Supramolecular Insights into Domino Effects of Ag@ZnO-Induced Oxidative Stress in Melanoma Cancer Cells

Organelle-oriented nanomedicines in tumor therapy: Targeting, escaping, or collaborating?

Precise tumor therapy is essential for improving treatment specificity, enhancing efficacy, and minimizing side effects. Targeting organelles is a key strategy for achieving this goal and is a frontier research area attracting a considerable amount of attention. The concept of organelle targeting has a significant effect on the structural design of the nanodrugs employed. Most notably, the intricate interactions among different organelles in a tumor cell essentially create a unified system. Unfortunately, this aspect might have been somewhat overlooked when existing organelle-targeting nanodrugs were designed. In this review, we underscore the synergistic relationship among the various organelles and advocate for a holistic view of organelle-targeting design. Through the integration of biology and material science, recent advancements in organelle targeting, escaping, and collaborating are consolidated to offer fresh perspectives for the development of antitumor nanomedicines.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Modern Science and Technology: Multifunctional Roles in Healthcare, Environmental Remediation, and Industry

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have garnered significant attention across various scientific and technological domains due to their unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area, photostability, biocompatibility, and potent antimicrobial activity. These attributes make ZnO NPs highly versatile, enabling their application in biomedicine, environmental science, industry, and agriculture. They serve as effective antimicrobial agents in medical treatments and as catalysts in environmental purification processes, owing to their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and exhibit photocatalytic activity under UV light. Moreover, ZnO NPs are being increasingly employed in advanced drug delivery systems and cancer therapies, highlighting their potential in modern medicine. Their growing popularity is further supported by their ease of synthesis, cost-effectiveness, and capacity for diverse functionalization, which expand their utility across multiple sectors. This review focuses on research from the past five years (2020-2025) on the practical uses of ZnO nanoparticles in the biomedical, environmental, industrial, and agricultural fields. It also highlights current trends, existing challenges, and future perspectives. By examining these aspects, the article provides a comprehensive understanding of the versatile roles of ZnO NPs and their emerging significance in science and technology.

Nanomaterial-Based Autophagy Modulation: Multiple Weapons to Inflame Immune Systems and the Tumor Microenvironment

Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, is a sensitive indicator of environmental shifts and is crucial for the clearance of cellular debris, the remodeling of cellular architecture, and the facilitation of cell growth and development. The interplay between stromal, tumor, and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment is intricately linked to autophagy. Therefore, the modulation of autophagy in these cell types is essential for developing effective cancer treatment strategies. This review describes the design and optimization of nanomaterials that modulate autophagy in tumor-associated and immune cells. This review elucidates the primary mechanisms by which nanomaterials induce autophagy and discusses their application in cancer therapy, underscoring the potential of these materials to eradicate cancer cells, bolster the immune response, and elicit robust, enduring antitumor immunity, thereby advancing the frontiers of oncological treatment.

Design of nanosystems for melanoma treatment

Melanoma is a prevalent and concerning form of skin cancer affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Unfortunately, traditional treatments can be invasive and painful, prompting the need for alternative therapies with improved efficacy and patient outcomes. Nanosystems offer a promising solution to these obstacles through the rational design of nanoparticles (NPs) which are structured into nanocomposite forms, offering efficient approaches to cancer treatment procedures. A range of NPs consisting of polymeric, metallic and metal oxide, carbon-based, and virus-like NPs have been studied for their potential in treating skin cancer. This review summarizes the latest developments in functional nanosystems aimed at enhancing melanoma treatment. The fundamentals of these nanosystems, including NPs and the creation of various functional nanosystem types, facilitating melanoma treatment are introduced. Then, the advances in the applications of functional nanosystems for melanoma treatment are summarized, outlining both their benefits and the challenges encountered in implementing nanosystem therapies.

Autophagy as a targeted therapeutic approach for skin cancer: Evaluating natural and synthetic molecular interventions

Skin cancer, a prevalent malignancy worldwide, poses significant health concerns owing to its increasing incidence. Autophagy, a natural cellular process, is a pivotal event in skin cancer and has advantageous and detrimental effects. This duality has prompted extensive investigations into medical interventions targeting autophagy modulation for their substantial therapeutic potential. This systematic review aimed to investigate the relationship between skin cancer and autophagy and the contribution and mechanism of autophagy modulators in skin cancer. We outlined the effectiveness and safety of targeting autophagy as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of skin cancer. This comprehensive review identified a diverse array of autophagy modulators with promising potential for the treatment of skin cancer. Each of these compounds demonstrates efficacy through distinct physiological mechanisms that have been elucidated in detail. Interestingly, findings from a literature search indicated that none of the natural, synthetic, or semisynthetic compounds exhibited notable adverse effects in either human or animal models. Consequently, this review offers novel mechanistic and therapeutic perspectives on the targeted modulation of autophagy in skin cancer.

A structure-guided strategy to design Golgi apparatus-targeted type-I/II aggregation-induced emission photosensitizers for efficient photodynamic therapy

The Golgi apparatus (GA) is a vital target for anticancer therapy due to its sensitivity against reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced oxidative stress that could lead to cell death. In this study, we designed a series of aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-based photosensitizers (TPAPyTZ, TPAPyTC, TPAPyTM, and TPAPyTI) carrying different ROS with selective GA-targeted ability. The in vitro study showed that TPAPyTZ and TPAPyTC displayed strong AIE characteristics, robust type-I/II ROS production capabilities, specific GA-targeted, high photostability, and high imaging quality. The cell-uptake of TPAPyTZ was found primarily through an energy-dependent caveolae/raft-mediated endocytosis pathway. Remarkably, TPAPyTZ induced GA-oxidative stress, leading to GA fragmentation, downregulation of GM130 expression, and activation of mitochondria caspase-related apoptosis during photodynamic therapy (PDT). In vivo experiments revealed that TPAPyTZ significantly inhibited tumor proliferation under lower-intensity white light irradiation with minimal side effects. Overall, our work presents a promising strategy for designing AIEgens for fluorescence imaging-guided PDT. Additionally, it enriched the collection of GA-targeted leads for the development of cancer theranostics capable of visualizing dynamic changes in the GA during cancer cell apoptosis, which could potentially enable early diagnosis applications in the future. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: AIE luminogens (AIEgens) are potent phototheranostic agents that can exhibit strong fluorescence emission and enhance ROS production in the aggregate states. In this study, through the precise design of photosensitizers with four different electron-acceptors, we constructed a series of potent AIEgens (TPAPyTZ, TPAPyTC, TPAPyTM, and TPAPyTI) with strong fluorescence intensity and ROS generation capacity. Among them, TPAPyTZ with an extended π-conjugation displayed the strongest ROS generation ability and anti-tumor activity, resulting in an 88 % reduction in tumor weight. Our studies revealed that the enhanced activity of TPAPyTZ may be due to its unique Golgi apparatus (GA)-targeted ability, which causes GA oxidative stress followed by effective cancer cell apoptosis. This unique GA-targeted feature of TPAPyTZ remains rare in the reported AIEgens, which mainly target organelles such as lysosome, mitochondria, and cell membrane. The successful design of a GA-targeted and potent AIEgen could enrich the collection of GA-targeted luminogens, providing a lead theranostic for the further development of fluorescence imaging-guided PDT, and serving as a tool to explore the potential mechanism and discover new GA-specific drug targets.

Carbon dots as a novel photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy of cancer and bacterial infectious diseases: recent advances

Carbon dots (CDs) are novel carbon-based nanomaterials that have been used as photosensitizer-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) in recent years due to their good photosensitizing activity. Photosensitizers (PSs) are main components of PDT that can produce large amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) when stimulated by light source, which have the advantages of low drug resistance and high therapeutic efficiency. CDs can generate ROS efficiently under irradiation and therefore have been extensively studied in disease local phototherapy. In tumor therapy, CDs can be used as PSs or PS carriers to participate in PDT and play an extremely important role. In bacterial infectious diseases, CDs exhibit high bactericidal activity as CDs are effective in disrupting bacterial cell membranes leading to bacterial death upon photoactivation. We focus on recent advances in the therapy of cancer and bacteria with CDs, and also briefly summarize the mechanisms and requirements for PSs in PDT of cancer, bacteria and other diseases. We also discuss the role CDs play in combination therapy and the potential for future applications against other pathogens.

Immunotoxicity of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles: from toxic mechanisms to metabolism and outcomes

The influence of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials on various fields since their discovery has been remarkable. They have unique properties, and therefore, have been employed in specific applications, including biomedicine. However, their potential health risks cannot be ignored. Several studies have shown that exposure to metal and metal oxide nanoparticles can lead to immunotoxicity. Different types of metals and metal oxide nanoparticles may have a negative impact on the immune system through various mechanisms, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis. As an essential factor in determining the function and fate of immune cells, immunometabolism may also be an essential target for these nanoparticles to exert immunotoxic effects in vivo. In addition, the biodegradation and metabolic outcomes of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are also important considerations in assessing their immunotoxic effects. Herein, we focus on the cellular mechanism of the immunotoxic effects and toxic effects of different types of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, as well as the metabolism and outcomes of these nanoparticles in vivo. Also, we discuss the relationship between the possible regulatory effect of nanoparticles on immunometabolism and their immunotoxic effects. Finally, we present perspectives on the future research and development direction of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials to promote scientific research on the health risks of nanomaterials and reduce their adverse effects on human health.

Tumor acidic environment directs nanoparticle impacts on cancer cells

Despite impressive progress in nanotechnology-based cancer therapy being made by in vitro research, few nanoparticles (NPs) have been translated into clinical trials. The wide gap between in vitro results and nanomedicine's clinical translation might be partly due to acidic microenvironment of cancer cells being ignored in in vitro studies. To check this hypothesis, we studied the biological impacts of two different structures of NPs on cancer cells (MDA-MB 231) at acidic (pH: 6.5) low (pH: 7) and physiological pH (pH: 7.4). We uncovered that a slight change in the pH of the cancer cell microenvironment affects the cellular uptake efficacy and toxicity mechanism of nanographene sheets and SPION@silica nanospheres. Both nanostructures exerted more substantial toxic impacts (e. g. apoptosis, necrosis, membrane disruption, and oxidative stress induction) against cancer cells at physiological pH compared to acidic niche. They also differently slowed or arrested phases of the cell cycle at different pH (S and G2/M at normal pH while G0/G1 at acidic/low pH). More specifically, cancer cells expressed higher levels of interleukins involved in cancer cell resistance at acidic pH than those incubated at physiological pH. This study revealed that a slight change in extracellular pH of cancer cells could strongly affect the therapeutic/toxic impact of nanomaterials and therefore, it should be considered in the future cancer nanomedicine research.

Carbon dots nanophotosensitizers with tunable reactive oxygen species generation for mitochondrion-targeted type I/II photodynamic therapy

Carbon dots (CDs) have emerged as promising nanomaterials for bioimaging-guided photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, designing red-emissive CDs (RCDs) with tunable type I and type II reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation to simultaneously meet PDT applications in aerobic and hypoxic scenarios still remain major challenges. Herein, three types of RCDs with maximum emission at approximately 680 nm are successfully prepared. It is noteworthy that they exhibit the adjustable ROS production with equal superoxide anion (via type I PDT) and incremental singlet oxygen (via type II PDT). Detailed structural and optical characterizations along with theoretical calculation reveal that the unique type I/II ROS formation mainly depends on the core sizes and surface states of RCDs, which determine their identical redox potentials and tapering energy gaps between singlet- and triplet states, respectively. Additionally, due to the inherent mitochondria targeting capability, RCDs enable themselves to induce cell programmed death via activating mitochondrion-mediated apoptotic pathways. This work exploits the unprecedented RCDs with tunable type I and type II ROS generation that could ensure highly efficient tumor eradication both in vitro and in vivo, even under the harsh tumor microenvironment, providing a new prospect for CDs as nanophotosensitizers to conquer the limitations of single type PDT.

Advancements in nanoparticle-based treatment approaches for skin cancer therapy

Skin cancer has emerged as the fifth most commonly reported cancer in the world, causing a burden on global health and the economy. The enormously rising environmental changes, industrialization, and genetic modification have further exacerbated skin cancer statistics. Current treatment modalities such as surgery, radiotherapy, conventional chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are facing several issues related to cost, toxicity, and bioavailability thereby leading to declined anti-skin cancer therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance. In the context of overcoming this limitation, several nanotechnological advancements have been witnessed so far. Among various nanomaterials, nanoparticles have endowed exorbitant advantages by acting as both therapeutic agents and drug carriers for the remarkable treatment of skin cancer. The small size and large surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles escalate the skin tumor uptake through their leaky vasculature resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this context, the present review provides up to date information about different types and pathology of skin cancer, followed by their current treatment modalities and associated drawbacks. Furthermore, it meticulously discusses the role of numerous inorganic, polymer, and lipid-based nanoparticles in skin cancer therapy with subsequent descriptions of their patents and clinical trials.

Phototoxic Effect of UVA-Responsive Fe3O4@ZnO Nanoparticles on Squamous Skin Cell

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a resource-rich metal oxide with a certain degree of phototoxicity toward cancer cells using ultraviolet light radiation. Therefore, it is a promising photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy against cancer. The current study synthesized core-shell structure nanoparticles using Fe3O4 as the core and ZnO as the shell. The core–shell nanoparticles were spherical-like and superparamagnetic, with a zeta potential of −22.7±7.6 mV. ZnO-coated ferroferric oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4@ZnO NPs) under ultraviolet A (UVA) irradiation could induce a lot more reactive oxygen species in the squamous skin cells causing the evident inhibitory effect. In contrast, they indicated no toxicity to skin squamous cells without UVA radiation. Therefore, it can be inferred that their great potential as the targeting photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy on skin squamous cell carcinoma is due to their good biocompatibility without UVA radiation and excellent toxicity under UVA radiation on skin squamous cells.

Role of ROS‑mediated autophagy in melanoma (Review)

Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer with the poorest prognosis and its pathogenesis has yet to be fully elucidated. As key factors that regulate cellular homeostasis, both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagy are involved in the development of melanoma, from melanomagenesis to progression and drug resistance. However, the interaction between ROS and autophagy in the etiology and treatment of melanoma is not well characterized. The present review examined the production of ROS and the role of oxidative stress in melanoma, and summarized the role of ROS‑mediated autophagy in melanomagenesis and melanoma cell fate decision following treatment with various anticancer drugs. The present findings may lead to a better understanding of the pathogenesis and progression of melanoma, and suggest promising treatment options for this disease.

Chondroitin sulfate-based prodrug nanoparticles enhance photodynamic immunotherapy via Golgi apparatus targeting

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an emerging therapeutic approach that can inhibit tumor growth by destroying local tumors and activating systemic antitumor immune responses. However, PDT can be ineffective because of photosensitizer aggregation, tumor-induced dendritic cells (DC_S) dysfunction and PDT-mediated immunosuppression. Therefore, we designed chondroitin sulfate-based prodrug nanoparticles for the co-delivery of the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) and retinoic acid (RA), which can reduce PDT-mediated immunosuppression by disrupting the Golgi apparatus and blocking the production of immunosuppressive cytokines. Moreover, CpG oligodeoxynucleotide was combined as immunoadjuvant to promote the maturation of DCs. As expected, the strategy of Golgi apparatus targeting immunotherapy combined PDT was confirmed to relieve PDT-induced immunosuppression, showed excellent PDT antitumor efficacy in B16F10-subcutaneous bearing mice model. Thus, our finding offers a promising approach for photodynamic immunotherapy of advanced cancers. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Golgi apparatus has been shown to be a potential target of immunosuppression for producing several immunosuppressive cytokines. In this work, a Golgi apparatus-targeted prodrug nanoparticle was developed to enhance the immune response in photodynamic immunotherapy. The nanoparticle can target and disrupt the Golgi apparatus in tumor cells, which reduced PDT-mediated immunosuppression by blocking the production of immunosuppressive cytokines. This work provides an effective strategy of PDT in combination with the Golgi apparatus-targeted nanovesicle for enhanced cancer therapy.

Golgi apparatus-targeted aggregation-induced emission luminogens for effective cancer photodynamic therapy

Golgi apparatus (GA) oxidative stress induced by in situ reactive oxygen species (ROS) could severely damage the morphology and function of GA, which may open up an avenue for effective photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, due to the lack of effective design strategy, photosensitizers (PSs) with specific GA targeting ability are in high demand and yet quite challenging. Herein, we report an aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) based PS (TPE-PyT-CPS) that can effectively target the GA via caveolin/raft mediated endocytosis with a Pearson correlation coefficient up to 0.98. Additionally, the introduction of pyrene into TPE-PyT-CPS can reduce the energy gap between the lowest singlet state (S₁) and the lowest triplet state (T₁) (ΔE_ST) and exhibits enhanced singlet oxygen generation capability. GA fragmentation and cleavage of GA proteins (p115/GM130) are observed upon light irradiation. Meanwhile, the apoptotic pathway is activated through a crosstalk between GA oxidative stress and mitochondria in HeLa cells. More importantly, GA targeting TPE-T-CPS show better PDT effect than its non-GA-targeting counterpart TPE-PyT-PS, even though they possess very close ROS generation rate. This work provides a strategy for the development of PSs with specific GA targeting ability, which is of great importance for precise and effective PDT.

Aggregation induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) based photosensitizers (PSs) have been developed for photodynamic cancer therapy. Here the authors report a series of AIEgen-based PSs that selectively target the Golgi apparatus, showing enhanced singlet oxygen generation and photodynamic therapy performance in cancer models.

Photodynamic therapy-mediated extirpation of cutaneous resistant dermatophytosis with Ag@ZnO nanoparticles: an efficient therapeutic approach for onychomycosis

Aim: The aim of this study was to determine whether photodynamic therapy of resistant onychomycosis with Ag@ZnO nanoparticles can promote the treatment procedure and extirpates the recurrence of fungal infection. Methods: Ag@ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) under UVB-radiation were applied to treat T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes in vitro through photodynamic therapy. In vivo therapeutic efficacy, biocompatibility and biodistribution of Ag@ZnO NPs were studied. Results: 40 μg/ml of UVB-activated Ag@ZnO NPs showed 100% antifungal activity against dermatophytosis in vitro and in vivo followed by complete growth prevention by degeneration of spores and mycelium after 180 days, while posed biocompatibility. Conclusion: This study showed the superiority of photodynamic therapy with Ag@ZnO NPs followed by proper regeneration of the skin with Zinc ion of the shell.

Mechanisms of immune response to inorganic nanoparticles and their degradation products

Careful assessment of the biological fate and immune response of inorganic nanoparticles is crucial for use of such carriers in drug delivery and other biomedical applications. Many studies have elucidated the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the interaction of inorganic nanoparticles with the components of the immune system. The biodegradation and dissolution of inorganic nanoparticles can influence their ensuing immune response. While the immunological properties of inorganic nanoparticles as a function of their physicochemical properties have been investigated in detail, little attention has been paid to the immune adverse effects towards the degradation products of these nanoparticles. To fill this gap, we herein summarize the cellular mechanisms of immune response to inorganic nanoparticles and their degradation products with specific focus on immune cells. We also accentuate the importance of designing new methods and instruments for the in situ characterization of inorganic nanoparticles in order to assess their safety as a result of degradation. This review further sheds light on factors that need to be considered in the design of safe and effective inorganic nanoparticles for use in delivery of bioactive and imaging agents.

Oxidative Stress and Autophagy as Key Targets in Melanoma Cell Fate

Melanoma originates from the malignant transformation of melanocytes and is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer. The recent approval of several drugs has increased the chance of survival although a significant subset of patients with metastatic melanoma do not show a long-lasting response to these treatments. The complex cross-talk between oxidative stress and the catabolic process autophagy seems to play a central role in all aspects of melanoma pathophysiology, from initiation to progression and metastasis, including drug resistance. However, determining the fine role of autophagy in cancer death and in response to redox disruption is still a fundamental challenge in order to advance both basic and translational aspects of this field. In order to summarize the interactions among reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, autophagy machinery and proliferation/growth/death/apoptosis/survival, we provide here a narrative review of the preclinical evidence for drugs/treatments that modulate oxidative stress and autophagy in melanoma cells. The significance and the potential for pharmacological targeting (also through multiple and combination approaches) of these two different events, which can contribute independently or simultaneously to the fate of melanoma, may help to define new processes and their interconnections underlying skin cancer biology and unravel new reliable approaches.

ZnO nanoparticles stimulate oxidative stress to induce apoptosis of B16F10 melanoma cells:In vitroandin vivostudies

Melanoma is one of the most aggressive skin cancers. However, there remain many limitations in the current clinical treatments of it. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have been considered to be a promising antitumor drug due to their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and biofunctionality. In this study, we prepared spherical ZnO NPs with an average diameter of less than 10 nm by a simple chemical method. According to thein vitrocytotoxicity assay, ZnO NPs in a certain concentration range (20-35μg ml^-1) showed significant cytotoxicity to B16F10 melanoma cells, while having little effect on the viability of 3T3L1 fibroblasts. When cultured with B16F10 melanoma cells, ZnO NPs induced the generation of reactive oxygen and mitochondrial superoxide through the release of Zn²⁺, leading to oxidative stress in the cells, further reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential and decreasing the number of mitochondrial cristae. Furthermore, damaged mitochondria induced the release of apoptosis factors to promote cell apoptosis. FITC-Annexin V/propidium iodide double staining assay was used to analyze different apoptosis stages of B16F10 cells induced by ZnO NPs. A polymer hydrogel (Gel-F127-ZnO NPs) with Pluronic F127 as the carrier of ZnO NPs was fabricated for evaluating the antitumor effect of ZnO NPsin vivo. Thein vivoexperiment indicated that the tumor recurrence was significantly inhibited in tumor-bearing mice after treated with Gel-F127-ZnO NPs. Conclusively, ZnO NPs showed a strong antitumor effect bothin vitroandin vivo.

Type I Photosensitizers Revitalizing Photodynamic Oncotherapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has shown great potential for tumor treatment with merits of non-invasiveness, high selectivity, and minimal side effects. However, conventional type II PDT relying on ¹ O₂ presents poor therapeutic efficacy for hypoxic tumors due to the oxygen-dependent manner. Alternatively, emerging researches have demonstrated that type I PDT exhibits superiority over type II PDT in tumor treatment owing to its diminished oxygen-dependence. In this review, state-of-the-art studies concerning recent progress in type I photosensitizers are scrutinized, emphasizing the strategies to construct highly effective type I photosensitizers. As the foundation, basic principles of type I PDT are presented, and up-to-date type I photosensitizers are summarized and classified based on their attributes. Then, a literature review of representative type I photosensitizers (including nanomaterials and small molecules) is presented with impetus to delineate their novel designs, action mechanisms, as well as anticancer PDT applications. Finally, the remaining challenges and development directions of type I photosensitizers are outlined, highlighting key scientific issues toward clinical translations.

In situ High-Throughput Single-Cell Analysis Reveals the Crosstalk between Nanoparticle-Induced Cell Responses

Nanomaterials are widely used in a variety of industrial, biological, and medical applications. Therefore, high concerns about their possible impact on human and environmental health have been raised. Here, we describe a high-throughput single-cell imaging method to reveal the crosstalk among quantum dot (QDot)-induced ROS generation, apoptosis, and changes in nucleus size in macrophages. In triple marker combinations, we assessed the correlations of three QDot-induced cellular responses via divided subsets based on single-cell analysis. In contrast to the results obtained from the cell population, we demonstrated that the change in nucleus size was positively correlated with ROS generation. We found that QDot exposure induced ROS generation, which led to cell apoptosis, followed by a change in nucleus size. In general, these observations on crosstalk of cellular responses provide detailed insights into the heterogeneity of nanoparticle exposure.

Green Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Porphyrin/G-Quadruplex-Based Near-Infrared Nanocomposite Photosensitizer with High Biocompatibility and Bioavailability

A simple and green layer-by-layer assembly strategy is developed for the preparation of a highly bioavailable nanocomposite photosensitizer by assembling near-infrared (NIR) light-sensitive porphyrin/G-quadruplex complexes on the surface of a highly biocompatible nanoparticle that is prepared via Zn²⁺-assisted coordination self-assembly of an amphiphilic amino acid. After being efficiently delivered to the target site and internalized into tumor cells via enhanced permeability and retention effect and interactions between aptamers and tumor markers, the as-prepared nanoassembly can be directly used as an NIR light-responsive photosensitizer for tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT) since the porphyrin/G-quadruplex complexes are exposed on the nanoassembly surface and kept in an active state. It can also disassemble under the synergistic stimuli of an acidic pH environment and overexpressed glutathione, leasing more efficient porphyrin/G-quadruplex composite photosensitizers while reducing the interference caused by glutathione-dependent ¹O₂ consumption. Since the nanoassembly can work no matter if it is disassembled or not, the compulsory requirement for in vivo photosensitizer release is eliminated, thus resulting in the great improvement of the bioavailability of the photosensitizer. The PDT applications of the nanoassembly were well demonstrated in both in vitro cell and in vivo animal experiments.

MnO2-Based nanosystems for cancer therapy

Recent achievements of MnO₂-based nanosystems for various cancer therapies are comprehensively reviewed.