligands, and the protection of an inert atmosphere environment is not required. The catalyst can be easily prepared, scalable, and is very efficient for a wide range of substrates. The catalytic reactions can be carried out with only 1.24 mol% Cu loading, which shows great potential in mass production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leiduan Hao
- Department of Chemistry, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
| | - Anika Auni
- Department of Chemistry, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
| | - Guodong Ding
- Department of Chemistry, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
| | - Haiping Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University DeKalb IL 60115 USA
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University DeKalb IL 60115 USA
- X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory Argonne IL 60439 USA
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Washington State University Pullman Washington 99164 USA
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20
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Mahjour B, Shen Y, Cernak T. Ultrahigh-Throughput Experimentation for Information-Rich Chemical Synthesis. Acc Chem Res 2021; 54:2337-2346. [PMID: 33891404 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The incorporation of data science is revolutionizing organic chemistry. It is becoming increasingly possible to predict reaction outcomes with accuracy, computationally plan new retrosynthetic routes to complex molecules, and design molecules with sophisticated functions. Critical to these developments has been statistical analysis of reaction data, for instance with machine learning, yet there is very little reaction data available upon which to build models. Reaction data can be mined from the literature, but experimental data tends to be reported in a text format that is difficult for computers to read. Compounding the issue, literature data are heavily biased toward "productive" reactions, and few "negative" reaction data points are reported even though they are critical for training of statistical models. High-throughput experimentation (HTE) has evolved over the past few decades as a tool for experimental reaction development. The beauty of HTE is that reactions are run in a systematic format, so data points are internally consistent, the reaction data are reported whether the desired product is observed or not, and automation may reduce the occurrence of false positive or negative data points. Additionally, experimental workflows for HTE lead to datasets with reaction metadata that are captured in a machine-readable format. We believe that HTE will play an increasingly important role in the data revolution of chemical synthesis. This Account details the miniaturization of synthetic chemistry culminating in ultrahigh-throughput experimentation (ultraHTE), wherein reactions are run in ∼1 μL droplets inside of 1536-well microtiter plates to minimize the use of starting materials while maximizing the output of experimental information. The performance of ultraHTE in 1536-well microtiter plates has led to an explosion of available reaction data, which have been used to identify specific substrate-catalyst pairs for maximal efficiency in novel cross-coupling reactions. The first iteration of ultraHTE focused on the use of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as a high-boiling solvent that is compatible with the plastics most commonly used in consumable well plates, which generated homogeneous reaction mixtures that are perfect for use with nanoliter-dosing liquid handling robotics. In this way, DMSO enabled diverse reagents to be arrayed in ∼1 μL droplets. Reactions were run at room temperature with no agitation and could be scaled up from the ∼0.05 mg reaction scale to the 1 g scale. Engineering enhancements enabled the use of ultraHTE with diverse and semivolatile solvents, photoredox catalysis, heating, and acoustic agitation. A main driver in the development of ultraHTE was the recognition of the opportunity for a direct merger between miniaturized reactions and biochemical assays. Indeed, a strategy was developed to feed ultraHTE reaction mixtures directly to a mass-spectrometry-based affinity selection bioassay. Thus, micrograms of starting materials could be used in the synthesis and direct biochemical testing of drug-like molecules. Reactions were performed at a reactant concentration of ∼0.1 M in an inert atmosphere, enabling even challenging transition-metal-catalyzed reactions to be used. Software to enable the workflow was developed. We recently initiated the mapping of reaction space, dreaming of a future where transformations, reaction conditions, structure, properties and function are studied in a systems chemistry approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babak Mahjour
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Yuning Shen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Tim Cernak
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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21
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Sandwich structured aryl-diimine Pd (II)/Co (II) monolayer—Fabrication, catalytic performance, synergistic effect and mechanism investigation. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2020.111359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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22
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Grainger R, Whibley S. A Perspective on the Analytical Challenges Encountered in High-Throughput Experimentation. Org Process Res Dev 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Grainger
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, 436 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0QA, U.K
| | - Stuart Whibley
- Astex Pharmaceuticals, 436 Cambridge Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0QA, U.K
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23
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Puleo TR, Sujansky SJ, Wright SE, Bandar JS. Organic Superbases in Recent Synthetic Methodology Research. Chemistry 2021; 27:4216-4229. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.202003580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R. Puleo
- Department of Chemistry Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Stephen J. Sujansky
- Department of Chemistry Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Shawn E. Wright
- Department of Chemistry Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Jeffrey S. Bandar
- Department of Chemistry Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
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24
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Wu JY, Li Z, Yang JD, Cheng JP. Bonding Energetics of Palladium Amido/Aryloxide Complexes in DMSO: Implications for Palladium-Mediated Aniline Activation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:23782-23790. [PMID: 32910524 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202011313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Thermodynamic knowledge of the metal-ligand (M-L) σ-bond strength is crucial to understanding metal-mediated transformations. Here, we developed a method for determining the Pd-X (X=OR and NHAr) bond heterolysis energies (ΔGhet (Pd-X)) in DMSO taking [(tmeda)PdArX] (tmeda=N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine) as the model complexes. The ΔGhet (Pd-X) scales span a range of 2.6-9.0 kcal mol-1 for ΔGhet (Pd-O) values and of 14.5-19.5 kcal mol-1 for ΔGhet (Pd-N) values, respectively, implying a facile heterolytic detachment of the Pd ligands. Structure-reactivity analyses of a modeling Pd-mediated X-H bond activation reveal that the M-X bond metathesis is dominated by differences of the X-H and Pd-X bond strengths, the former being more influential. The ΔGhet (Pd-X) and pKa (X-H) parameters enable regulation of reaction thermodynamics and chemoselectivity and diagnosing the probability of aniline activation with Pd-X complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Yan Wu
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Zhen Li
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jin-Dong Yang
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jin-Pei Cheng
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.,State Key Laboratory of Elemento-organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjing 3, 00071, China
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25
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Wu J, Li Z, Yang J, Cheng J. Bonding Energetics of Palladium Amido/Aryloxide Complexes in DMSO: Implications for Palladium‐Mediated Aniline Activation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202011313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun‐Yan Wu
- Center of Basic Molecular Science Department of Chemistry Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China
| | - Zhen Li
- Center of Basic Molecular Science Department of Chemistry Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China
| | - Jin‐Dong Yang
- Center of Basic Molecular Science Department of Chemistry Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China
| | - Jin‐Pei Cheng
- Center of Basic Molecular Science Department of Chemistry Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-organic Chemistry College of Chemistry Nankai University Tianjing 3 00071 China
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26
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Lau SH, Yu P, Chen L, Madsen-Duggan CB, Williams MJ, Carrow BP. Aryl Amination Using Soluble Weak Base Enabled by a Water-Assisted Mechanism. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:20030-20039. [PMID: 33179489 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c09275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The amination of aryl halides has become one of the most commonly practiced C-N bond-forming reactions in pharmaceutical and laboratory syntheses. The widespread use of strong or poorly soluble inorganic bases for amine activation nevertheless complicates the compatibility of this important reaction class with sensitive substrates as well as applications in flow and automated synthesis, to name a few. We report a palladium-catalyzed C-N coupling using Et3N as a weak, soluble base, which allows a broad substrate scope that includes bromo- and chloro(hetero)arenes, primary anilines, secondary amines, and amide type nucleophiles together with tolerance for a range of base-sensitive functional groups. Mechanistic data have established a unique pathway for these reactions in which water serves multiple beneficial roles. In particular, ionization of a neutral catalytic intermediate via halide displacement by H2O generates, after proton loss, a coordinatively unsaturated Pd-OH species that can bind amine substrate triggering intramolecular N-H heterolysis. This water-assisted pathway operates efficiently with even weak terminal bases, such as Et3N. The use of a simple, commercially available ligand, PAd3, is key to this water-assisted mechanism by promoting coordinative unsaturation in catalytic intermediates responsible for the heterolytic activation of strong element-hydrogen bonds, which enables broad compatibility of carbon-heteroatom cross-coupling reactions with sensitive substrates and functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sii Hong Lau
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Peng Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Liye Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Christina B Madsen-Duggan
- Chemical Process Development, Bristol Myers Squibb, 556 Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07902, United States
| | - Michael J Williams
- Chemical Process Development, Bristol Myers Squibb, 556 Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07902, United States
| | - Brad P Carrow
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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27
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Abstract
Boric acid, B(OH)3, is proved to be an efficient hydroxide reagent in converting (hetero)aryl halides to the corresponding phenols with a Pd catalyst under mild conditions. Various phenol products were obtained in good to excellent yields. This transformation tolerates a broad range of functional groups and molecules, including base-sensitive substituents and complicated pharmaceutical (hetero)aryl halide molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Qiang Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Self-Assembly Chemistry for Organic Functional Molecules, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Dong-Hui Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Self-Assembly Chemistry for Organic Functional Molecules, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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28
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Practical guide on MALDI-TOF MS method development for high throughput profiling of pharmaceutically relevant, small molecule chemical reactions. Tetrahedron 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2020.131434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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29
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Szpera R, Isenegger PG, Ghosez M, Straathof NJW, Cookson R, Blakemore DC, Richardson P, Gouverneur V. Synthesis of Fluorinated Alkyl Aryl Ethers by Palladium-Catalyzed C-O Cross-Coupling. Org Lett 2020; 22:6573-6577. [PMID: 32806200 PMCID: PMC7458480 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c02347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Herein,
we report a highly effective protocol for the cross-coupling
of (hetero)aryl bromides with fluorinated alcohols using the commercially
available precatalyst tBuBrettPhos Pd G3 and Cs2CO3 in toluene. This Pd-catalyzed coupling features a
short reaction time, excellent functional group tolerance, and compatibility
with electron-rich and -poor (hetero)arenes. The method provides access
to 18F-labeled trifluoroethyl ethers by cross-coupling
with [18F]trifluoroethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Szpera
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Oxford University, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Patrick G Isenegger
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Oxford University, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Maxime Ghosez
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Oxford University, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Natan J W Straathof
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Oxford University, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Rosa Cookson
- Medicines Research Centre, GlaxoSmithKline plc, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire SG1 2NY, U.K
| | - David C Blakemore
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Paul Richardson
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Inc., 10770 Science Center Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Oxford University, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, U.K
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30
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Liu RY, Dennis JM, Buchwald SL. The Quest for the Ideal Base: Rational Design of a Nickel Precatalyst Enables Mild, Homogeneous C-N Cross-Coupling. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:4500-4507. [PMID: 32040909 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Palladium-catalyzed amination reactions using soluble organic bases have provided a solution to the many issues associated with heterogeneous reaction conditions. Still, homogeneous C-N cross-coupling approaches cannot yet employ bases as weak and economical as trialkylamines. Furthermore, organic base-mediated methods have not been developed for Ni(0/II) catalysis, despite some advantages of such systems over those employing Pd-based catalysts. We designed a new air-stable and easily prepared Ni(II) precatalyst bearing an electron-deficient bidentate phosphine ligand that enables the cross-coupling of aryl triflates with aryl amines using triethylamine (TEA) as base. The method is tolerant of sterically congested coupling partners, as well as those bearing base- and nucleophile-sensitive functional groups. With the aid of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, we determined that the electron-deficient auxiliary ligands decrease both the pKa of the Ni-bound amine and the barrier to reductive elimination from the resultant Ni(II)-amido complex. Moreover, we determined that the preclusion of Lewis acid-base complexation between the Ni catalyst and the base, due to steric factors, is important for avoiding catalyst inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Y Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Joseph M Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Stephen L Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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31
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Kashani SK, Jessiman JE, Newman SG. Exploring Homogeneous Conditions for Mild Buchwald–Hartwig Amination in Batch and Flow. Org Process Res Dev 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saeed K. Kashani
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Jacob E. Jessiman
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Stephen G. Newman
- Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
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32
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Laffoon JD, Chan VS, Fickes MG, Kotecki B, Ickes AR, Henle J, Napolitano JG, Franczyk TS, Dunn TB, Barnes DM, Haight AR, Henry RF, Shekhar S. Pd-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Reactions Promoted by Biaryl Phosphorinane Ligands. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D. Laffoon
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Vincent S. Chan
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Michael G. Fickes
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Brian Kotecki
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Andrew R. Ickes
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Jeremy Henle
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - José G. Napolitano
- Discovery Chemistry and Technology, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Thaddeus S. Franczyk
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Travis B. Dunn
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - David M. Barnes
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Anthony R. Haight
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Rodger F. Henry
- Discovery Chemistry and Technology, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Shashank Shekhar
- Process Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
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33
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Baumgartner LM, Dennis JM, White NA, Buchwald SL, Jensen KF. Use of a Droplet Platform To Optimize Pd-Catalyzed C–N Coupling Reactions Promoted by Organic Bases. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz M. Baumgartner
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Joseph M. Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Nicholas A. White
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Stephen L. Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Klavs F. Jensen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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34
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Pithani S, Malmgren M, Aurell CJ, Nikitidis G, Friis SD. Biphasic Aqueous Reaction Conditions for Process-Friendly Palladium-Catalyzed C–N Cross-Coupling of Aryl Amines. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Subhash Pithani
- Early Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marcus Malmgren
- Early Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carl-Johan Aurell
- Early Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Grigorios Nikitidis
- Early Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stig D. Friis
- Medicinal Chemistry, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
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35
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Beutner GL, Coombs JR, Green RA, Inankur B, Lin D, Qiu J, Roberts F, Simmons EM, Wisniewski SR. Palladium-Catalyzed Amidation and Amination of (Hetero)aryl Chlorides under Homogeneous Conditions Enabled by a Soluble DBU/NaTFA Dual-Base System. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory L. Beutner
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - John R. Coombs
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Rebecca A. Green
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Bahar Inankur
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Dong Lin
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Jun Qiu
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Frederick Roberts
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Eric M. Simmons
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
| | - Steven R. Wisniewski
- Chemical & Synthetic Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, One Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, United States
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36
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Ingoglia BT, Wagen CC, Buchwald SL. Biaryl Monophosphine Ligands in Palladium-Catalyzed C-N Coupling: An Updated User's Guide. Tetrahedron 2019; 75:4199-4211. [PMID: 31896889 DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Over the past three decades, Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions have become a mainstay of organic synthesis. In particular, catalysts derived from biaryl monophosphines have shown wide utility in forming C-N bonds under mild reaction conditions. This work summarizes a variety of C-N cross-coupling reactions using biaryl monophosphines as supporting ligands, with the goal of directing synthetic chemists towards the ligands and conditions best suited for a particular coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan T Ingoglia
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Corin C Wagen
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Stephen L Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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37
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Dennis JM, White NA, Liu RY, Buchwald SL. Pd-Catalyzed C-N Coupling Reactions Facilitated by Organic Bases: Mechanistic Investigation Leads to Enhanced Reactivity in the Arylation of Weakly Binding Amines. ACS Catal 2019; 9:3822-3830. [PMID: 31649828 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b00981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The ability to use soluble organic amine bases in Pd-catalyzed C-N cross-coupling reactions has provided a long-awaited solution to the many issues associated with employing traditional, heterogeneous reaction conditions. However, little is known about the precise function of these bases in the catalytic cycle and about the effect of variations in base structure on catalyst reactivity. We used 19F NMR to analyze the kinetic behavior of C-N coupling reactions facilitated by different organic bases. In the case of aniline coupling reactions employing DBU, the resting state was a DBU-bound oxidative addition complex, LPd(DBU)(Ar)X, and the reaction was found to be inhibited by base. In general, however, depending on the binding properties of the chosen organic base, increased concentration of the base can have a positive or negative influence on the reaction rate. Furthermore, the electronic nature of the aryl triflate employed in the reaction directly affects the reaction rate. The fastest reaction rates were observed with electronically neutral aryl triflates, while the slowest were observed with highly electron-rich and -deficient substrates. We propose a model in which the turnover-limiting step of the catalytic cycle depends on the relative nucleophilicity of the base compared to that of the amine. This hypothesis guided the discovery of new reaction conditions for the coupling of weakly binding amines, including secondary aryl amines, which were unreactive nucleophiles in our original protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Nicholas A. White
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Richard Y. Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Stephen L. Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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38
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Christensen M, Adedeji F, Grosser S, Zawatzky K, Ji Y, Liu J, Jurica JA, Naber JR, Hein JE. Development of an automated kinetic profiling system with online HPLC for reaction optimization. REACT CHEM ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9re00086k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Application of an automated profiling system with online HPLC uncovers an induction period in a cross-coupling and facilitates catalyst optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melodie Christensen
- Process Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
- Department of Chemistry
| | | | - Shane Grosser
- Process Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
| | | | - Yining Ji
- Process Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
| | - Jinchu Liu
- Analytical Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
| | - Jon A. Jurica
- Process Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
| | - John R. Naber
- Process Research and Development
- Merck & Co., Inc
- Rahway
- USA
| | - Jason E. Hein
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
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39
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40
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Dennis JM, White NA, Liu RY, Buchwald SL. Breaking the Base Barrier: An Electron-Deficient Palladium Catalyst Enables the Use of a Common Soluble Base in C-N Coupling. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:4721-4725. [PMID: 29529363 PMCID: PMC5894476 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b01696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Due to the low intrinsic acidity of amines, palladium-catalyzed C-N cross-coupling has been plagued continuously by the necessity to employ strong, inorganic, or insoluble bases. To surmount the many practical obstacles associated with these reagents, we utilized a commercially available dialkyl triarylmonophosphine-supported palladium catalyst that facilitates a broad range of C-N coupling reactions in the presence of weak, soluble bases. The mild and general reaction conditions show extraordinary tolerance for even highly base-sensitive functional groups. Additionally, insightful heteronuclear NMR studies using 15N-labeled amine complexes provide evidence for the key acidifying effect of the cationic palladium center.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard Y. Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Stephen L. Buchwald
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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41
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Liu M, Zhang Z, Quan Z, Wang X. The palladium‐catalyzed C‐N cross‐coupling reaction of diheteroaryl disulfides with heterocyclic amines. Appl Organomet Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.4020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ming‐Xia Liu
- Key Laboratory of Eco‐Environment‐Related Polymer MaterialsMinistry of Education of China Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringNorthwest Normal University Anning East Road 967# Lanzhou Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
| | - Zhang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Eco‐Environment‐Related Polymer MaterialsMinistry of Education of China Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringNorthwest Normal University Anning East Road 967# Lanzhou Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng‐Jun Quan
- Key Laboratory of Eco‐Environment‐Related Polymer MaterialsMinistry of Education of China Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringNorthwest Normal University Anning East Road 967# Lanzhou Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
| | - Xi‐Cun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Eco‐Environment‐Related Polymer MaterialsMinistry of Education of China Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringNorthwest Normal University Anning East Road 967# Lanzhou Gansu 730070 People's Republic of China
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42
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Yang L, Huang Z, Li G, Zhang W, Cao R, Wang C, Xiao J, Xue D. Synthesis of Phenols: Organophotoredox/Nickel Dual Catalytic Hydroxylation of Aryl Halides with Water. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201710698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Zhiyan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Gang Li
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Rui Cao
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Chao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Jianliang Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
- Department of Chemistry; University of Liverpool; Liverpool L69 7ZD UK
| | - Dong Xue
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
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43
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Yang L, Huang Z, Li G, Zhang W, Cao R, Wang C, Xiao J, Xue D. Synthesis of Phenols: Organophotoredox/Nickel Dual Catalytic Hydroxylation of Aryl Halides with Water. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:1968-1972. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201710698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Zhiyan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Gang Li
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Rui Cao
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Chao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
| | - Jianliang Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
- Department of Chemistry; University of Liverpool; Liverpool L69 7ZD UK
| | - Dong Xue
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry; Ministry of Education and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University; Xi'an 710062 China
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44
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Fier PS, Maloney KM. Synthesis of Complex Phenols Enabled by a Rationally Designed Hydroxide Surrogate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201700244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick S. Fier
- Department of Process Research and Development; Merck & Co., Inc.; Rahway NJ USA
| | - Kevin M. Maloney
- Department of Process Research and Development; Merck & Co., Inc.; Rahway NJ USA
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45
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Fier PS, Maloney KM. Synthesis of Complex Phenols Enabled by a Rationally Designed Hydroxide Surrogate. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:4478-4482. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201700244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick S. Fier
- Department of Process Research and Development; Merck & Co., Inc.; Rahway NJ USA
| | - Kevin M. Maloney
- Department of Process Research and Development; Merck & Co., Inc.; Rahway NJ USA
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46
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Cernak T, Gesmundo NJ, Dykstra K, Yu Y, Wu Z, Shi ZC, Vachal P, Sperbeck D, He S, Murphy BA, Sonatore L, Williams S, Madeira M, Verras A, Reiter M, Lee CH, Cuff J, Sherer EC, Kuethe J, Goble S, Perrotto N, Pinto S, Shen DM, Nargund R, Balkovec J, DeVita RJ, Dreher SD. Microscale High-Throughput Experimentation as an Enabling Technology in Drug Discovery: Application in the Discovery of (Piperidinyl)pyridinyl-1H-benzimidazole Diacylglycerol Acyltransferase 1 Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2017; 60:3594-3605. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Cernak
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Nathan J. Gesmundo
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Kevin Dykstra
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Yang Yu
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Zhicai Wu
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Zhi-Cai Shi
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Petr Vachal
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Donald Sperbeck
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Shuwen He
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Beth Ann Murphy
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Lisa Sonatore
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Steven Williams
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Maria Madeira
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Andreas Verras
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Maud Reiter
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Claire Heechoon Lee
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - James Cuff
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Edward C. Sherer
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Jeffrey Kuethe
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Stephen Goble
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Nicholas Perrotto
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Shirly Pinto
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Dong-Ming Shen
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Ravi Nargund
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - James Balkovec
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Robert J. DeVita
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Spencer D. Dreher
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
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47
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Kostić MD, Divac VM, Alzoubi BM, Puchta R. Aplicyanins – brominated natural marine products with superbasic character. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NATURFORSCHUNG SECTION B-A JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/znb-2016-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
By using quantum chemical methods (B3LYP/6-311+G(2df,p)//B3LYP/6-31G(d)), we investigated the structures of aplicyanin A, aplicyanin B, aplicyanin C, aplicyanin D, aplicyanin E, and aplicyanin F along with their protonated structures. The calculated gas phase proton affinities of aplicyanin A, aplicyanin C, and aplicyanin E are around –250 kcal mol−1 and therefore more than 10 kcal mol−1 higher as in typical proton sponges such as 1,8-bis(dimethylamino)naphthalene. The compounds aplicyanin B, aplicyanin D, and aplicyanin F show reduced proton affinities of approximately –240 kcal mol−1 because of the acetyl group being conjugated with the imine N=C moiety. Nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) calculations on the same level of theory do not show any peculiarities, and a reasonable correlation between the toxicity of aplicyanins and the gas phase proton affinity is not observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina D. Kostić
- Department of Chemistry , Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac , Radoja Domanovića 12, PO Box 60, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Vera M. Divac
- Department of Chemistry , Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac , Radoja Domanovića 12, PO Box 60, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
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48
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Kutchukian PS, Dropinski JF, Dykstra KD, Li B, DiRocco DA, Streckfuss EC, Campeau LC, Cernak T, Vachal P, Davies IW, Krska SW, Dreher SD. Chemistry informer libraries: a chemoinformatics enabled approach to evaluate and advance synthetic methods. Chem Sci 2016; 7:2604-2613. [PMID: 28660032 PMCID: PMC5477042 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc04751j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Major new advances in synthetic chemistry methods are typically reported using simple, non-standardized reaction substrates, and reaction failures are rarely documented. This makes the evaluation and choice of a synthetic method difficult. We report a standardized complex molecule diagnostic approach using collections of relevant drug-like molecules which we call chemistry informer libraries. With this approach, all chemistry results, successes and failures, can be documented to compare and evolve synthetic methods. To aid in the visualization of chemistry results in drug-like physicochemical space we have used an informatics methodology termed principal component analysis. We have validated this method using palladium- and copper-catalyzed reactions, including Suzuki-Miyaura, cyanation and Buchwald-Hartwig amination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Kutchukian
- Department of Structural Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Boston , MA 02115 , USA
| | - James F Dropinski
- Department of Process and Analytical Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Kevin D Dykstra
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Bing Li
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Daniel A DiRocco
- Department of Process and Analytical Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Eric C Streckfuss
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Louis-Charles Campeau
- Department of Process and Analytical Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Tim Cernak
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Petr Vachal
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Ian W Davies
- Department of Process and Analytical Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Shane W Krska
- Department of Discovery Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
| | - Spencer D Dreher
- Department of Process and Analytical Chemistry , Merck Research Laboratories , Merck and Co., Inc. , Rahway , NJ 07065 , USA .
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49
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Kaljurand I, Saame J, Rodima T, Koppel I, Koppel IA, Kögel JF, Sundermeyer J, Köhn U, Coles MP, Leito I. Experimental Basicities of Phosphazene, Guanidinophosphazene, and Proton Sponge Superbases in the Gas Phase and Solution. J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:2591-604. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.6b01552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ivari Kaljurand
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a Str, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Jaan Saame
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a Str, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Toomas Rodima
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a Str, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ivar Koppel
- Institute
of Computer Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2 Str, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ilmar A. Koppel
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a Str, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Julius F. Kögel
- Fachbereich
Chemie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Sundermeyer
- Fachbereich
Chemie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Straße, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Uwe Köhn
- Institut
für Organische Chemie und Makromolekulare Chemie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstraße 10, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Martyn P. Coles
- School
of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Ivo Leito
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a Str, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
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50
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Abstract
Transition metal hydride complexes are usually amphoteric, not only acting as hydride donors, but also as Brønsted-Lowry acids. A simple additive ligand acidity constant equation (LAC for short) allows the estimation of the acid dissociation constant Ka(LAC) of diamagnetic transition metal hydride and dihydrogen complexes. It is remarkably successful in systematizing diverse reports of over 450 reactions of acids with metal complexes and bases with metal hydrides and dihydrogen complexes, including catalytic cycles where these reactions are proposed or observed. There are links between pKa(LAC) and pKa(THF), pKa(DCM), pKa(MeCN) for neutral and cationic acids. For the groups from chromium to nickel, tables are provided that order the acidity of metal hydride and dihydrogen complexes from most acidic (pKa(LAC) -18) to least acidic (pKa(LAC) 50). Figures are constructed showing metal acids above the solvent pKa scales and organic acids below to summarize a large amount of information. Acid-base features are analyzed for catalysts from chromium to gold for ionic hydrogenations, bifunctional catalysts for hydrogen oxidation and evolution electrocatalysis, H/D exchange, olefin hydrogenation and isomerization, hydrogenation of ketones, aldehydes, imines, and carbon dioxide, hydrogenases and their model complexes, and palladium catalysts with hydride intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Morris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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