Chemo-Photothermal Combination Cancer Therapy with ROS Scavenging, Extracellular Matrix Depletion, and Tumor Immune Activation by Telmisartan and Diselenide-Paclitaxel Prodrug Loaded Nanoparticles

Regulation of cancer-associated fibroblasts for enhanced cancer immunotherapy using advanced functional nanomedicines: an updated review

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex and dynamic ecosystem that plays a critical role in cancer progression. It comprises various cell types, including immune cells, tumor cells, and stromal cells. Among these, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) represent a heterogeneous population with diverse origins, phenotypes, and functions. Activated CAFs secrete multiple factors that promote tumor growth, migration, angiogenesis, and contribute to chemoresistance. Additionally, CAFs secrete extracellular matrix (ECM) components, such as collagen, which form a physical barrier that hinders the penetration of chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic agents. This ECM also influences immune cell infiltration, impeding their ability to effectively target tumor cells. As a result, modulating the activity of CAFs has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. Nano-delivery systems, constructed from various nanomaterials with high targeting specificity and biocompatibility, offer a compelling approach to deliver therapeutic agents or immunomodulatory factors directly to CAFs. This modulation can alter CAF function, reduce their tumor-promoting effects, and thereby improve the outcomes of immunotherapy. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the origins, functions, and interactions of CAFs within the TME, particularly in the context of immune suppression. Furthermore, it discusses the potential applications of functional nanocarrifers in modulating CAFs and enhancing the effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy, highlighting the significant progress and potential of nanotechnology in this area.

Drug Delivery System Targeting Cancer-Associated Fibroblast for Improving Immunotherapy

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a heterogeneous population of non-malignant cells that play a crucial role in the tumor microenvironment, increasingly recognized as key contributors to cancer progression, metastasis, and treatment resistance. So, targeting CAFs has always been considered an important part of cancer immunotherapy. However, targeting CAFs to improve the efficacy of tumor therapy is currently a major challenge. Nanomaterials show their unique advantages in the whole process. At present, nanomaterials have achieved significant accomplishments in medical applications, particularly in the field of cancer-targeted therapy, showing enormous potential. It has been confirmed that nanomaterials can not only directly target CAFs, but also interact with the tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune cells to affect tumorigenesis. As for the cancer treatment, nanomaterials could enhance the therapeutic effect in many ways. Therefore, in this review, we first summarized the current understanding of the complex interactions between CAFs and TME, immune cells, and tumor cells. Next, we discussed common nanomaterials in modern medicine and their respective impacts on the TME, CAFs, and interactions with tumors. Finally, we focus on the application of nano drug delivery system targeting CAFs in cancer therapy.

Platinum nanoparticles in cancer therapy: chemotherapeutic enhancement and ROS generation

Platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) offer significant promise in cancer therapy by enhancing the therapeutic effects of platinum-based chemotherapies like cisplatin. These nanoparticles improve tumor targeting, reduce off-target effects, and help overcome drug resistance. PtNPs exert their anti-cancer effects primarily through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which induce oxidative stress and apoptosis in cancer cells. Additionally, PtNPs interact with cellular signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT and MAPK, sensitizing cancer cells to chemotherapy. Advances in PtNP synthesis focus on optimizing size, shape, and surface modifications to enhance biocompatibility and targeting. Functionalization with biomolecules allows selective tumor delivery, while smart release systems enable controlled drug release. In vivo studies have shown that PtNPs significantly inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. Ongoing clinical trials are evaluating their safety and efficacy. This review explores PtNPs' mechanisms of action, nanotechnology advancements, and challenges in biocompatibility, with a focus on their potential integration into cancer treatments.

Prominent Naturally Derived Oxidative-Stress-Targeting Drugs and Their Applications in Cancer Treatment

The relationship between oxidative stress and cancer has been extensively studied and highlighted, along with its role in various aspects of angiogenesis. The modulation of oxidative levels and the adaptive mechanisms of oxidative stress in cancer systems are attractive research themes for developing anti-cancer strategies. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in various pathophysiological processes and play crucial roles in DNA damage and angiogenesis. Although cancer cells have developed various adaptive defense mechanisms against oxidative stress, excessive ROS production has been proposed as an anti-cancer strategy to induce cellular apoptosis. In particular, natural-source-based antioxidants have been identified as effective against cancers, and various delivery platforms have been developed to enhance their efficacy. In this review, we highlighted the anti-cancer components (plumbagin, quercetin, resveratrol, curcumin, xanthatin, carvacrol, telmisartan, and sulforaphane) that modulate ROS levels and the recent targeting platforms used to increase the application of anti-cancer drugs and the developed delivery platforms with diverse mechanisms of action. Further, we summarized the actual doses used and the effects of these drug candidates in various cancer systems. Overall, this review provides beneficial research themes for expanding cancer-targeting fields and addressing limited applications in diverse cancer types.

Unraveling the Role of the Tumor Extracellular Matrix to Inform Nanoparticle Design for Nanomedicine

The extracellular matrix (ECM)-and its mechanobiology-regulates key cellular functions that drive tumor growth and development. Accordingly, mechanotherapy is emerging as an effective approach to treat fibrotic diseases such as cancer. Through restoring the ECM to healthy-like conditions, this treatment aims to improve tissue perfusion, facilitating the delivery of chemotherapies. In particular, the manipulation of ECM is gaining interest as a valuable strategy for developing innovative treatments based on nanoparticles (NPs). However, further progress is required; for instance, it is known that the presence of a dense ECM, which hampers the penetration of NPs, primarily impacts the efficacy of nanomedicines. Furthermore, most 2D in vitro studies fail to recapitulate the physiological deposition of matrix components. To address these issues, a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between the ECM and NPs is needed. This review focuses on the main features of the ECM and its complex interplay with NPs. Recent advances in mechanotherapy are discussed and insights are offered into how its combination with nanomedicine can help improve nanomaterials design and advance their clinical translation.

Shifting cold to hot tumors by nanoparticle-loaded drugs and products

Cold tumors lack antitumor immunity and are resistant to therapy, representing a major challenge in cancer medicine. Because of the immunosuppressive spirit of the tumor microenvironment (TME), this form of tumor has a low response to immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and also chemotherapy. Cold tumors have low infiltration of immune cells and a high expression of co-inhibitory molecules, such as immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive molecules. Therefore, targeting TME and remodeling immunity in cold tumors can improve the chance of tumor repression after therapy. However, tumor stroma prevents the infiltration of inflammatory cells and hinders the penetration of diverse molecules and drugs. Nanoparticles are an intriguing tool for the delivery of immune modulatory agents and shifting cold to hot tumors. In this review article, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the ability of nanoparticles loaded with different drugs and products to modulate TME and enhance immune cell infiltration. We also focus on newest progresses in the design and development of nanoparticle-based strategies for changing cold to hot tumors. These include the use of nanoparticles for targeted delivery of immunomodulatory agents, such as cytokines, small molecules, and checkpoint inhibitors, and for co-delivery of chemotherapy drugs and immunomodulatory agents. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of nanoparticles for enhancing the efficacy of cancer vaccines and cell therapy for overcoming resistance to treatment.

Stable triangle: nanomedicine-based synergistic application of phototherapy and immunotherapy for tumor treatment

In recent decades, cancer has posed a challenging obstacle that humans strive to overcome. While phototherapy and immunotherapy are two emerging therapies compared to traditional methods, they each have their advantages and limitations. These limitations include easy metastasis and recurrence, low response rates, and strong side effects. To address these issues, researchers have increasingly focused on combining these two therapies by utilizing a nano-drug delivery system due to its superior targeting effect and high drug loading rate, yielding remarkable results. The combination therapy demonstrates enhanced response efficiency and effectiveness, leading to a preparation that is highly targeted, responsive, and with low recurrence rates. This paper reviews several main mechanisms of anti-tumor effects observed in combination therapy based on the nano-drug delivery system over the last five years. Furthermore, the challenges and future prospects of this combination therapy are also discussed.

Combination of Losartan and Platinum Nanoparticles with Photothermal Therapy Induces Immunogenic Cell Death Effective Against Neuroblastoma

Introduction

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising therapeutic procedure with minimal side effects, which can not only kill tumor directly but also cause immunogenic cell death (ICD). However, most solid tumors, including neuroblastoma, are abundant in fibroblasts, which limit the penetration and delivery of nanoparticles. Losartan is an antihypertensive drug approved by the FDA, and it has been proved to have the effect of breaking down excessive ECM network.

Methods

In this study, we investigated the application and potential mechanism of the combination of mesoporous platinum nanoparticles (MPNs) and losartan in the PTT of neuroblastoma by establishing neuroblastoma models in vitro and in vivo.

Results

Compared to the MPNs group without 808 nm laser irradiation, Neuro-2a cells pretreated with PTT and losartan showed lower survival rates, increased surface calreticulin, and higher release of HMGB1 and ATP. The group also exhibited the highest anti-tumor efficacy in vivo, with a tumor suppression ratio of approximately 80%. Meanwhile, we found that CD3+ T cells, CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells from the peripheral blood of experimental group mice were significantly higher than control groups, and CD8+PD-1+ cells were significantly lower than those in MPNs + Los group and Los + laser group. And the expression of PD-1 and α-SMA in Neuro-2a tumors tissue was reduced. Furthermore, losartan could reduce damage of liver function caused by MPNs and laser treatment.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that losartan-induced fibroblasts ablation increased the penetration of MPNs into tumors. Enhanced penetration allowed PTT to kill more tumor cells and synergistically activate immune cells, leading to ICD, indicating the great promise of the strategy for treating neuroblastoma in vivo.

Boosting antitumor efficacy of nanoparticles by modulating tumor mechanical microenvironment

Nanoparticles have shown great potential for tumor targeting delivery via enhanced permeability and retention effect. However, the tumor mechanical microenvironment, characterized by dense extracellular matrix (ECM), high tumor stiffness and solid stress, leads to only 0.7% of administered dose accumulating in solid tumors and even fewer (∼0.0014%) reaching tumor cells, limiting the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles. Furthermore, the tumor mechanical microenvironment can regulate tumor cell stemness, promote tumor invasion, metastasis and reduce treatment efficacy. In this review, methods detecting the mechanical are introduced. Strategies for modulating the mechanical microenvironment including elimination of dense ECM by physical, chemical and biological methods, disruption of ECM formation, depletion or inhibition of cancer-associated fibroblasts, are then summarized. Finally, prospects and challenges for further clinical applications of mechano-modulating strategies to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicines are discussed. This review may provide guidance for the rational design and application of nanoparticles in clinical settings.

Selective Binding of Tannic Acid-Conjugated Lipid Nanovesicles to Proline-Rich Proteins Enhances Transdermal Lipophilic-Antioxidant Delivery

Tannic acid (TA) possesses a notable ability to adhere to proline-rich proteins that make up skin cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) in the skin tissue. Drug carriers with this specific adhesion ability exhibit improved drug delivery efficiency on the skin. Taking advantage of this, this study presents skin-adhesive TA-conjugated lipid nanovesicles (TANVs) for enhanced transdermal antioxidant delivery. We found that TANVs exhibited selective intermolecular interactions with keratinocyte proline-rich proteins (KPRPs) and collagen that makes up skin cells by hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions, further enabling the strong bonding to macroscopic skin itself and ECM. We used vitamin E (α-tocopherol), which is known to effectively reduce oxidative stress but has limited skin penetration, as a drug to verify improved in vitro delivery and therapeutic efficacy. The evaluation revealed that the antioxidant-loaded TANVs exerted excellent scavenging effects against reactive oxygen species induced by ultraviolet light or peroxides in the skin, thereby enabling the development of an active drug delivery system for dermal therapy.

Recent Progress in Anti-Tumor Nanodrugs Based on Tumor Microenvironment Redox Regulation

The growth state of tumor cells is strictly affected by the specific abnormal redox status of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Moreover, redox reactions at the biological level are also central and fundamental to essential energy metabolism reactions in tumors. Accordingly, anti-tumor nanodrugs targeting the disruption of this abnormal redox homeostasis have become one of the hot spots in the field of nanodrugs research due to the effectiveness of TME modulation and anti-tumor efficiency mediated by redox interference. This review discusses the latest research results of nanodrugs in anti-tumor therapy, which regulate the levels of oxidants or reductants in TME through a variety of therapeutic strategies, ultimately breaking the original "stable" redox state of the TME and promoting tumor cell death. With the gradual deepening of study on the redox state of TME and the vigorous development of nanomaterials, it is expected that more anti-tumor nano drugs based on tumor redox microenvironment regulation will be designed and even applied clinically.

Cancer cell response to extrinsic and intrinsic mechanical cue: opportunities for tumor apoptosis strategies

Increasing studies have revealed the importance of mechanical cues in tumor progression, invasiveness and drug resistance. During malignant transformation, changes manifest in either the mechanical properties of the tissue or the cellular ability to sense and respond to mechanical signals. The major focus of the review is the subtle correlation between mechanical cues and apoptosis in tumor cells from a mechanobiology perspective. To begin, we focus on the intracellular force, examining the mechanical properties of the cell interior, and outlining the role that the cytoskeleton and intracellular organelle-mediated intracellular forces play in tumor cell apoptosis. This article also elucidates the mechanisms by which extracellular forces guide tumor cell mechanosensing, ultimately triggering the activation of the mechanotransduction pathway and impacting tumor cell apoptosis. Finally, a comprehensive examination of the present status of the design and development of anti-cancer materials targeting mechanotransduction is presented, emphasizing the underlying design principles. Furthermore, the article underscores the need to address several unresolved inquiries to enhance our comprehension of cancer therapeutics that target mechanotransduction.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Extended-Release Delivery of Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs): A Comprehensive Review

There has been a significant shift in the perception of hypertension as an important contributor to the global disease burden. Approximately 6 % and 8 % of pregnancies are affected by hypertension, which can adversely affect the mother and the fetus. Furthermore, a hypertensive individual is at increased risk of developing kidney disease, arterial hardening, eye damage, and strokes. Using angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is widespread in treating hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and diabetic nephropathy. Despite this, some ARBs have limited use due to their poor oral bioavailability and water solubility. To tackle this, a variety of nanoparticle (NP)-based systems, such as polymeric NPs (i. e., dendrimers), polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid NPs (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), carbon-based nanocarriers, inorganic NPs, and nanocrystals, have been recently developed for efficient delivery of losartan, Valsartan (Val), Olmesartan (OLM), Telmisartan (TEL), Candesartan, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, and Azilsartan to target cells. This review article provides a literature-based comparison of the various classes of ARBs, their mechanisms of action, and an overview of the nanoformulations developed for ARB delivery and successfully applied to managing hypertension, diabetic complications, and other conditions.

MMP-responsive nanomaterials

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix and regulate essential normal cell behaviors. Inhibition of these enzymes has been a strategy for anti-cancer therapy since the 1990s, but with limited success. A new type of MMP-targeting strategy exploits the innate selective hydrolytic activity and consequent catalytic signal amplification of the proteinases, rather than inhibiting it. Using nanomaterials, the enzymatic chemical reaction can trigger the temporal and spatial activation of the anti-cancer effects, amplify the associated response, and cause mechanical damage or report on cancer cells. We analyzed nearly 60 literature studies that incorporate chemical design strategies that lead to spatial, temporal, and mechanical control of the anti-cancer effect through four modes of action: nanomaterial shrinkage, induced aggregation, formation of cytotoxic nanofibers, and activation by de-PEGylation. From the literature analysis, we derived chemical design guidelines to control and enhance MMP activation of nanomaterials of various chemical compositions (peptide, lipid, polymer, inorganic). Finally, the review includes a guide on how multiple characteristics of the nanomaterial, such as substrate modification, supramolecular structure, and electrostatic charge should be collectively considered for the targeted MMP to result in optimal kinetics of enzyme action on the nanomaterial, which allow access to amplification and additional levels of spatial, temporal, and mechanical control of the response. Although this review focuses on the design strategies of MMP-responsive nanomaterials in cancer applications, these guidelines are expected to be generalizable to systems that target MMP for treatment or detection of cancer and other diseases, as well as other enzyme-responsive nanomaterials.

A photothermal driven chemotherapy for the treatment of metastatic melanoma

Solid tumors are abnormal mass of tissue, which affects the organs based on its malignancy and leads to the dysfunction of the affected organs. The major problem associated with treatment of solid tumors is delivering anticancer therapeutics to the deepest layers/core of the solid tumor. Deposition of excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) hinders the therapeutics to travel towards the core of the tumor. Therefore, conventional anticancer therapeutics can only reduce the tumor size and that also for a limited duration, and tumor recurrence occurs once the therapy is discontinued. Additionally, by the time the cancer is diagnosed, the cancer cells already started affecting the major organs of the body such as lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and brain, due to their ability to metastasize and lung is the primary site for them to be infiltrated. To facilitate the anticancer therapeutics to penetrate the deeper layers of tumor, and to provide concurrent treatment of both the solid tumor and metastasis, we have designed and developed a Bimodal Light Assisted Skin Tumor and Metastasis Treatment (BLAST), which is a combination of photothermal and chemotherapeutic moieties. The BLAST is composed of 2D boron nitride (BN) nanosheet with adsorbed molecules of BCL-2 inhibitor, Navitoclax (NAVI) on its surface, that can breakdown excessive ECM network and thereby facilitate dissociation of the solid tumor. The developed BLAST was evaluated for its ability to penetrate solid tumors using 3D spheroids for the uptake, cytotoxicity, growth inhibition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection, penetration, and downregulation of proteins upon laser irradiation. The in vivo therapeutic studies on a skin cancer mice model revealed that the BLAST with and without laser were able to penetrate the solid tumor, reduce tumor volume in mice, dissociate the protein network, and prevent lung metastasis as confirmed by immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis. Post analysis of serum and blood components revealed the safety and efficacy of BLAST in mice. Hence, the developed BLAST holds strong promise in solid tumor treatment and metastasis prevention simultaneously.

Nanomedicine Strategies for Targeting Tumor Stroma

The tumor stroma, or the microenvironment surrounding solid tumors, can significantly impact the effectiveness of cancer therapies. The tumor microenvironment is characterized by high interstitial pressure, a consequence of leaky vasculature, and dense stroma created by excessive deposition of various macromolecules such as collagen, fibronectin, and hyaluronic acid (HA). In addition, non-cancerous cells such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and the extracellular matrix (ECM) itself can promote tumor growth. In recent years, there has been increased interest in combining standard cancer treatments with stromal-targeting strategies or stromal modulators to improve therapeutic outcomes. Furthermore, the use of nanomedicine, which can improve the delivery and retention of drugs in the tumor, has been proposed to target the stroma. This review focuses on how different stromal components contribute to tumor progression and impede chemotherapeutic delivery. Additionally, this review highlights recent advancements in nanomedicine-based stromal modulation and discusses potential future directions for developing more effective stroma-targeted cancer therapies.

Simultaneous Knockdown of Immune Suppressive Markers by Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Multifaceted Prodrug Nanomedicine

Tumors managing to exempt from immune clearance are attributable to their overexpressed immune suppressive molecules (CD47, PD-L1, etc.). Leadingly, the checkpoint blockade-based chemoimmunotherapy by means of knockdown of these immunosuppressive checkpoints, together with immunogenetic chemotherapeutics, is perceived to be a valid therapeutic strategy for improving anti-tumor outcomes. Herein, chemotherapeutic camptothecin was covalently introduced into an intriguing multifaceted nanomedicine. Note that the elaborated nanomedicine was chemically engineered to enable targeted transportation to the tumors via systemic administration, possessing intelligent responsiveness to sequential extracellular and intracellular microenvironments in the targeted tumors for prompted transcellular endocytosis owing to enzymolysis by the tumor-enriched matrix metalloproteinases and the selective liberation of cytocidal camptothecin in the cell interiors owing to thiolysis by glutathione. In addition, this chemotherapeutic nanomedicine allowed facile encapsulation of the negatively charged RNA interference payloads. Consequently, aiming for treatment of intractable triple-negative breast tumors, we attempted the small interfering RNA (siRNA) payloads aiming for CD47 and PD-L1 into the aforementioned nanomedicine. The subsequent investigations demonstrated drastic knockdown of these vital immune suppressive checkpoints by this siRNA-encapsulating chemotherapeutic nanomedicine, conducing to the reversal of the immune checkpoint suppressive microenvironment of triple-negative 4T1 tumors. Namely, the inhibited proceedings of the innate and adaptive anti-tumor immunities were revived, as supported by observation of the activated infiltration and retention of CD68⁺ macrophages and CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes into the tumors. Eventually, most potent anti-tumor efficacies were accomplished by systemic administration of this chemoimmunotherapeutic nanomedicine, which verified the amplified contribution from anti-tumor immunities by means of knockdown of the immune suppressive molecules to the ultimate anti-tumor efficacies. Note that the upregulation of the immune suppressive molecules was constantly reported in a variety of clinical therapies; hence, our facile chemoimmunotherapeutic platform should be emphasized in clinical translation for seeking improved therapeutic outcomes.

Detachable Dual-Targeting Nanoparticles for Improving the Antitumor Effect by Extracellular Matrix Depletion

In the tumor microenvironment (TME), the extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) forms a dense barrier that prevents nanodrugs from penetrating into deep tumor sites, leading to unsatisfactory therapeutic effects. Recently, it has been found that ECM depletion and using small-sized nanoparticles are effective strategies. Herein, we reported a detachable dual-targeting nanoparticle (HA-DOX@GNPs-Met@HFn) based on reducing ECM for enhancing penetration. When these nanoparticles reached the tumor site, the nanoparticles were divided into two parts in response to matrix metalloproteinase-2 overexpressed in TME, causing a decrease in the nanoparticle size from about 124 to 36 nm. One part was Met@HFn, which was detached from the surface of gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs), which effectively targeted tumor cells and released metformin (Met) under acidic conditions. Then, Met downregulated the expression of the transforming growth factor β by the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase pathway to inhibit the activity of CAFs, thereby suppressing the production of ECM including α-smooth muscle actin and collagen I. The other was the small-sized hyaluronic acid-modified doxorubicin prodrug with autonomous targeting ability, which was gradually released from GNPs and internalized into deeper tumor cells. Intracellular hyaluronidases triggered the release of doxorubicin (DOX), which killed tumor cells by inhibiting DNA synthesis. The combination of size transformation and ECM depletion enhanced the penetration and accumulation of DOX in solid tumors. Therefore, the tumor chemotherapy effect was greatly improved.

Thermosusceptible Nitric-Oxide-Releasing Nitrogel for Strengthening Antitumor Immune Responses with Tumor Collagen Diminution and Deep Tissue Delivery during NIR Laser-Assisted Photoimmunotherapy

Combined cancer immunotherapy has demonstrated promising potential with an amplified antitumor response and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) modulation. However, one of the main issues that cause treatment failure is the poor diffusion and insufficient penetration of therapeutic and immunomodulatory agents in solid tumors. Herein, a cancer treatment approach that combines photothermal therapy (PTT) and nitric oxide (NO) gas therapy for tumor extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, along with NLG919, an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor that reduces tryptophan catabolism to kynurenine, and DMXAA, a stimulator of interferon gene (STING) agonist that stimulates antigen cross-presentation, is proposed to overcome this issue. Upon NIR (808 nm) laser irradiation, NO-GEL achieved the desired thermal ablation by releasing sufficient tumor antigens through immunogenic cell death (ICD). NO delivery triggered local diffusion of excess NO gas for effectively degrading tumor collagen in the ECM, homogeneously delivered NLG919 throughout the tumor tissue, inhibited IDO expression that was upregulated by PTT, and reduced the immune suppressive activities. The sustained release of DMXAA prolonged dendritic cell maturation and CD8⁺ T cell activation against the tumor. In summary, NO-GEL therapeutics offer a significant tumor regression with PTT and STING agonist combination that stimulates a durable antitumor immune response. Additional unification of IDO inhibition during PTT supplements the immunotherapy by reducing the T cell apoptosis and immune suppressive cell infiltration to TME. NO-GEL with the STING agonist and IDO inhibitor is an effective therapeutic combination to counter possible limitations during solid tumor immunotherapy.

Efficient Tumor Eradication at Ultralow Drug Concentration via Externally Controlled and Boosted Metallic Iron Magnetoplasmonic Nanocapsules

With the aim to locally enhance the efficacy of cancer nanotherapies, here we present metal iron based magnetoplasmonic drug-loaded nanocapsules (MAPSULES), merging powerful external magnetic concentration in the tumor and efficient photothermal actuation to locally boost the drug therapeutic action at ultralow drug concentrations. The MAPSULES are composed of paclitaxel-loaded polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles partially coated by a nanodome shape iron/silica semishell. The iron semishell has been designed to present a ferromagnetic vortex for incorporating a large quantity of ferromagnetic material while maintaining high colloidal stability. The large iron semishell provides very strong magnetic manipulation via magnetophoretic forces, enabling over 10-fold higher trapping efficiency in microfluidic channels than typical superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Moreover, the iron semishell exhibits highly damped plasmonic behavior, yielding intense broadband absorbance in the near-infrared biological windows and photothermal efficiency similar to the best plasmonic nanoheaters. The in vivo therapeutic assays in a mouse xenograft tumor model show a high amplification of the therapeutic effects by combining magnetic concentration and photothermal actuation in the tumor, leading to a complete eradication of the tumors at ultralow nanoparticle and drug concentration (equivalent to only 1 mg/kg PLGA nanoparticles containing 8 μg/kg of paclitaxel, i.e., 100-500-fold lower than the therapeutic window of the free and PLGA encapsulated drug and 13-3000-fold lower than current nanotherapies combining paclitaxel and light actuation). These results highlight the strength of this externally controlled and amplified therapeutic approach, which could be applied to locally boost a wide variety of drugs for different diseases.

The progress of research on the application of redox nanomaterials in disease therapy

Redox imbalance can trigger cell dysfunction and damage and plays a vital role in the origin and progression of many diseases. Maintaining the balance between oxidants and antioxidants in vivo is a complicated and arduous task, leading to ongoing research into the construction of redox nanomaterials. Nanodrug platforms with redox characteristics can not only reduce the adverse effects of oxidative stress on tissues by removing excess oxidants from the body but also have multienzyme-like activity, which can play a cytotoxic role in tumor tissues through the catalytic oxidation of their substrates to produce harmful reactive oxygen species such as hydroxyl radicals. In this review, various redox nanomaterials currently used in disease therapy are discussed, emphasizing the treatment methods and their applications in tumors and other human tissues. Finally, the limitations of the current clinical application of redox nanomaterials are considered.

Multifunctional nanoparticle for cancer therapy

Cancer is a complex disease associated with a combination of abnormal physiological process and exhibiting dysfunctions in multiple systems. To provide effective treatment and diagnosis for cancer, current treatment strategies simultaneously focus on various tumor targets. Based on the rapid development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers have been shown to exhibit excellent potential for cancer therapy. Compared with nanoparticles with single functions, multifunctional nanoparticles are believed to be more aggressive and potent in the context of tumor targeting. However, the development of multifunctional nanoparticles is not simply an upgraded version of the original function, but involves a sophisticated system with a proper backbone, optimized modification sites, simple preparation method, and efficient function integration. Despite this, many well-designed multifunctional nanoparticles with promising therapeutic potential have emerged recently. Here, to give a detailed understanding and analyzation of the currently developed multifunctional nanoparticles, their platform structures with organic or inorganic backbones were systemically generalized. We emphasized on the functionalization and modification strategies, which provide additional functions to the nanoparticle. We also discussed the application combination strategies that were involved in the development of nanoformulations with functional crosstalk. This review thus provides an overview of the construction strategies and application advances of multifunctional nanoparticles.

Inter-Organelle Contact Sites Mediate the Intracellular Antioxidant Activity of Platinum Nanozymes: A New Perspective on Cell-Nanoparticle Interaction and Signaling

The catalytic and antioxidant properties of platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) make them promising candidates for several applications in nanomedicine. However, an open issue, still shared among most nanomaterials, is the understanding on how internalized PtNPs, which are confined within endo-lysosomal compartments, can exert their activities. To address this problem, here we study the protective effect of 5 nm PtNPs on a human hepatic (HepG2) cell line exposed to dichlorodiphenylethylene (DDE) as a model of oxidative stress. Our results indicate that PtNPs are very efficient to reduce DDE-induced damage in HepG2 cells, in an extent that depends on DDE dose. PtNPs can contrast the unbalance of mitochondrial dynamics induced by DDE and increase the expression of the SOD2 mitochondrial enzyme that recovers cells from oxidative stress. Interestingly, in cells treated with PtNPs─alone or in combination with DDE─mitochondria form contact sites with a rough endoplasmic reticulum and endo-lysosomes containing nanoparticles. These findings indicate that the protective capability of PtNPs, through their intrinsic antioxidant properties and modulating mitochondrial functionality, is mediated by an inter-organelle crosstalk. This study sheds new light about the protective action mechanisms of PtNPs and discloses a novel nano-biointeraction mechanism at the intracellular level, modulated by inter-organelle communication and signaling.

Breaking the niche: multidimensional nanotherapeutics for tumor microenvironment modulation

Most of the current antitumor therapeutics were developed targeting the cancer cells only. Unfortunately, in the majority of tumors, this single-dimensional therapy is found to be ineffective. Advanced research has shown that cancer is a multicellular disorder. The tumor microenvironment (TME), which is made by a complex network of the bulk tumor cells and other supporting cells, plays a crucial role in tumor progression. Understanding the importance of the TME in tumor growth, different treatment modalities have been developed targeting these supporting cells. Recent clinical results suggest that simultaneously targeting multiple components of the tumor ecosystem with drug combinations can be highly effective. This type of "multidimensional" therapy has a high potential for cancer treatment. However, tumor-specific delivery of such multi-drug combinations remains a challenge. Nanomedicine could be utilized for the tumor-targeted delivery of such multidimensional therapeutics. In this review, we first give a brief overview of the major components of TME. We then highlight the latest developments in nanoparticle-based combination therapies, where one drug targets cancer cells and other drug targets tumor-supporting components in the TME for a synergistic effect. We include the latest preclinical and clinical studies and discuss innovative nanoparticle-mediated targeting strategies.

Tumor extracellular matrix modulating strategies for enhanced antitumor therapy of nanomedicines

Nanomedicines have shown a promising strategy for cancer therapy because of their higher safety and efficiency relative to small-molecule drugs, while the dense extracellular matrix (ECM) in tumors often acts as a physical barrier to hamper the accumulation and diffusion of nanoparticles, thus compromising the anticancer efficacy. To address this issue, two major strategies including degrading ECM components and inhibiting ECM formation have been adopted to enhance the therapeutic efficacies of nanomedicines. In this review, we summarize the recent progresses of tumor ECM modulating strategies for enhanced antitumor therapy of nanomedicines. Through degrading ECM components or inhibiting ECM formation, the accumulation and diffusion of nanoparticles in tumors can be facilitated, leading to enhanced efficacies of chemotherapy and phototherapy. Moreover, the ECM degradation can improve the infiltration of immune cells into tumor tissues, thus achieving strong immune response to reject tumors. The adoptions of these two ECM modulating strategies to improve the efficacies of chemotherapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are discussed in detail. A conclusion, current challenges and outlook are then given.

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Extracellular matrix modulating strategies have been adopted to enhance the therapeutic efficacies of nanomedicines.

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Degrading extracellular matrix components or inhibiting extracellular matrix formation can improve the accumulation and diffusion of nanoparticles in tumors and the infiltration of immune cells into tumor tissues.

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The adoptions of two extracellular matrix modulating strategies to improve the efficacies of chemotherapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are summarized.

Insights into stimuli-responsive diselenide bonds utilized in drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Due to the complexity and particularity of cancer cell microenvironments, redox responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer therapy have been extensively explored. Compared with widely reported cancer treatment systems based on disulfide bonds, diselenide bonds have better redox properties and greater anticancer efficiency. In this review, the significance and application of diselenide bonds in DDSs are summarized, and the stimulation sensitivity of diselenide bonds is comprehensively reported. The potential and prospects for the application of diselenide bonds in next-generation anticancer drug treatment systems are extensively discussed.

Polydopamine-Coated Copper-Substituted Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Dual Cancer Therapy

Combinational therapy using chemodynamictherapy (CDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) is known to enhance the therapeutic outcome for cancer treatment. In this study, a biocompatible nano formulation was developed by coating polydopamine (PDA) over doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded copper-substituted mesoporous silica (CuMSN) nanoparticles. PDA coating not only allowed selective photothermal properties with an extended DOX release but also enhanced the water solubility and biocompatibility of the nanocomposites. The nanocomposites displayed a monodispersed shape and pH-dependent release characteristics, with an outstanding photothermal conversion and excellent tumor cell inhibition. The cellular-uptake experiments of CuMSN@DOX@PDA in A549 cells indicated that nanoparticles (NPs) aided in the enhanced DOX uptake in tumor cells compared to free DOX with synergistic anti-cancer effects. Moreover, the cell-viability studies displayed remarkable tumor inhibition in combinational therapy over monotherapy. Thus, the synthesized CuMSN@DOX@PDA NPs can serve as a promising platform for dual cancer therapy.

Enhancement of CD8+ T-Cell-Mediated Tumor Immunotherapy via Magnetic Hyperthermia

Magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) uses magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) to irradiate heat when subjected to an alternating magnetic field (AMF), which then trigger a series of biological effects to realize rapid tumor-killing effects. With the deepening in research, MHT has also shown significant potential in achieving antitumor immunity. On the other hand, immunotherapy in cancer treatment has gained increasing attention over recent years and excellent results have generally been reported. Using MHT to activate antitumor immunity and clarifying its synergistic mechanism, i. e., immunogenic cell death (ICD) and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) reversal, can achieve a synergistically enhanced therapeutic effect on primary tumors and metastatic lesions, and this can prevent cancer recurrence and metastasis, which thus prolong survival. In this review, we discussed the role of MHT when utilized alone and combining MHT with other treatments (such as radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and immune checkpoint blockers) in the process of tumor immunotherapy, including antigen release, dendritic cells (DCs) maturation, and activation of CD8⁺ cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Finally, the challenges and future development of current MHT and immunotherapy are discussed.

Influencing factors and strategies of enhancing nanoparticles into tumors in vivo

The administration of nanoparticles (NPs) first faces the challenges of evading renal filtration and clearance of reticuloendothelial system (RES). After that, NPs infiltrate through the expanded endothelial space and penetrated the dense stroma of tumor microenvironment to tumor cells. As long as possible to prolong the time of NPs remaining in tumor tissue, NPs release active agent and induce pharmacological action. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the physical and chemical properties of NPs and the influence of various biological factors in tumor microenvironment, and discusses how to improve the final efficacy through adjusting the characteristics and structure of NPs. Perspectives and future directions are also provided.

Recent advances in nanoparticles mediated photothermal therapy induced tumor regression

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a minimally invasive procedure for treating cancer. The two significant prerequisites of PTT are the photothermal therapeutic agent (PTA) and near-infrared radiation (NIR). The PTA absorbs NIR, causing hyperthermia in the malignant cells. This increased temperature at the tumor microenvironment finally results in tumor cell damage. Nanoparticles play a crucial role in PTT, aiding in the passive and active targeting of the PTA to the tumor microenvironment. Through enhanced permeation and retention effect and surface-engineering, specific targeting could be achieved. This novel delivery tool provides the advantages of changing the shape, size, and surface attributes of the carriers containing PTAs, which might facilitate tumor regression significantly. Further, inclusion of surface engineering of nanoparticles is facilitated through ligating ligands specific to overexpressed receptors on the cancer cell surface. Thus, transforming nanoparticles grants the ability to combine different treatment strategies with PTT to enhance cancer treatment. This review emphasizes properties of PTAs, conjugated biomolecules of PTAs, and the combinatorial techniques for a better therapeutic effect of PTT using the nanoparticle platform.

Recent trends in bioresponsive linker technologies of Prodrug-Based Self-Assembling nanomaterials

Prodrugs are designed to improve pharmaceutical properties of potent compounds and represent a central approach in drug development. The success of the prodrug strategy relies on incorporation of a reversible linkage facilitating controlled release of the parent drug. While prodrug approaches enhance pharmacokinetic properties over their parent drug, they still face challenges in absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, and toxicity (ADMET). Conjugating a drug to a carrier molecule such as a polymer can create an amphiphile that self-assembles into nanoparticles. These nanoparticles display prolonged blood circulation and passive targeting ability. Furthermore, the drug release can be tailored using a variety of linkers between the parent drug and the carrier molecule. In this review, we introduce the concept of self-assembling prodrugs and summarize different approaches for controlling the drug release with a focus on the linker technology. We also summarize recent clinical trials, discuss the emerging challenges, and provide our perspective on the utility and future potential of this technology.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment with amphiphilic near-infrared cyanine nanoparticles for potentiated photothermal immunotherapy

Despite the potential of photothermal therapy (PTT) for cancer treatments, PTT alone has limitations in treating metastatic tumors and preventing tumor recurrence, highlighting the need to combine PTT with immunotherapy. This study reports tumor microenvironment (TME)-targeting, near-infrared (NIR) dye derivative-based nanomedicine for effective combined PTT-immunotherapy. Amphiphilic NIR dye cyanine derivatives are used not only for constructing the nanoparticle mass, but also for creating a stable complex with CpG adjuvant; a peptide specific to fibronectin extra domain B (APT_EDB) is also introduced as a TME-targeting ligand, yielding the TME-targeting nanomedicine, APT_EDB-cyNP@CpG. APT_EDB-cyNP@CpG shows cancer-targeting ability in EDB-overexpressing CT26 colon tumor-bearing mice. When combined with laser irradiation, it induces immunogenic cell death (ICD) and subsequently leads to significant increase in CD8⁺ T cell population in the tumor, resulting in greater antitumor therapeutic efficacy than does cyNP@CpG lacking the TME-targeting ligand. Moreover, the combination of APT_EDB-cyNP@CpG-based PTT and an immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) antibody leads to remarkable antitumor efficacy against the laser-irradiated primary tumor as well as distant tumor through potentiation of systemic cancer cell-specific T cell immunity. Furthermore, the PTT-immunotherapy combination regimen is highly effective in inhibiting tumor recurrence and metastasis.

Recent advances in prodrug-based nanoparticle therapeutics

Extensive research into prodrug modification of active pharmaceutical ingredients and nanoparticle drug delivery systems has led to unprecedented levels of control over the pharmacological properties of drugs and resulted in the approval of many prodrug or nanoparticle-based therapies. In recent years, the combination of these two strategies into prodrug-based nanoparticle drug delivery systems (PNDDS) has been explored as a way to further advance nanomedicine and identify novel therapies for difficult-to-treat indications. Many of the PNDDS currently in the clinical development pipeline are expected to enter the market in the coming years, making the rapidly evolving field of PNDDS highly relevant to pharmaceutical scientists. This review paper is intended to introduce PNDDS to the novice reader while also updating those working in the field with a comprehensive summary of recent efforts. To that end, first, an overview of FDA-approved prodrugs is provided to familiarize the reader with their advantages over traditional small molecule drugs and to describe the chemistries that can be used to create them. Because this article is part of a themed issue on nanoparticles, only a brief introduction to nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems is provided summarizing their successful application and unfulfilled opportunities. Finally, the review's centerpiece is a detailed discussion of rationally designed PNDDS formulations in development that successfully leverage the strengths of prodrug and nanoparticle approaches to yield highly effective therapeutic options for the treatment of many diseases.

Nanomedicine-based tumor photothermal therapy synergized immunotherapy

The emerging anti-tumor immunotherapy has made significant progress in clinical application. However, single immunotherapy is not effective for all anti-tumor treatments, owing to the low objective response rate and the risk of immune-related side effects. Meanwhile, photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted significant attention because of its non-invasiveness, spatiotemporal controllability and small side effects. Combining PTT with immunotherapy overcomes the issue that single photothermal therapy cannot eradicate tumors with metastasis and recurrence. However, it improves the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy, as the photothermal therapy usually promotes release of tumor-related antigens, triggers immune response by the immunogenic cell death (ICD), thereby, endowing unique synergistic mechanisms for cancer therapy. This review summarizes recent research advances in utilizing nanomedicines for PTT in combination with immunotherapy to improve the outcome of cancer treatment. The strategies include immunogenic cell death, immune agonists and cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint blockades and tumor specific monoclonal antibodies, and small-molecule immune inhibitors. The combination of synergized PTT-immunotherapy with other therapeutic strategies is also discussed.

Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-Assisted Therapeutics Delivery Systems

Nanotechnologies have attracted increasing attention in their application in medicine, especially in the development of new drug delivery systems. With the help of nano-sized carriers, drugs can reach specific diseased areas, prolonging therapeutic efficacy while decreasing undesired side-effects. In addition, recent nanotechnological advances, such as surface stabilization and stimuli-responsive functionalization have also significantly improved the targeting capacity and therapeutic efficacy of the nanocarrier assisted drug delivery system. In this review, we evaluate recent advances in the development of different nanocarriers and their applications in therapeutics delivery.