Evanescent Light-Scattering Microscopy for Label-Free Interfacial Imaging: From Single Sub-100 nm Vesicles to Live Cells

Label-Free Impedance Imaging of Single Extracellular Vesicles Using Interferometric Electrochemical Microscopy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are pivotal in various biological processes and diseases, yet their small size and heterogeneity pose challenges for single EV quantification. We introduce interferometric electrochemical microscopy (iECM), a sensitive label-free technique that combines interferometric scattering and electrochemical impedance imaging. This method enables the quantification of the impedance of single EVs, providing unique insights into their electrochemical properties, and allows for the simultaneous measurement of size and real-time monitoring of antibody binding. Notably, we discovered that the impedance spectra of EVs can serve as specific fingerprints to differentiate EVs from cancerous and healthy cells, establishing iECM as a unique platform for EV characterization and classification.

Label-Free Optical Imaging of Nanoscale Single Entities

The advancement of optical microscopy technologies has achieved imaging of nanoscale objects, including nanomaterials, virions, organelles, and biological molecules, at the single entity level. Recently developed plasmonic and scattering based optical microscopy technologies have enabled label-free imaging of single entities with high spatial and temporal resolutions. These label-free methods eliminate the complexity of sample labeling and minimize the perturbation of the analyte native state. Additionally, these imaging-based methods can noninvasively probe the dynamics and functions of single entities with sufficient throughput for heterogeneity analysis. This perspective will review label-free single entity imaging technologies and discuss their principles, applications, and key challenges.

Label-free analysis of membrane protein binding kinetics and cell adhesions using evanescent scattering microscopy

Measuring ligand interactions with membrane proteins in single live cells is critical for understanding many cellular processes and screening drugs. However, developing such a capability has been a difficult challenge. Here, we employ evanescent scattering microscopy (ESM) to show that ligand binding to membrane proteins can change the cell adhesion properties, which are intrinsic cell properties and independent of random cell micromotions and ligand mass, thus allowing the kinetics analyses of both proteins and small molecules binding to membrane proteins in both single fixed and live cells. In addition, utilizing the high spatiotemporal resolution of ESM, the positions of cell adhesion sites can be tracked in real-time to analyze the cell deformations and migrations, thus providing a potential approach for understanding the cell activity during the ligand binding process in detail. The presented method may pave the road for developing a versatile and easy-to-use label-free detection strategy for in situ analysis of molecular interaction dynamics in living biosystems with single-cell resolution.

Label-free quantification of protein binding to lipid vesicles using transparent waveguide evanescent-field scattering microscopy with liquid control

Recent innovations in microscopy techniques are paving the way for label-free studies of single nanoscopic biological entities such as viruses, lipid-nanoparticle drug carriers, and even proteins. One such technique is waveguide evanescent-field microscopy, which offers a relatively simple, yet sensitive, way of achieving label-free light scattering-based imaging of nanoparticles on surfaces. Herein, we extend the application of this technique by incorporating microfluidic liquid control and adapting the design for use with inverted microscopes by fabricating a waveguide on a transparent substrate. We furthermore formulate analytical models describing scattering and fluorescence intensities from single spherical and shell-like objects interacting with evanescent fields. The models are then applied to analyze scattering and fluorescence intensities from adsorbed polystyrene beads and to temporally resolve cholera-toxin B (CTB) binding to individual surface-immobilized glycosphingolipid GM1 containing vesicles. We also propose a self-consistent means to quantify the thickness of the CTB layer, revealing that protein-binding to individual vesicles can be characterized with sub-nm precision in a time-resolved manner.

Effects of Cascading Optical Processes: Part II: Impacts on Experimental Quantification of Sample Absorption and Scattering Properties

In Part I of the three companion articles, we reported the effects of light scattering on experimental quantification of scattering extinction, intensity, and depolarization in solutions that contain only scatterers with no significant absorption and photoluminescence activities. The present work (Part II) studies the effects of light scattering and absorption on a series of optical spectroscopic measurements done on samples that contain both absorbers and scatterers, but not emitters. The experimental UV-vis spectrum is the sum of the sample absorption and scattering extinction spectra. However, the upper limit of the experimental Beer's-law-abiding extinction can be limited prematurely by the interference of forward scattered light. Light absorption reduces not only the sample scattering intensity but also the scattering depolarization. The impact of scattering on sample light absorption is complicated, depending on whether the absorption of scattered light is taken into consideration. Scattering reduces light absorption along the optical path length from the excitation source to the UV-vis detector. However, the absorption of the scattered light can be adequate to compensate the reduced light absorption along such optical path, making the impacts of light scattering on the sample total light absorption negligibly small (<10%). The latter finding constitutes a critical validation of the integrating-sphere-assisted resonance synchronous spectroscopic method for experimental quantification of absorption and scattering contribution to the sample UV-vis extinction spectra. The techniques and general guidelines provided in this work should help improve the reliability of optical spectroscopic characterization of nanoscale or larger materials, many of which are simultaneous absorbers and scatterers. The insights from this work are foundational for Part III of this series of work, which is on the cascading optical processes on spectroscopic measurements of fluorescent samples.

Single-Protein Identification by Simultaneous Size and Charge Imaging Using Evanescent Scattering Microscopy

Separation and identification of different proteins is one of the most fundamental tasks in biochemistry that is typically achieved by electrophoresis and Western blot techniques. Yet, it is challenging to perform such an analysis with a small sample size. Using a principle analogous to these conventional approaches, we present a label-free, single-molecule technique to identify different proteins based on the difference in their size, charge, and antibody binding. We tether single protein molecules to a sensor surface with a flexible polymer and drive them into oscillation by applying an alternating electric field. By tracking the nanometer-scale oscillation of each protein molecule via high-resolution scattering microscopy, the size and charge of each protein molecule can be determined simultaneously. Changes induced by varying the buffer pH and antibody binding are also investigated, which allows us to further expand the separation ability and identify two different proteins in a mixture. We anticipate our technique will contribute to single protein analysis and biosensing.

Multi-moded high-index contrast optical waveguide for super-contrast high-resolution label-free microscopy

The article elucidates the physical mechanism behind the generation of superior-contrast and high-resolution label-free images using an optical waveguide. Imaging is realized by employing a high index contrast multi-moded waveguide as a partially coherent light source. The modes provide near-field illumination of unlabeled samples, thereby repositioning the higher spatial frequencies of the sample into the far-field. These modes coherently scatter off the sample with different phases and are engineered to have random spatial distributions within the integration time of the camera. This mitigates the coherent speckle noise and enhances the contrast (2-10) × as opposed to other imaging techniques. Besides, the coherent scattering of the different modes gives rise to fluctuations in intensity. The technique demonstrated here is named chip-based Evanescent Light Scattering (cELS). The concepts introduced through this work are described mathematically and the high-contrast image generation process using a multi-moded waveguide as the light source is explained. The article then explores the feasibility of utilizing fluctuations in the captured images along with fluorescence-based techniques, like intensity-fluctuation algorithms, to mitigate poor-contrast and diffraction-limited resolution in the coherent imaging regime. Furthermore, a straight waveguide is demonstrated to have limited angular diversity between its multiple modes and therefore, for isotropic sample illumination, a multiple-arms waveguide geometry is used. The concepts introduced are validated experimentally via high-contrast label-free imaging of weakly scattering nanosized specimens such as extra-cellular vesicles (EVs), liposomes, nanobeads and biological cells such as fixed and live HeLa cells.

Advances and applications of nanophotonic biosensors

Nanophotonic devices, which control light in subwavelength volumes and enhance light-matter interactions, have opened up exciting prospects for biosensing. Numerous nanophotonic biosensors have emerged to address the limitations of the current bioanalytical methods in terms of sensitivity, throughput, ease-of-use and miniaturization. In this Review, we provide an overview of the recent developments of label-free nanophotonic biosensors using evanescent-field-based sensing with plasmon resonances in metals and Mie resonances in dielectrics. We highlight the prospects of achieving an improved sensor performance and added functionalities by leveraging nanostructures and on-chip and optoelectronic integration, as well as microfluidics, biochemistry and data science toolkits. We also discuss open challenges in nanophotonic biosensing, such as reducing the overall cost and handling of complex biological samples, and provide an outlook for future opportunities to improve these technologies and thereby increase their impact in terms of improving health and safety.

Scattering-based Light Microscopy: From Metal Nanoparticles to Single Proteins

Our ability to detect, image, and quantify nanoscopic objects and molecules with visible light has undergone dramatic improvements over the past few decades. While fluorescence has historically been the go-to contrast mechanism for ultrasensitive light microscopy due to its superior background suppression and specificity, recent developments based on light scattering have reached single-molecule sensitivity. They also have the advantages of universal applicability and the ability to obtain information about the species of interest beyond its presence and location. Many of the recent advances are driven by novel approaches to illumination, detection, and background suppression, all aimed at isolating and maximizing the signal of interest. Here, we review these developments grouped according to the basic principles used, namely darkfield imaging, interferometric detection, and surface plasmon resonance microscopy.

Waveguide Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy for Biosensing: A Review

Waveguide enhanced Raman spectroscopy (WERS) utilizes simple, robust, high-index contrast dielectric waveguides to generate a strong evanescent field, through which laser light interacts with analytes residing on the surface of the waveguide. It offers a powerful tool for the direct identification and reproducible quantification of biochemical species and an alternative to surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) without reliance on fragile noble metal nanostructures. The advent of low-cost laser diodes, compact spectrometers, and recent progress in material engineering, nanofabrication techniques, and software modeling tools have made realizing portable and cheap WERS Raman systems with high sensitivity a realistic possibility. This review highlights the latest progress in WERS technology and summarizes recent demonstrations and applications. Following an introduction to the fundamentals of WERS, the theoretical framework that underpins the WERS principles is presented. The main WERS design considerations are then discussed, and a review of the available approaches for the modification of waveguide surfaces for the attachment of different biorecognition elements is provided. The review concludes by discussing and contrasting the performance of recent WERS implementations, thereby providing a future roadmap of WERS technology where the key opportunities and challenges are highlighted.

Time-Resolved and Label-Free Evanescent Light-Scattering Microscopy for Mass Quantification of Protein Binding to Single Lipid Vesicles

In-depth understanding of the intricate interactions between biomolecules and nanoparticles is hampered by a lack of analytical methods providing quantitative information about binding kinetics. Herein, we demonstrate how label-free evanescent light-scattering microscopy can be used to temporally resolve specific protein binding to individual surface-bound (∼100 nm) lipid vesicles. A theoretical model is proposed that translates protein-induced changes in light-scattering intensity into bound mass. Since the analysis is centered on individual lipid vesicles, the signal from nonspecific protein binding to the surrounding surface is completely avoided, offering a key advantage over conventional surface-based techniques. Further, by averaging the intensities from less than 2000 lipid vesicles, the sensitivity is shown to increase by orders of magnitude. Taken together, these features provide a new avenue in studies of protein-nanoparticle interaction, in general, and specifically in the context of nanoparticles in medical diagnostics and drug delivery.

Single-molecule studies of amyloid proteins: from biophysical properties to diagnostic perspectives

In neurodegenerative diseases, a wide range of amyloid proteins or peptides such as amyloid-beta and α-synuclein fail to keep native functional conformations, followed by misfolding and self-assembling into a diverse array of aggregates. The aggregates further exert toxicity leading to the dysfunction, degeneration and loss of cells in the affected organs. Due to the disordered structure of the amyloid proteins, endogenous molecules, such as lipids, are prone to interact with amyloid proteins at a low concentration and influence amyloid cytotoxicity. The heterogeneity of amyloid proteinscomplicates the understanding of the amyloid cytotoxicity when relying only on conventional bulk and ensemble techniques. As complementary tools, single-molecule techniques (SMTs) provide novel insights into the different subpopulations of a heterogeneous amyloid mixture as well as the cytotoxicity, in particular as involved in lipid membranes. This review focuses on the recent advances of a series of SMTs, including single-molecule fluorescence imaging, single-molecule force spectroscopy and single-nanopore electrical recording, for the understanding of the amyloid molecular mechanism. The working principles, benefits and limitations of each technique are discussed and compared in amyloid protein related studies.. We also discuss why SMTs show great potential and are worthy of further investigation with feasibility studies as diagnostic tools of neurodegenerative diseases and which limitations are to be addressed.

Plasmonic scattering imaging of single proteins and binding kinetics

Measuring the binding kinetics of single proteins represents one of the most important and challenging tasks in protein analysis. Here we show that this is possible using a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) scattering technique. SPR is a popular label-free detection technology because of its extraordinary sensitivity, but it has never been used for imaging single proteins. We overcome this limitation by imaging scattering of surface plasmonic waves by proteins. This allows us to image single proteins, measure their sizes and identify them based on their specific binding to antibodies. We further show that it is possible to quantify protein binding kinetics by counting the binding of individual molecules, providing a digital method to measure binding kinetics and analyze heterogeneity of protein behavior. We anticipate that this imaging method will become an important tool for single protein analysis, especially for low volume samples, such as single cells.

Single-vesicle imaging reveals lipid-selective and stepwise membrane disruption by monomeric α-synuclein

Neurodegenerative diseases are increasing among the world's population, but there are no cures. These disorders all involve proteins that assemble into amyloid fibers which results in brain cell death. Evidence suggests that association of these proteins with lipid membranes is crucial for both functional and pathological roles. In Parkinson's disease, the involved protein, α-synuclein, is thought to function in trafficking of lipid vesicles in the brain. In search of mechanistic origins, increasing focus is put on identifying neurotoxic reactions induced by membrane interactions. To contribute new clues to this question, we here employed a new surface-sensitive scattering microscopy technique. With this approach, we discovered that α-synuclein perturbs vesicles in a stepwise and lipid-dependent fashion already at very low protein coverage.

The interaction of the neuronal protein α-synuclein with lipid membranes appears crucial in the context of Parkinson’s disease, but the underlying mechanistic details, including the roles of different lipids in pathogenic protein aggregation and membrane disruption, remain elusive. Here, we used single-vesicle resolution fluorescence and label-free scattering microscopy to investigate the interaction kinetics of monomeric α-synuclein with surface-tethered vesicles composed of different negatively charged lipids. Supported by a theoretical model to account for structural changes in scattering properties of surface-tethered lipid vesicles, the data demonstrate stepwise vesicle disruption and asymmetric membrane deformation upon α-synuclein binding to phosphatidylglycerol vesicles at protein concentrations down to 10 nM (∼100 proteins per vesicle). In contrast, phosphatidylserine vesicles were only marginally affected. These insights into structural consequences of α-synuclein interaction with lipid vesicles highlight the contrasting roles of different anionic lipids, which may be of mechanistic relevance for both normal protein function (e.g., synaptic vesicle binding) and dysfunction (e.g., mitochondrial membrane interaction).

Single-cell Analysis with Microfluidic Devices

A microfluidic device as a pivotal research tool in chemistry and life science is now widely recognized. Indeed, microfluidic techniques have made significant advancements in fundamental research, such as the inherent heterogeneity of single-cells studies in cell populations, which would be helpful in understanding cellular molecular mechanisms and clinical diagnosis of major diseases. Single-cell analyses on microdevices have shown great potential for precise fluid control, cell manipulation, and signal output with rapid and high throughput. Moreover, miniaturized devices also have open functions such as integrating with traditional detection methods, for example, optical, electrochemical or mass spectrometry for single-cell analysis. In this review, we summarized recent advances of single-cell analysis based on various microfluidic approaches from different dimensions, such as in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo analysis of single cells.

Micropatterned Viral Membrane Clusters for Antiviral Drug Evaluation

The function of biological nanoparticles, such as membrane-enveloped viral particles, is often enhanced when the particles form higher-order supramolecular assemblies. While there is intense interest in developing biomimetic platforms that recapitulate these collective properties, existing platforms are limited to mimicking individual virus particles. Here, we present a micropatterning strategy to print linker molecules selectively onto bioinert surfaces, thereby enabling controlled tethering of biomimetic viral particle clusters across defined geometric patterns. By controlling the linker concentration, it is possible to tune the density of tethered particles within clusters while enhancing the signal intensity of encapsulated fluorescent markers. Time-resolved tracking of pore formation and membrane lysis revealed that an antiviral peptide can disturb clusters of the membrane-enclosed particles akin to the targeting of individual viral particles. This platform is broadly useful for evaluating the performance of membrane-active antiviral drug candidates, whereas the micropatterning strategy can be applied to a wide range of biological nanoparticles and other macromolecular entities.

Surface Plasmon Enhanced Light Scattering Biosensing: Size Dependence on the Gold Nanoparticle Tag

Surface plasmon enhanced light scattering (SP-LS) is a powerful new sensing SPR modality that yields excellent sensitivity in sandwich immunoassay using spherical gold nanoparticle (AuNP) tags. Towards further improving the performance of SP-LS, we systematically investigated the AuNP size effect. Simulation results indicated an AuNP size-dependent scattered power, and predicted the optimized AuNPs sizes (i.e., 100 and 130 nm) that afford extremely high signal enhancement in SP-LS. The maximum scattered power from a 130 nm AuNP is about 1700-fold higher than that obtained from a 17 nm AuNP. Experimentally, a bio-conjugation protocol was developed by coating the AuNPs with mixture of low and high molecular weight PEG molecules. Optimal IgG antibody bioconjugation conditions were identified using physicochemical characterization and a model dot-blot assay. Aggregation prevented the use of the larger AuNPs in SP-LS experiments. As predicted by simulation, AuNPs with diameters of 50 and 64 nm yielded significantly higher SP-LS signal enhancement in comparison to the smaller particles. Finally, we demonstrated the feasibility of a two-step SP-LS protocol based on a gold enhancement step, aimed at enlarging 36 nm AuNPs tags. This study provides a blue-print for the further development of SP-LS biosensing and its translation in the bioanalytical field.

Single-cell assay on microfluidic devices

Advances in microfluidic techniques have prompted researchers to study the inherent heterogeneity of single cells in cell populations.

Multi-modal chip-based fluorescence and quantitative phase microscopy for studying inflammation in macrophages

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy benefits from high-sensitivity, low background noise, low photo-toxicity and high-contrast imaging of sub-cellular structures close to the membrane surface. Although, TIRF microscopy provides high-contrast imaging it does not provide quantitative information about morphological features of the biological cells. Here, we propose an integrated waveguide chip-based TIRF microscopy and label-free quantitative phase imaging (QPI). The evanescent field present on top of a waveguide surface is used to excite the fluorescence and an upright microscope is used to collect the signal. The upright microscope is converted into a Linnik-type interferometer to sequentially extract both the quantitative phase information and TIRF images of the cells. Waveguide chip-based TIRF microscopy benefits from decoupling of illumination and collection light path, large field of view imaging and pre-aligned configuration for multi-color TIRF imaging. The proposed multi-modal microscopy is used to study inflammation caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on rat macrophages. The TIRF microscopy showed that LPS inflammatory molecule disrupts the cell membrane and causes cells to significantly expand across a substrate. While, QPI module quantified changes in the sub-cellular content of the LPS challenged macrophages, showing a net decrease in its maximum phase values.

Effective Refractive Index and Lipid Content of Extracellular Vesicles Revealed Using Optical Waveguide Scattering and Fluorescence Microscopy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are generating a growing interest because of the key roles they play in various biological processes and because of their potential use as biomarkers in clinical diagnostics and as efficient carriers in drug-delivery and gene-therapy applications. Their full exploitation, however, depends critically on the possibility to classify them into different subpopulations, a task that in turn relies on efficient means to identify their unique biomolecular and physical signatures. Because of the large heterogeneity of EV samples, such information remains rather elusive, and there is accordingly a need for new and complementary characterization schemes that can help expand the library of distinct EV features. In this work, we used surface-sensitive waveguide scattering microscopy with single EV resolution to characterize two subsets of similarly sized EVs that were preseparated based on their difference in buoyant density. Unexpectedly, the scattering intensity distribution revealed that the scattering intensity of the high-density (HD) population was on an average a factor of three lower than that of the low-density (LD) population. By further labeling the EV samples with a self-inserting lipid-membrane dye, the scattering and fluorescence intensities from EVs could be simultaneously measured and correlated at the single-particle level. The labeled HD sample exhibited not only lower fluorescence and scattering intensities but also lower effective refractive index ( n ≈ 1.35) compared with the LD EVs ( n ≈ 1.38), indicating that both the lipid and protein contents were indeed lower in the HD EVs. Although separation in density gradients of similarly sized EVs is usually linked to differences in biomolecular content, we suggest based on these observations that the separation rather reflects the ability of the solute of the gradient to penetrate the lipid membrane enclosing the EVs, that is, the two gradient bands are more likely because of the differences in membrane permeability than to differences in biomolecular content of the EVs.

Systematic Methodological Evaluation of a Multiplex Bead-Based Flow Cytometry Assay for Detection of Extracellular Vesicle Surface Signatures

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be harvested from cell culture supernatants and from all body fluids. EVs can be conceptually classified based on their size and biogenesis as exosomes and microvesicles. Nowadays, it is however commonly accepted in the field that there is a much higher degree of heterogeneity within these two subgroups than previously thought. For instance, the surface marker profile of EVs is likely dependent on the cell source, the cell’s activation status, and multiple other parameters. Within recent years, several new methods and assays to study EV heterogeneity in terms of surface markers have been described; most of them are being based on flow cytometry. Unfortunately, such methods generally require dedicated instrumentation, are time-consuming and demand extensive operator expertise for sample preparation, acquisition, and data analysis. In this study, we have systematically evaluated and explored the use of a multiplex bead-based flow cytometric assay which is compatible with most standard flow cytometers and facilitates a robust semi-quantitative detection of 37 different potential EV surface markers in one sample simultaneously. First, assay variability, sample stability over time, and dynamic range were assessed together with the limitations of this assay in terms of EV input quantity required for detection of differently abundant surface markers. Next, the potential effects of EV origin, sample preparation, and quality of the EV sample on the assay were evaluated. The findings indicate that this multiplex bead-based assay is generally suitable to detect, quantify, and compare EV surface signatures in various sample types, including unprocessed cell culture supernatants, cell culture-derived EVs isolated by different methods, and biological fluids. Furthermore, the use and limitations of this assay to assess heterogeneities in EV surface signatures was explored by combining different sets of detection antibodies in EV samples derived from different cell lines and subsets of rare cells. Taken together, this validated multiplex bead-based flow cytometric assay allows robust, sensitive, and reproducible detection of EV surface marker expression in various sample types in a semi-quantitative way and will be highly valuable for many researchers in the EV field in different experimental contexts.

Affinity Purification and Single-Molecule Analysis of Integral Membrane Proteins from Crude Cell-Membrane Preparations

The function of integral membrane proteins is critically dependent on their naturally surrounding lipid membrane. Detergent-solubilized and purified membrane proteins are therefore often reconstituted into cell-membrane mimics and analyzed for their function with single-molecule microscopy. Expansion of this approach toward a broad range of pharmaceutically interesting drug targets and biomarkers however remains hampered by the fact that these proteins have low expression levels, and that detergent solubilization and reconstitution often cause protein conformational changes and loss of membrane-specific cofactors, which may impair protein function. To overcome this limitation, we here demonstrate how antibody-modified nanoparticles can be used to achieve affinity purification and enrichment of selected integral membrane proteins directly from cell membrane preparations. Nanoparticles were first bound to the ectodomain of β-secretase 1 (BACE1) contained in cell-derived membrane vesicles. In a subsequent step, these were merged into a continuous supported membrane in a microfluidic channel. Through the extended nanoparticle tag, a weak (∼fN) hydrodynamic force could be applied, inducing directed in-membrane movement of targeted BACE1 exclusively. This enabled selective thousand-fold enrichment of the targeted membrane protein while preserving a natural lipid environment. In addition, nanoparticle-targeting also enabled simultaneous tracking analysis of each individual manipulated protein, revealing how their mobility changed when moved from one lipid environment to another. We therefore believe this approach will be particularly useful for separation in-line with single-molecule analysis, eventually opening up for membrane-protein sorting devices analogous to fluorescence-activated cell sorting.

Compact 3D printed module for fluorescence and label-free imaging using evanescent excitation

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is widely used for selective excitation and high-resolution imaging of fluorophores, and more recently label-free nanosized objects, with high vertical confinement near a liquid-solid interface. Traditionally, high numerical aperture objectives (>1.4) are used to simultaneously generate evanescent waves and collect fluorescence emission signals which limits their use to small area imaging (<0.1 mm²). Objective-based TIRFs are also expensive as they require dichroic mirrors and efficient notch filters to prevent specular reflection within the objective lenses. We have developed a compact 3D module called cTIRF that can generate evanescent waves in microscope glass slides via a planar waveguide illumination. The module can be attached as a fixture to any existing optical microscope, converting it into a TIRF and enabling high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) fluorescence imaging using any magnification objective. As the incidence optics is perpendicular to the detector, label-free evanescent scattering-based imaging of submicron objects can also be performed without using emission filters. SNR is significantly enhanced in this case as compared to cTIRF alone, as seen through our model experiments performed on latex beads and mammalian cells. Extreme flexibility and the low cost of our approach makes it scalable for limited resource settings.

Silicon nitride waveguide platform for fluorescence microscopy of living cells

Waveguide chip-based microscopy reduces the complexity of total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, and adds features like large field of view illumination, decoupling of illumination and collection path and easy multimodal imaging. However, for the technique to become widespread there is a need of low-loss and affordable waveguides made of high-refractive index material. Here, we develop and report a low-loss silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) waveguide platform for multi-color TIRF microscopy. Single mode conditions at visible wavelengths (488-660 nm) were achieved using shallow rib geometry. To generate uniform excitation over appropriate dimensions waveguide bends were used to filter-out higher modes followed by adiabatic tapering. Si₃N₄ material is finally shown to be biocompatible for growing and imaging living cells.

Ultrasensitive Detection of Cancer Prognostic miRNA Biomarkers Based on Surface Plasmon Enhanced Light Scattering

The development of simple yet ultrasensitive biosensing approaches for the detection of cancer prognostic microRNA is an important step toward their successful clinical implementation. We demonstrate the relevance for the detection of circulating miRNA of a novel signal amplification scheme based on surface plasmon resonance enhanced light scattering (SP-LS). In addition to experimental optimization carried out using gold nanoparticle (AuNP) tags conjugated with a monoclonal antibody with high affinity for RNA*DNA hybrid duplexes, simulation modeling was conducted to obtain insights about SP-LS biosensing. SP-LS enabled the detection of miRNA-122 at subpicomolar concentrations within 30 min, and a limit of detection of 2 attomoles (60 fM, 50 μL) was determined. MiRNA-122 could also be reliably detected in a high concentration background of nontarget miRNA. The proposed SP-LS miRNA detection approach could be readily applied to other miRNA targets of diagnostic importance and further developed to allow for multiplex measurements of miRNA panels. The promising results obtained in this study and advantageous features of SP-LS warrant further development and its application to clinical samples.

Fluorescence and Scattering Light Cross Correlation Spectroscopy and Its Applications in Homogeneous Immunoassay

In this work, we propose fluorescence and scattering light cross-correlation spectroscopy (FSCCS) based on laser confocal configuration using silver nanoparticle (SNPs) and Alexa Fluor 488 (Alexa) as probe pairs. FSCCS is a single molecule (particle) method, and its principle is similar to that of fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS). We established the setup of FSCCS using single wavelength laser and developed an immunoassay model of FSCCS. The reliability and adaptability of FSCCS method were evaluated by homogeneous sandwich immunoassay mode. In the study, liver cancer biomarker alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) was used as an assay model, two different antibodies were labeled with SNPs and fluorophore Alexa Fluor 488, respectively. In the optimal conditions, the linear range of AFP covers 5 pM to 580 pM and the detection limit is 3.1 pM. This method was successfully applied for direct determination of AFP levels in human serum samples, and the obtained results were in good agreement with data obtained via ELISAs. The advantage of this method lies in its simplicity, attractive SNPs probes, high sensitivity and selectivity and high efficiency. We believe that FSCCS method exhibits promising potential applications in homogeneous bioassays and study on the molecular interaction and nanoparticle-molecule interaction.

Robust Visualization and Discrimination of Nanoparticles by Interferometric Imaging

Single-molecule and single-nanoparticle biosensors are a growing frontier in diagnostics. Digital biosensors are those which enumerate all specifically immobilized biomolecules or biological nanoparticles, and thereby achieve limits of detection usually beyond the reach of ensemble measurements. Here we review modern optical techniques for single nanoparticle detection and describe the single-particle interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (SP-IRIS). We present challenges associated with reliably detecting faint nanoparticles with SP-IRIS, and describe image acquisition processes and software modifications to address them. Specifically, we describe a image acquisition processing method for the discrimination and accurate counting of nanoparticles that greatly reduces both the number of false positives and false negatives. These engineering improvements are critical steps in the translation of SP-IRIS towards applications in medical diagnostics.

A nano flow cytometer for single lipid vesicle analysis

We present a nanofluidic device for fluorescence-based detection and characterization of small lipid vesicles on a single particle basis. The device works like a nano flow cytometer where individual vesicles are visualized by fluorescence microscopy while passing through parallel nanochannels in a pressure-driven flow. An experiment requires less than 20 μl sample volume to quantify both the vesicle content and the fluorescence signals emitted by individual vesicles. We show that the device can be used to accurately count the number of fluorescent synthetic lipid vesicles down to a vesicle concentration of 170 fM. We also show that the size-distribution of the vesicles can be resolved from their fluorescence intensity distribution after calibration. We demonstrate the applicability of the assay in two different examples. In the first, we use the nanofluidic device to determine the particle concentration in a sample containing cell-derived extracellular vesicles labelled with a lipophilic dye. In the second, we demonstrate that dual-color detection can be used to probe peptide binding to synthetic lipid vesicles; we identify a positive membrane-curvature sensing behavior of an arginine enriched version of the Antennapedia homeodomain peptide penetratin. Altogether, these results illustrate the potential of this nanofluidic-based methodology for characterization and quantification of small biological vesicles and their interactors without ensemble averaging. The device is therefore likely to find use as a quantitative analytical tool in a variety of fields ranging from diagnostics to fundamental biology research. Moreover, our results have potential to facilitate further development of automated lab-on-a-chip devices for vesicle analysis.

Physical characterization of hematopoietic stem cells using multidirectional label-free light scatterings

An experimental setup capable of measuring simultaneous 2D scattered light angular distribution from two directions to study cell morphology without the use of bio-labels was developed. Experiments with hematopoietic stem cells (CD34⁺ cells) show good agreement with detailed numerical simulations of light scattering. Numerical simulations and computer models of cells are used to identify physical features of cells with the largest scattering cross sections. This allows for determination of size, geometry of the nucleus and distribution of mitochondria in hematopoietic stem cells by means of our label-free method.

Monitoring of single and double lipid membrane formation with high spatiotemporal resolution using evanescent light scattering microscopy

Formation and quality of single solid supported lipid membranes and double lipid membranes were investigated with single vesicle resolution using label-free evanescence light scattering microscopy (EvSM). For the formation of double lipid membranes we made use of electrostatic interaction between charged lipids and oppositely charged cations.

Nonspecific Colloidal-Type Interaction Explains Size-Dependent Specific Binding of Membrane-Targeted Nanoparticles

Emerging biomedical applications such as molecular imaging and drug delivery often require directed binding of nanoparticles to cell-membrane receptors. The specific apparent affinity of such ligand-functionalized particles is size-dependent, an observation so far solely attributed to multivalent receptor-ligand interaction. We question the universality of this explanation by demonstrating that the binding kinetics also depends on weak, attractive colloidal-type interaction between nanoparticles and a lipid membrane. Applying label-free single-particle imaging, we correlate binding of nanoparticles targeted to a cell-mimetic lipid membrane with the distribution of nontargeted particles freely diffusing close to the membrane interface. This analysis shows that already a weak, k_BT-scale attraction present between 50 nm gold nanoparticles and the membrane renders these particles an order of magnitude higher avidity compared to 20 nm particles. A stronger emphasis on nonspecific particle-membrane interaction might thus be required to accurately predict nanoparticle targeting and other similar processes such as cellular uptake of exosomes and viruses.

Exploiting Surface-Plasmon-Enhanced Light Scattering for the Design of Ultrasensitive Biosensing Modality

Development of new detection methodologies and amplification schemes is indispensable for plasmonic biosensors to improve the sensitivity for the detection of trace amounts of analytes. Herein, an ultrasensitive scheme for signal enhancement based on the concept of surface-plasmon-resonance-enhanced light scattering (SP-LS) was validated experimentally and theoretically. The SP-LS of gold nanoparticles' (AuNPs) tags was employed in a sandwich assay for the detection of cardiac troponin I and provided up to 2 orders of magnitude improved sensitivity over conventional AuNPs-enhanced refractometric measurements and 3 orders of magnitude improvement over label-free SPR. Simulations were also performed to provide insights into the physical mechanisms.

Dual-Wavelength Surface Plasmon Resonance for Determining the Size and Concentration of Sub-Populations of Extracellular Vesicles

Accurate concentration determination of subpopulations of extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, is of importance both in the context of understanding their fundamental biological role and of potentially using them as disease biomarkers. In principle, this can be achieved by measuring the rate of diffusion-limited mass uptake to a sensor surface modified with a receptor designed to only bind the subpopulation of interest. However, a significant error is introduced if the targeted EV subpopulation has a size, and thus hydrodynamic diffusion coefficient, that differs from the mean size and diffusion coefficient of the whole EV population and/or if the EVs become deformed upon binding to the surface. We here demonstrate a new approach to determine the mean size (or effective film thickness) of bound nanoparticles, in general, and EV subpopulation carrying a marker of interest, in particular. The method is based on operating surface plasmon resonance simultaneously at two wavelengths with different sensing depths and using the ratio of the corresponding responses to extract the particle size on the surface. By estimating in this way the degree of deformation of adsorbed EVs, we markedly improved their bulk concentration determination and showed that EVs carrying the exosomal marker CD63 correspond to not more than around 10% of the EV sample.