Pseudosubstrate inhibition of CDPK, a protein kinase with a calmodulin-like domain

A Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase Regulates the Defense Response in Citrus sinensis

Citrus Huanglongbing (HLB), which is caused by 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus' (CLas), is one of the most destructive citrus diseases worldwide, and defense-related Citrus sinensis gene resources remain largely unexplored. Calcium signaling plays an important role in diverse biological processes. In plants, a few calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs/CPKs) have been shown to contribute to defense against pathogenic microbes. The genome of C. sinensis encodes dozens of CPKs. In this study, the role of C. sinensis calcium-dependent protein kinases (CsCPKs) in C. sinensis defense was investigated. Silencing of CsCPK6 compromised the induction of defense-related genes in C. sinensis. Expression of a constitutively active form of CsCPK6 (CsCPK6CA) triggered the activation of defense-related genes in C. sinensis. Complementation of CsCPK6 rescued the defense-related gene induction in an Arabidopsis thaliana cpk4/11 mutant, indicating that CsCPK6 carries CPK activity and is capable of functioning as a CPK in Arabidopsis. Moreover, an effector derived from CLas inhibits defense induced by the expression of CsCPK6CA and autophosphorylation of CsCPK6, which suggests the involvement of CsCPK6 and calcium signaling in defense. These results support a positive role for CsCPK6 in C. sinensis defense against CLas, and the autoinhibitory regulation of CsCPK6 provides a potential genome-editing target for improving C. sinensis defense. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Arabidopsis PLANT U-BOX44 down-regulates osmotic stress signaling by mediating Ca2+-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE4 degradation

Calcium (Ca2+)-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) are essential regulators of plant responses to diverse environmental stressors, including osmotic stress. CPKs are activated by an increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels triggered by osmotic stress. However, how the levels of active CPK protein are dynamically and precisely regulated has yet to be determined. Here, we demonstrate that NaCl/mannitol-induced osmotic stress promoted the accumulation of CPK4 protein by disrupting its 26S proteasome-mediated CPK4 degradation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). We isolated PLANT U-BOX44 (PUB44), a U-box type E3 ubiquitin ligase that ubiquitinates CPK4 and triggers its degradation. A calcium-free or kinase-inactive CPK4 variant was preferentially degraded compared to the Ca2+-bound active form of CPK4. Furthermore, PUB44 exhibited a CPK4-dependent negative role in the response of plants to osmotic stress. Osmotic stress induced the accumulation of CPK4 protein by inhibiting PUB44-mediated CPK4 degradation. The present findings reveal a mechanism for regulating CPK protein levels and establish the relevance of PUB44-dependent CPK4 regulation in modulating plant osmotic stress responses, providing insights into osmotic stress signal transduction mechanisms.

CALCIUM-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE32 regulates cellulose biosynthesis through post-translational modification of cellulose synthase

Cellulose is an essential component of plant cell walls and an economically important source of food, paper, textiles, and biofuel. Despite its economic and biological significance, the regulation of cellulose biosynthesis is poorly understood. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of cellulose synthases (CESAs) were shown to impact the direction and velocity of cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs). However, the protein kinases that phosphorylate CESAs are largely unknown. We conducted research in Arabidopsis thaliana to reveal protein kinases that phosphorylate CESAs. In this study, we used yeast two-hybrid, protein biochemistry, genetics, and live-cell imaging to reveal the role of calcium-dependent protein kinase32 (CPK32) in the regulation of cellulose biosynthesis in A. thaliana. We identified CPK32 using CESA3 as a bait in a yeast two-hybrid assay. We showed that CPK32 phosphorylates CESA3 while it interacts with both CESA1 and CESA3. Overexpressing functionally defective CPK32 variant and phospho-dead mutation of CESA3 led to decreased motility of CSCs and reduced crystalline cellulose content in etiolated seedlings. Deregulation of CPKs impacted the stability of CSCs. We uncovered a new function of CPKs that regulates cellulose biosynthesis and a novel mechanism by which phosphorylation regulates the stability of CSCs.

The captivating role of calcium in plant-microbe interaction

Plant immune response is fascinating due to the complete absence of a humoral system. The adaptive immune response in plants relies on the intracellular orchestration of signalling molecules or intermediates associated with transcriptional reprogramming. Plant disease response phenomena largely depend on pathogen recognition, signal perception, and intracellular signal transduction. The pathogens possess specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP) or microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMP), which are first identified by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of host plants for successful infection. After successful pathogen recognition, the defence response is initiated within plants. The first line of non-specific defence response is called PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), followed by the specific robust signalling is called effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Calcium plays a crucial role in both PTI and ETI. The biphasic induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is inevitable in any plant-microbe interaction. Calcium ions play crucial roles in the initial oxidative burst and ROS induction. Different pathogens can induce calcium accumulation in the cytosol ([Ca²⁺]_Cyt), called calcium signatures. These calcium signatures further control the diverse defence-responsive proteins in the intracellular milieu. These calcium signatures then activate calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), calcium calmodulins (CaMs), calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs), etc., to impart intricate defence signalling within the cell. Decoding this calcium ionic map is imperative to unveil any plant microbe interplay and modulate defence-responsive pathways. Hence, the present review is unique in developing concepts of calcium signature in plants and their subsequent decoding mechanism. This review also intends to articulate early sensing of calcium oscillation, signalling events, and comprehensive mechanistic roles of calcium within plants during pathogenic ingression. This will accumulate and summarize the exciting roles of calcium ions in plant immunity and provide the foundation for future research.

Cross-kingdom regulation of calcium- and/or calmodulin-dependent protein kinases by phospho-switches that relieve autoinhibition

Mechanisms to sense and respond to calcium have evolved in all organisms. Calmodulin is a universal calcium sensor across eukaryotes that directly binds calcium and associates with many downstream signal transducers including protein kinases. All eukaryotes encode calcium-dependent and/or calmodulin-dependent kinases, however there are distinct protein families across kingdoms. Here, we compare the activation mechanisms of calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs), calcium- and calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CCaMKs) and calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), noting striking similarities regarding phosphorylation in a regulatory segment known as the autoinhibitory junction. We thus propose that conserved regulation by phosphorylation underlies the activation of calcium-responsive proteins from different kingdoms.

In vivo identification of putative CPK5 substrates in Arabidopsis thaliana

Calcium signaling mediates most developmental processes and stress responses in plants. Among plant calcium sensors, the calcium-dependent protein kinases display a unique structure harboring both calcium sensing and kinase responding activities. AtCPK5 is an essential member of this family in Arabidopsis that regulates immunity and abiotic stress tolerance. To understand the underlying molecular mechanisms, we implemented a biochemical approach to identify in vivo substrates of AtCPK5. We generated transgenic lines expressing a constitutively active form of AtCPK5 under the control of a dexamethasone-inducible promoter. Lines expressing a kinase-dead version were used as a negative control. By comparing the phosphoproteome of the kinase-active and kinase-dead lines upon dexamethasone treatment, we identified 5 phosphopeptides whose abundance increased specifically in the kinase-active lines. Importantly, we showed that all 5 proteins were phosphorylated in vitro by AtCPK5 in a calcium-dependent manner, suggesting that they are direct targets of AtCPK5. We also detected several interaction patterns between the kinase and the candidates in the cytosol, membranes or nucleus, consistent with the ubiquitous localization of AtCPK5. Finally, we further validated the two phosphosites S245 and S280 targeted by AtCPK5 in the E3 ubiquitin ligase ATL31. Altogether, those results open new perspectives to decipher AtCPK5 biological functions.

Managing activity and Ca2+ dependence through mutation in the Junction of the AtCPK1 coordinates the salt tolerance in transgenic tobacco plants

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are Ca2+ decoders in plants. AtCPK1 is a positive regulator in the plant response to biotic and abiotic stress. Inactivation of the autoinhibitory domain of AtCPK1 in the mutated form KJM23 provides constitutive activity of the kinase. In the present study, we investigated the effect of overexpressed native and mutant KJM23 forms on salinity tolerance in Nicotiana tabacum. Overexpression of native AtCPK1 provided tobacco resistance to 120 mM NaCl during germination and 180 mM NaCl during long-term growth, while the resistance of plants increased to 240 mM NaCl during both phases of plant development when transformed with KJM23. Mutation in the junction KJM4, which disrupted Ca2+ induced activation, completely nullified the acquired salt tolerance up to levels of normal plants. Analysis by confocal microscopy showed that under high salinity conditions, overexpression of AtCPK1 and KJM23 inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation to levels observed in untreated plants. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that overexpression of AtCPK1 and KJM23 was associated with changes in expression of genes encoding heat shock factors. In all cases, the KJM23 mutation enhanced the effect of AtCPK1, while the KJM4 mutation reduced it to the control level. We suggest that the autoinhibitory domains in CDPKs could be promising targets for manipulation in engineering salt-tolerant plants.

The Role of Calcium/Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases Signal Pathway in Pollen Tube Growth

Pollen tube (PT) growth as a key step for successful fertilization is essential for angiosperm survival and especially vital for grain yield in cereals. The process of PT growth is regulated by many complex and delicate signaling pathways. Among them, the calcium/calcium-dependent protein kinases (Ca2+/CPKs) signal pathway has become one research focus, as Ca2+ ion is a well-known essential signal molecule for PT growth, which can be instantly sensed and transduced by CPKs to control myriad biological processes. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in understanding the Ca2+/CPKs signal pathway governing PT growth. We also discuss how this pathway regulates PT growth and how reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cyclic nucleotide are integrated by Ca2+ signaling networks.

Inactivation of the auto-inhibitory domain in Arabidopsis AtCPK1 leads to increased salt, cold and heat tolerance in the AtCPK1-transformed Rubia cordifolia L cell cultures

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are essential regulators of plant growth and development, biotic and abiotic stress responses. Inactivation of the auto-inhibitory domain (AID) of CDPKs provides the constitutive activity. This study investigated the effect of overexpressed native and constitutive active (AtCPK1-Ca) forms of the AtCPK1 gene on abiotic stress tolerance and the ROS/redox system in Rubia cordifolia transgenic callus lines. Overexpression of the native AtCPK1 increased tolerance to salinity and cold almost in two times, when AtCPK1-Ca - in three times compare to control culture. A more interesting effect of overexpression of the AtCPK1 and AtCPK1-Ca was observed for heat resistance. The native form of AtCPK1 increased resistance to heating by 45%, while the AtCPK1-Ca increased by 80%. At the same time, another type of mutation of the AID (AtCPK1-Na, not active) did not affect the tolerance of the cell culture to stresses. We suppose, in this process, the ROS/redox system might be involved. Levels of intracellular ROS, ROS-generating enzymes expression and activities (Rbohs, Prx) and ROS-detoxifying enzymes (SOD, Cat, Apx and Prx) changed in a coordinated manner and in strict interconnection, depending of the callus growth phase and correlated with improved stress tolerance caused by AtCPK1. Because overexpression of both the AtCPK1 and AtCPK1-Ca did not significantly change callus growth, we propose that inactivation of AID of the AtCPK1 or its ortholog, might be an interesting instrument for improvement of plant cells resistance to abiotic stress.

The role of the calmodulin-binding and calmodulin-like domains of the epidermal growth factor receptor in tyrosine kinase activation

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) harbors a calmodulin (CaM)-binding domain (CaM-BD) and a CaM-like domain (CaM-LD) upstream and downstream, respectively, of the tyrosine kinase (TK) domain. We demonstrate in this paper that deletion of the positively charged CaM-BD (EGFR/CaM-BD∆) inactivated the TK activity of the receptor. Moreover, deletion of the negatively charged CaM-LD (EGFR/CaM-LD∆), leaving a single negative residue (glutamate), reduced the activity of the receptor. In contrast, substituting the CaM-LD with a histidine/valine-rich peptide (EGFR/InvCaM-LD) caused full inactivation. We also demonstrated using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry that the chimera EGFR-green fluorescent protein (GFP)/CaM-BD∆, the EGFR/CaM-LD∆, and EGFR/InvCaM-LD mutants all bind tetramethylrhodamine-labelled EGF. These EGFR mutants were localized at the plasma membrane as the wild-type receptor does. However, only the EGFR/CaM-LD∆ and EGFR/InvCaM-LD mutants appear to undergo ligand-dependent internalization, while the EGFR-GFP/CaM-BD∆ mutant seems to be deficient in this regard. The obtained results and in silico modelling studies of the asymmetric structure of the EGFR kinase dimer support a role of a CaM-BD/CaM-LD electrostatic interaction in the allosteric activation of the EGFR TK.

Molecular cloning and expression of AmCDPK from mangrove Avicennia marina under elevated temperature

Considered as an essential calcium sensor, the calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) family plays a critical part in terrestrial plants' responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses. In the study, Avicennia marina was proved to have better heat tolerance than other species. A CDPK gene was cloned from mangrove species A. marina using RACE-PCR and designated as AmCDPK. By predicting and analyzing its properties, structures and expression patterns, we found that the amino acid sequence, containing a kinase domain and four EF-hand Ca²⁺-binding sites, shared high identity with Handroanthus impetiginosus and Sesamum indicum. Quantitative real-time PCR data analysis suggested that AmCDPK demonstrated significant up-regulation under heat stress. It is likely that AmCDPK is a versatile gene involved in various stresses, including dehydration, cold, light, defense and ABA stress responses by analyzing cis-elements. It is the first time that CDPKs from mangroves have been cloned and our results brought evidence to the effect of AmCDPK on heat stress, which is particularly important under the background of global warming.

Investigation of the Nature of CgCDPK and CgbHLH001 Interaction and the Function of bHLH Transcription Factor in Stress Tolerance in Chenopodium glaucum

Calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) and its substrates play important roles in plant response to stress. So far, the documentation on the characterization of the CDPK and downstream interaction components (especially transcription factors, TFs) is limited. In the present study, an interaction between CgCDPK (protein kinase) (accession no. MW26306) and CgbHLH001 (TF) (accession no. MT797813) from a halophyte Chenopodium glaucum was further dissected. Firstly, we revealed that the probable nature between the CgCDPK and CgbHLH001 interaction was the phosphorylation, and the N-terminus of CgbHLH001, especially the 96th serine (the potential phosphorylation site) within it, was essential for the interaction, whereas the mutation of ⁹⁶Ser to alanine did not change its nuclear localization, which was determined by the N-terminus and bHLH domain together. Furthermore, we verified the function of CgbHLH001 gene in response to stress by ectopic overexpression in tobacco; the transgenic lines presented enhanced stress tolerance probably by improving physiological performance and stress-related gene expression. In conclusion, we characterized the biological significance of the interaction between CDPK and bHLH in C. glaucum and verified the positive function of CgbHLH001 in stress tolerance, which may supply more evidence in better understanding of the CDPK signaling pathway in response to adversity.

Arabidopsis CPK6 positively regulates ABA signaling and drought tolerance through phosphorylating ABA-responsive element-binding factors

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates numerous developmental processes and drought tolerance in plants. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) are important Ca2+ sensors playing crucial roles in plant growth and development as well as responses to stresses. However, the molecular mechanisms of many CPKs in ABA signaling and drought tolerance remain largely unknown. Here we combined protein interaction studies, and biochemical and genetic approaches to identify and characterize substrates that were phosphorylated by CPK6 and elucidated the mechanism that underlines the role of CPK6 in ABA signaling and drought tolerance. The expression of CPK6 is induced by ABA and dehydration. Two cpk6 T-DNA insertion mutants are insensitive to ABA during seed germination and root elongation of seedlings; in contrast, overexpression of CPK6 showed the opposite phenotype. Moreover, CPK6-overexpressing lines showed enhanced drought tolerance. CPK6 interacts with and phosphorylates a subset of core ABA signaling-related transcription factors, ABA-responsive element-binding factors (ABFs/AREBs), and enhances their transcriptional activities. The phosphorylation sites in ABF3 and ABI5 were also identified through MS and mutational analyses. Taken together, we present evidence that CPK6 mediates ABA signaling and drought tolerance through phosphorylating ABFs/AREBs. This work thus uncovers a rather conserved mechanism of calcium-dependent Ser/Thr kinases in ABA signaling.

Properties and functions of calcium-dependent protein kinases and their relatives in Arabidopsis thaliana

Calcium is a ubiquitous second messenger that mediates plant responses to developmental and environmental cues. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are key actors of plant signaling that convey calcium signals into physiological responses by phosphorylating various substrates including ion channels, transcription factors and metabolic enzymes. This large diversity of targets confers pivotal roles of CDPKs in shoot and root development, pollen tube growth, stomatal movements, hormonal signaling, transcriptional reprogramming and stress tolerance. On the one hand, specificity in CDPK signaling is achieved by differential calcium sensitivities, expression patterns, subcellular localizations and substrates. On the other hand, CDPKs also target some common substrates to ensure key cellular processes indispensable for plant growth and survival in adverse environmental conditions. In addition, the CDPK-related protein kinases (CRKs) might be closer to some CDPKs than previously anticipated and could contribute to calcium signaling despite their inability to bind calcium. This review highlights the regulatory properties of Arabidopsis CDPKs and CRKs that coordinate their multifaceted functions in development, immunity and abiotic stress responses.

Proteins with calmodulin-like domains: structures and functional roles

The appearance of modular proteins is a widespread phenomenon during the evolution of proteins. The combinatorial arrangement of different functional and/or structural domains within a single polypeptide chain yields a wide variety of activities and regulatory properties to the modular proteins. In this review, we will discuss proteins, that in addition to their catalytic, transport, structure, localization or adaptor functions, also have segments resembling the helix-loop-helix EF-hand motifs found in Ca2+-binding proteins, such as calmodulin (CaM). These segments are denoted CaM-like domains (CaM-LDs) and play a regulatory role, making these CaM-like proteins sensitive to Ca2+ transients within the cell, and hence are able to transduce the Ca2+ signal leading to specific cellular responses. Importantly, this arrangement allows to this group of proteins direct regulation independent of other Ca2+-sensitive sensor/transducer proteins, such as CaM. In addition, this review also covers CaM-binding proteins, in which their CaM-binding site (CBS), in the absence of CaM, is proposed to interact with other segments of the same protein denoted CaM-like binding site (CLBS). CLBS are important regulatory motifs, acting either by keeping these CaM-binding proteins inactive in the absence of CaM, enhancing the stability of protein complexes and/or facilitating their dimerization via CBS/CLBS interaction. The existence of proteins containing CaM-LDs or CLBSs substantially adds to the enormous versatility and complexity of Ca2+/CaM signaling.

Regulation of Plant Immune Signaling by Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases

Activation of Ca²⁺ signaling is a universal response to stress that allows cells to quickly respond to environmental cues. Fluctuations in cytosolic Ca²⁺ are decoded in plants by Ca²⁺-sensing proteins such as Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs). The perception of microbes results in an influx of Ca²⁺ that activates numerous CDPKs responsible for propagating immune signals required for resistance against disease-causing pathogens. This review describes our current understanding of CDPK activation and regulation, and provides a comprehensive overview of CDPK-mediated immune signaling through interaction with various substrates.

The Arabidopsis Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases (CDPKs) and Their Roles in Plant Growth Regulation and Abiotic Stress Responses

As a ubiquitous secondary messenger in plant signaling systems, calcium ions (Ca2+) play essential roles in plant growth and development. Within the cellular signaling network, the accurate decoding of diverse Ca2+ signal is a fundamental molecular event. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), identified commonly in plants, are a kind of vital regulatory protein deciphering calcium signals triggered by various developmental and environmental stimuli. This review chiefly introduces Ca2+ distribution in plant cells, the classification of Arabidopsis thaliana CDPKs (AtCDPKs), the identification of the Ca2+-AtCDPK signal transduction mechanism and AtCDPKs’ functions involved in plant growth regulation and abiotic stress responses. The review presents a comprehensive overview of AtCDPKs and may contribute to the research of CDPKs in other plants.

Abscisic acid-induced degradation of Arabidopsis guanine nucleotide exchange factor requires calcium-dependent protein kinases

Abscisic acid (ABA) plays essential roles in plant development and responses to environmental stress. ABA induces subcellular translocation and degradation of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor RopGEF1, thus facilitating ABA core signal transduction. However, the underlying mechanisms for ABA-triggered RopGEF1 trafficking/degradation remain unknown. Studies have revealed that RopGEFs associate with receptor-like kinases to convey developmental signals to small ROP GTPases. However, how the activities of RopGEFs are modulated is not well understood. Type 2C protein phosphatases stabilize the RopGEF1 protein, indicating that phosphorylation may trigger RopGEF1 trafficking and degradation. We have screened inhibitors followed by several protein kinase mutants and find that quadruple-mutant plants in the Arabidopsis calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) cpk3/4/6/11 disrupt ABA-induced trafficking and degradation of RopGEF1. Moreover, cpk3/4/6/11 partially impairs ABA inhibition of cotyledon emergence. Several CPKs interact with RopGEF1. CPK4 binds to and phosphorylates RopGEF1 and promotes the degradation of RopGEF1. CPK-mediated phosphorylation of RopGEF1 at specific N-terminal serine residues causes the degradation of RopGEF1 and mutation of these sites also compromises the RopGEF1 overexpression phenotype in root hair development in Arabidopsis Our findings establish the physiological and molecular functions and relevance of CPKs in regulation of RopGEF1 and illuminate physiological roles of a CPK-GEF-ROP module in ABA signaling and plant development. We further discuss that CPK-dependent RopGEF degradation during abiotic stress could provide a mechanism for down-regulation of RopGEF-dependent growth responses.

Revisiting paradigms of Ca2+ signaling protein kinase regulation in plants

Calcium (Ca2+) serves as a universal second messenger in eukaryotic signal transduction. Understanding the Ca2+ activation kinetics of Ca2+ sensors is critical to understanding the cellular signaling mechanisms involved. In this review, we discuss the regulatory properties of two sensor classes: the Ca2+-dependent protein kinases (CPKs/CDPKs) and the calcineurin B-like (CBL) proteins that control the activity of CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs) and identify emerging topics and some foundational points that are not well established experimentally. Most plant CPKs are activated by physiologically relevant Ca2+ concentrations except for those with degenerate EF hands, and new results suggest that the Ca2+-dependence of kinase activation may be modulated by both protein–protein interactions and CPK autophosphorylation. Early results indicated that activation of plant CPKs by Ca2+ occurred by relief of autoinhibition. However, recent studies of protist CDPKs suggest that intramolecular interactions between CDPK domains contribute allosteric control to CDPK activation. Further studies are required to elucidate the mechanisms regulating plant CPKs. With CBL–CIPKs, the two major activation mechanisms are thought to be (i) binding of Ca2+-bound CBL to the CIPK and (ii) phosphorylation of residues in the CIPK activation loop. However, the relative importance of these two mechanisms in regulating CIPK activity is unclear. Furthermore, information detailing activation by physiologically relevant [Ca2+] is lacking, such that the paradigm of CBLs as Ca2+ sensors still requires critical, experimental validation. Developing models of CPK and CIPK regulation is essential to understand how these kinases mediate Ca2+ signaling and to the design of experiments to test function in vivo.

The rice cold-responsive calcium-dependent protein kinase OsCPK17 is regulated by alternative splicing and post-translational modifications

Plant calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are key proteins implicated in calcium-mediated signaling pathways of a wide range of biological events in the organism. The action of each particular CDPK is strictly regulated by many mechanisms in order to ensure an accurate signal translation and the activation of the adequate response processes. In this work, we investigated the regulation of a CDPK involved in rice cold stress response, OsCPK17, to better understand its mode of action. We identified two new alternative splicing (AS) mRNA forms of OsCPK17 encoding truncated versions of the protein, missing the CDPK activation domain. We analyzed the expression patterns of all AS variants in rice tissues and examined their subcellular localization in onion epidermal cells. The results indicate that the AS of OsCPK17 putatively originates truncated forms of the protein with distinct functions, and different subcellular and tissue distributions. Additionally, we addressed the regulation of OsCPK17 by post-translational modifications in several in vitro experiments. Our analysis indicated that OsCPK17 activity depends on its structural rearrangement induced by calcium binding, and that the protein can be autophosphorylated. The identified phosphorylation sites mostly populate the OsCPK17 N-terminal domain. Exceptions are phosphosites T107 and S136 in the kinase domain and S558 in the C-terminal domain. These phosphosites seem conserved in CDPKs and may reflect a common regulatory mechanism for this protein family.

Analysis of the potato calcium-dependent protein kinase family and characterization of StCDPK7, a member induced upon infection with Phytophthora infestans

We describe the potato CDPK family and place StCDPK7 as a player in potato response to Phytophthora infestans infection, identifying phenylalanine ammonia lyase as its specific phosphorylation target in vitro. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) decode calcium (Ca²⁺) signals and activate different signaling pathways involved in hormone signaling, plant growth, development, and both abiotic and biotic stress responses. In this study, we describe the potato CDPK/CRK multigene family; bioinformatic analysis allowed us to identify 20 new CDPK isoforms, three CDPK-related kinases (CRKs), and a CDPK-like kinase. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that 26 StCDPKs can be classified into four groups, whose members are predicted to undergo different acylation patterns and exhibited diverse expression levels in different tissues and in response to various stimuli. With the aim of characterizing those members that are particularly involved in plant-pathogen interaction, we focused on StCDPK7. Tissue expression profile revealed that StCDPK7 transcript levels are high in swollen stolons, roots, and mini tubers. Moreover, its expression is induced upon Phytophthora infestans infection in systemic leaves. Transient expression assays showed that StCDPK7 displays a cytosolic/nuclear localization in spite of having a predicted chloroplast transit peptide. The recombinant protein, StCDPK7:6xHis, is an active Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase that can phosphorylate phenylalanine ammonia lyase, an enzyme involved in plant defense response. The analysis of the potato CDPK family provides the first step towards the identification of CDPK isoforms involved in biotic stress. StCDPK7 emerges as a relevant player that could be manipulated to deploy disease resistance in potato crops.

Isolation and characterization of the TaSnRK2.10 gene and its association with agronomic traits in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Sucrose non-fermenting 1-related protein kinases (SnRKs) comprise a major family of signaling genes in plants and are associated with metabolic regulation, nutrient utilization and stress responses. This gene family has been proposed to be involved in sucrose signaling. In the present study, we cloned three copies of the TaSnRK2.10 gene from bread wheat on chromosomes 4A, 4B and 4D. The coding sequence (CDS) is 1086 bp in length and encodes a protein of 361 amino acids that exhibits functional domains shared with SnRK2s. Based on the haplotypes of TaSnRK2.10-4A (Hap-4A-H and Hap-4A-L), a cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) marker designated TaSnRK2.10-4A-CAPS was developed and mapped between the markers D-1092101 and D-100014232 using a set of recombinant inbred lines (RILs). The TaSnRK2.10-4B alleles (Hap-4B-G and Hap-4B-A) were transformed into allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR) markers TaSnRK2.10-4B-AS1 and TaSnRK2.10-4B-AS2, which were located between the markers D-1281577 and S-1862758. No diversity was found for TaSnRK2.10-4D. An association analysis using a natural population consisting of 128 winter wheat varieties in multiple environments showed that the thousand grain weight (TGW) and spike length (SL) of Hap-4A-H were significantly higher than those of Hap-4A-L, but pant height (PH) was significantly lower.

Autophosphorylation-based Calcium (Ca2+) Sensitivity Priming and Ca2+/Calmodulin Inhibition of Arabidopsis thaliana Ca2+-dependent Protein Kinase 28 (CPK28)

Plant calcium (Ca²⁺)-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) represent the primary Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase activities in plant systems. CPKs are composed of a dual specificity (Ser/Thr and Tyr) kinase domain tethered to a calmodulin-like domain (CLD) via an autoinhibitory junction (J). Although regulation of CPKs by Ca²⁺ has been extensively studied, the contribution of autophosphorylation in controlling CPK activity is less well understood. Furthermore, whether calmodulin (CaM) contributes to CPK regulation, as is the case for Ca²⁺/CaM-dependent protein kinases outside the plant lineage, remains an open question. We therefore screened a subset of plant CPKs for CaM binding and found that CPK28 is a high affinity Ca²⁺/CaM-binding protein. Using synthetic peptides and native gel electrophoresis, we coarsely mapped the CaM-binding domain to a site within the CPK28 J domain that overlaps with the known site of intramolecular interaction between the J domain and the CLD. Peptide kinase activity of fully dephosphorylated CPK28 was Ca²⁺-responsive and was inhibited by Ca²⁺/CaM. Using in situ autophosphorylated protein, we expand on the known set of CPK28 autophosphorylation sites, and we demonstrate that, unexpectedly, autophosphorylated CPK28 had enhanced kinase activity at physiological concentrations of Ca²⁺ compared with the dephosphorylated protein, suggesting that autophosphorylation functions to prime CPK28 for Ca²⁺ activation and might also allow CPK28 to remain active when Ca²⁺ levels are low. Furthermore, CPK28 autophosphorylation substantially reduced sensitivity of the kinase to Ca²⁺/CaM inhibition. Overall, our analyses uncover new complexities in the control of CPK28 and provide mechanistic support for Ca²⁺ signaling specificity through Ca²⁺ sensor priming.

Overexpression of sugarcane gene SoSnRK2.1 confers drought tolerance in transgenic tobacco

KEY MESSAGE

Overexpression of SoSnRK2.1 improved drought tolerance and growth of tobacco plants. Sucrose non-fermenting1-related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2) is a key enzyme in regulating ABA signal transduction in plants, and it plays a significant role in response to multiple abiotic stresses. In this research, SoSnRK2.1 gene was cloned from sugarcane variety GT21 and characterized under various stresses. The cloned SoSnRK2.1 gene has a complete open reading frame of 1002 bp, encoding a peptide of 333 amino acids. The amino acid sequence of SoSnRK2.1 has high homology with those of Zea mays and Oryza sativa, which belongs to SnRK2 s families. The expression of SoSnRK2.1 under stresses of drought, PEG, and ABA indicated that this gene is involved in stress responses in sugarcane. To investigate the gene function, fusional SoSnRK2.1-GFP-pBI121 under control of CaMV 35S was transformed into tobacco plants. Growth and morphology of transgenic plants demonstrated that overexpression of SoSnRK2.1 enhanced drought tolerance in tobacco. Transgenic tobacco plants had lower levels of ion leakage (IL), and contents of maleic dialdehyde (MDA) and H2O2, with higher activities of three antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT), and chlorophyll and relative water content (RWC) than those in wide type (WT) tobacco. SoSnRK2.1 was stably transmitted to the next generation via sexual reproduction. Though the data presented here are from a heterologous system, it is highly likely that SoSnRK2.1 is involved in the abiotic stress response in sugarcane and may be playing an important role in regulation of its growth.

Genome-wide identification of calcium-dependent protein kinases in soybean and analyses of their transcriptional responses to insect herbivory and drought stress

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are plant-specific calcium sensors that play important roles in various aspects of plant physiology. Here, we investigated phylogenic relationships, chromosomal locations, gene structures, and tissue-specific, herbivory- and drought-induced expression profiles of soybean (Glycine max) GmCDPKs. Fifty GmCDPK genes were identified, which phylogenetically grouped into 4 distinct clusters and distributed across 13 sub-clusters. Individual classes of GmCDPKs harbor highly conserved mRNA splicing sites, and their exon numbers and lengths were consistent with the phylogenetic relationships, suggesting that at least 13 ancestral CDPK genes had emerged before the split of monocots and eudicots. Gene expression analysis indicated that several GmCDPKs were tissue-specific expressed. GmCDPKs' transcript levels changed after wounding, exhibited specific expression patterns after simulated Spodoptera exigua feeding or soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) herbivory, and were largely independent of the phytohormones jasmonic acid and salicylic acid. The most pronounced transcriptional responses were detected after drought and abscisic acid treatments with more than half of all GmCDPKs being upregulated, suggesting their important roles during abiotic stress responses in soybean. Our data provide an important foundation for further functional dissection of GmCDPKs, especially in the context of soybean-insect interactions and drought stress adaptation.

Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase in Ginger Binds with Importin-α through Its Junction Domain for Nuclear Localization, and Further Interacts with NAC Transcription Factor

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are important sensors of Ca²⁺ elevations in plant cells regulating the gene expression linked with various cellular processes like stress response, growth and development, metabolism, and cytoskeleton dynamics. Ginger is an extensively used spice due to its unique flavor and immense medicinal value. The two major threats that interfere with the large scale production of ginger are the salinity and drought stress. ZoCDPK1 (Zingiber officinale Calcium-dependent protein kinase 1) is a salinity and drought-inducible CDPK gene isolated from ginger and undergoes dynamic subcellular localization during stress conditions. ZoCDPK1, with signature features of a typical Ca²⁺ regulated kinase, also possesses a bipartite nuclear localization sequence (NLS) in its junction domain (JD). A striking feature in ZoCDPK1 is the rare occurrence of a coupling between the NLS in JD and consensus sequences in regulatory domain. Here, we further identified its nature of nuclear localization and its interaction partners. In the homology model generated for ZoCDPK1, the regulatory domain mimics the crystal structure of the regulatory domain in Arabidopsis CDPK1. Molecular docking simulation of importin (ZoIMPα), an important protein involved in nuclear translocation, into the NLS of ZoCDPK1 was well-visualized. Furthermore, the direct interaction of ZoCDPK1 and ZoIMPα proteins was studied by the yeast 2-hybrid (Y2H) system, which confirmed that junction domain (JD) is an important interaction module required for ZoCDPK1 and ZoIMPα binding. The probable interacting partners of ZoCDPK1 were also identified using Y2H experiment. Of the 10 different stress-related interacting partners identified for ZoCDPK1, NAC transcription factor (TF) needs special mention, especially in the context of ZoCDPK1 function. The interaction between ZoCDPK1 and NAC TF, in fact, corroborate with the results of gene expression and over-expression studies of ZoCDPK1. Hence ZoCDPK1 is operating through NAC TF mediated ABA-independent, cold non-responsive stress signaling pathway in ginger.

Allosteric activation of apicomplexan calcium-dependent protein kinases

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) comprise the major group of Ca2+-regulated kinases in plants and protists. It has long been assumed that CDPKs are activated, like other Ca2+-regulated kinases, by derepression of the kinase domain (KD). However, we found that removal of the autoinhibitory domain from Toxoplasma gondii CDPK1 is not sufficient for kinase activation. From a library of heavy chain-only antibody fragments (VHHs), we isolated an antibody (1B7) that binds TgCDPK1 in a conformation-dependent manner and potently inhibits it. We uncovered the molecular basis for this inhibition by solving the crystal structure of the complex and simulating, through molecular dynamics, the effects of 1B7-kinase interactions. In contrast to other Ca2+-regulated kinases, the regulatory domain of TgCDPK1 plays a dual role, inhibiting or activating the kinase in response to changes in Ca2+ concentrations. We propose that the regulatory domain of TgCDPK1 acts as a molecular splint to stabilize the otherwise inactive KD. This dependence on allosteric stabilization reveals a novel susceptibility in this important class of parasite enzymes.

Calcium binding properties of calcium dependent protein kinase 1 (CaCDPK1) from Cicer arietinum

Calcium plays a crucial role as a secondary messenger in all aspects of plant growth, development and survival. Calcium dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are the major calcium decoders, which couple the changes in calcium level to an appropriate physiological response. The mechanism by which calcium regulates CDPK protein is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the interactions of Ca(2+) ions with the CDPK1 isoform of Cicer arietinum (CaCDPK1) using a combination of biophysical tools. CaCDPK1 has four different EF hands as predicted by protein sequence analysis. The fluorescence emission spectrum of CaCDPK1 showed quenching with a 5 nm red shift upon addition of calcium, indicating conformational changes in the tertiary structure. The plot of changes in intensity against calcium concentrations showed a biphasic curve with binding constants of 1.29 μM and 120 μM indicating two kinds of binding sites. Isothermal calorimetric (ITC) titration with CaCl2 also showed a biphasic curve with two binding constants of 0.027 μM and 1.7 μM. Circular dichroism (CD) spectra showed two prominent peaks at 208 and 222 nm indicating that CaCDPK1 is a α-helical rich protein. Calcium binding further increased the α-helical content of CaCDPK1 from 75 to 81%. Addition of calcium to CaCDPK1 also increased fluorescence of 8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (ANS) indicating exposure of hydrophobic surfaces. Thus, on the whole this study provides evidence for calcium induced conformational changes, exposure of hydrophobic surfaces and heterogeneity of EF hands in CaCDPK1.

ZmCPK1, a calcium-independent kinase member of the Zea mays CDPK gene family, functions as a negative regulator in cold stress signalling

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) have been shown to play important roles in plant environmental stress signal transduction. We report on the identification of ZmCPK1 as a member of the maize (Zea mays) CDPK gene family involved in the regulation of the maize cold stress response. Based upon in silico analysis of the Z. mays cv. B73 genome, we identified that the maize CDPK gene family consists of 39 members. Two CDPK members were selected whose gene expression was either increased (Zmcpk1) or decreased (Zmcpk25) in response to cold exposure. Biochemical analysis demonstrated that ZmCPK1 displays calcium-independent protein kinase activity. The C-terminal calcium-binding domain of ZmCPK1 was sufficient to mediate calcium independency of a previously calcium-dependent enzyme in chimeric ZmCPK25-CPK1 proteins. Furthermore, co-transfection of maize mesophyll protoplasts with active full-length ZmCPK1 suppressed the expression of a cold-induced marker gene, Zmerf3 (ZmCOI6.21). In accordance, heterologous overexpression of ZmCPK1 in Arabidopsis thaliana yielded plants with altered acclimation-induced frost tolerance. Our results identify ZmCPK1 as a negative regulator of cold stress signalling in maize.

The calcium signaling toolkit of the Apicomplexan parasites Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp

Apicomplexan parasites have complex life cycles, frequently split between different hosts and reliant on rapid responses as the parasites react to changing environmental conditions. Calcium ion (Ca(2+)) signaling is consequently essential for the cellular and developmental changes that support Apicomplexan parasitism. Apicomplexan genomes reveal a rich repertoire of genes involved in calcium signaling, although many of the genes responsible for observed physiological changes remain unknown. There is evidence, for example, for the presence of a nifedipine-sensitive calcium entry mechanism in Toxoplasma, but the molecular components involved in Ca(2+) entry in both Toxoplasma and Plasmodium, have not been identified. The major calcium stores are the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the acidocalcisomes, and the plant-like vacuole in Toxoplasma, or the food vacuole in Plasmodium spp. Pharmacological evidence suggests that Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores may be mediated by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) or cyclic ADP ribose (cADPR) although there is no molecular evidence for the presence of receptors for these second messengers in the parasites. Several Ca(2+)-ATPases are present in Apicomplexans and a putative mitochondrial Ca(2+)/H(+) exchanger has been identified. Apicomplexan genomes contain numerous genes encoding Ca(2+)-binding proteins, with the notable expansion of calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), whose study has revealed roles in gliding motility, microneme secretion, host cell invasion and egress, and parasite differentiation. Microneme secretion has also been shown to depend on the C2 domain containing protein DOC2 in both Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma, providing further evidence for the complex transduction of Ca(2+) signals in these organisms. The characterization of these pathways could lead to the discovery of novel drug targets and to a better understanding of the role of Ca(2+) in these parasites.

Cloning and characterization of SnRK2 subfamily II genes from Nicotiana tabacum

SnRK2 is a plant-specific protein kinase family involved in abiotic stress signalling. In this study, NtSnRK2.1, NtSnRK2.2, and NtSnRK2.3, were cloned from tobacco by in silico cloning and reverse transcription PCR. The three protein kinases were classed into subfamily II of the SnRK2 family using a phylogenetic tree and C-terminus analysis. Subcellular localization revealed NtSnRK2s in the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. Dynamic expression of NtSnRK2s in tobacco plants that were exposed to drought, salt, or cold stressors were characterised using quantitative real-time PCR. It was revealed that the three genes showed similar patterns of transcription under abiotic stress responses; there was evidence NtSnRK2s participated in abscisic acid-dependent signalling pathways. NtSnRK2.1-3 responded much faster to drought and salt than to cold stress. To investigate the role of NtSnRK2s under abiotic stresses, NtSnRK2.1 gene was over-expressed in tobacco. A stress tolerance assay showed that tobacco plants that over-expressed NtSnRK2.1 plants had greater salt tolerance. The results indicate that NtSnRK2s are involved in abiotic stress response pathways.

Phosphorylation of bacterial-type phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase by a Ca2+-dependent protein kinase suggests a link between Ca2+ signalling and anaplerotic pathway control in developing castor oil seeds

The aim of the present study was to characterize the native protein kinase [BTPC (bacterial-type phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase)-K (BTPC Ser451 kinase)] that in vivo phosphorylates Ser451 of the BTPC subunits of an unusual Class-2 PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) carboxylase hetero-octameric complex of developing COS (castor oil seeds). COS BTPC-K was highly purified by PEG fractionation and hydrophobic size-exclusion anion-exchange and affinity chromatographies. BTPC-K phosphorylated BTPC strictly at Ser451 (Km=1.0 μM; pH optimum=7.3), a conserved target residue occurring within an intrinsically disordered region, as well as the protein histone III-S (Km=1.7 μM), but not a COS plant-type PEP carboxylase or sucrose synthase or α-casein. Its activity was Ca2+- (K0.5=2.7 μM) and ATP- (Km=6.6 μM) dependent, and markedly inhibited by trifluoperazine, 3-phosphoglycerate and PEP, but insensitive to calmodulin or 14-3-3 proteins. BTPC-K exhibited a native molecular mass of ~63 kDa and was soluble rather than membrane-bound. Inactivation and reactivation occurred upon BTPC-K's incubation with GSSG and then DTT respectively. Ser451 phosphorylation by BTPC-K inhibited BTPC activity by ~50% when assayed under suboptimal conditions (pH 7.3, 1 mM PEP and 10 mM L-malate). Our collective results indicate a possible link between cytosolic Ca2+ signalling and anaplerotic flux control in developing COS.

Differential expression of CPKs and cytosolic Ca2+ variation in resistant and susceptible apple cultivars (Malus x domestica) in response to the pathogen Erwinia amylovora and mechanical wounding

Background

Plant calcium (Ca²⁺) signals are involved in a wide array of intracellular signalling pathways following pathogen invasion. Ca²⁺-binding sensory proteins such as Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) have been predicted to mediate signalling following Ca²⁺ influx after pathogen infection. However, to date this prediction has remained elusive.

Results

We conducted a genome-wide identification of the Malus x domestica CPK (MdCPK) gene family and identified 30 CPK genes. Comparative phylogenetic analysis of Malus CPKs with CPKs of Arabidopsis thaliana (AtCPKs), Oryza sativa (OsCPKs), Populous trichocarpa (PtCPKs) and Zea mays (ZmCPKs) revealed four different groups. From the phylogenetic tree, we found that MdCPKs are closely related to AtCPKs and PtCPKs rather than OsCPKs and ZmCPKs, indicating their dicot-specific origin. Furthermore, comparative quantitative real time PCR and intracellular cytosolic calcium ([Ca²⁺]_cyt) analysis were carried out on fire blight resistant and susceptible M. x domestica apple cultivars following infection with a pathogen (Erwinia amylovora) and/or mechanical damage. Calcium analysis showed an increased [Ca²⁺]_cyt over time in resistant cultivars as compared to susceptible cultivars. Gene expression studies showed that 11 out of the 30 MdCPKs were differentially expressed following pathogen infection.

Conclusions

We studied the genome-wide analysis of MdCPK gene family in Malus x domestica and analyzed their differential gene expression along with cytosolic calcium variation upon pathogen infection. There was a striking difference in MdCPKs gene expressions and [Ca²⁺]_cyt variations between resistant and susceptible M. x domestica cultivars in response to E. amylovora and mechanical wounding. Our genomic and bioinformatic analysis provided an important insight about the role of MdCPKs in modulating defence responses in susceptible and resistant apple cultivars. It also provided further information on early signalling and downstream signalling cascades in response to pathogenic and mechanical stress.

Structural analysis of a calmodulin variant from rice: the C-terminal extension of OsCaM61 regulates its calcium binding and enzyme activation properties

OsCaM61 is one of five calmodulins known to be present in Oryza sativa that relays the increase of cytosolic [Ca(2+)] to downstream targets. OsCaM61 bears a unique C-terminal extension with a prenylation site. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy we studied the behavior of the calmodulin (CaM) domain and the C-terminal extension of OsCaM61 in the absence and presence of Ca(2+). NMR dynamics data for OsCaM61 indicate that the two lobes of the CaM domain act together unlike the independent behavior of the lobes seen in mammalian CaM and soybean CaM4. Also, data demonstrate that the positively charged nuclear localization signal region in the tail in apo-OsCaM61 is helical, whereas it becomes flexible in the Ca(2+)-saturated protein. The extra helix in apo-OsCaM61 provides additional interactions in the C-lobe and increases the structural stability of the closed apo conformation. This leads to a decrease in the Ca(2+) binding affinity of EF-hands III and IV in OsCaM61. In Ca(2+)-OsCaM61, the basic nuclear localization signal cluster adopts an extended conformation, exposing the C-terminal extension for prenylation or enabling OsCaM61 to be transferred to the nucleus. Moreover, Ser(172) and Ala(173), residues in the tail, interact with different regions of the protein. These interactions affect the ability of OsCaM61 to activate different target proteins. Altogether, our data show that the tail is not simply a linker between the prenyl group and the protein but that it also provides a new regulatory mechanism that some plants have developed to fine-tune Ca(2+) signaling events.

Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum CDPK1 by conditional expression of its J-domain demonstrates a key role in schizont development

PfCDPK1 [Plasmodium falciparum CDPK1 (calcium-dependent protein kinase 1)] is highly expressed in parasite asexual blood and mosquito stages. Its role is still poorly understood, but unsuccessful gene knockout attempts suggest that it is essential for parasite replication and/or RBC (red blood cell) invasion. In the present study, by tagging endogenous CDPK1 with GFP (green fluorescent protein), we demonstrate that CDPK1 localizes to the parasite plasma membrane of replicating and invasive forms as well as very young intracellular parasites and does not appear to be exported into RBCs. Although a knockdown of endogenous CDPK1 was achieved using a destabilization domain, parasites tolerated reduced expression without displaying a phenotype. Because of this, the PfCDPK1 auto-inhibitory J (junction) domain was explored as a means of achieving inducible and specific inhibition. Under in vitro conditions, a fusion protein comprising a J-GFP fusion specifically bound to PfCDPK1 and inhibited its activity. This fusion protein was conditionally expressed in P. falciparum asexual blood stages under the regulation of a DD (destabilization domain) (J-GFP-DD). We demonstrate that J-GFP-DD binds to CDPK1 and that this results in the arrest of parasite development late in the cell cycle during early schizogony. These data point to an early schizont function for PfCDPK1 and demonstrate that conditionally expressing auto-inhibitory regions can be an effective way to address the function of Plasmodium enzymes.

Genome-wide identification of the maize calcium-dependent protein kinase gene family

In higher plants, calcium is a ubiquitous second messenger in eukaryotic signal transduction cascades. The plant-specific calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) play important roles regulating downstream components of calcium signaling. We conducted a genome-wide analysis of maize (Zea mays) CDPKs and identified 35 CDPK genes. Maize CDPKs were found to be similar to their counterparts in rice in gene structure, GC content and subgroup classification. Divergence time estimation suggested that maize-rice orthologs were largely consistent with the time when these two species diverged from the last common ancestor. Semiquantitative RT-PCR revealed that the 29 of total 35 maize CDPK genes were expressed in all tissues, including root, stem, leaf, tassel, ear, and kernel. Our genomic and bioinformatics analyses will provide an important foundation for further functional dissection of the maize CDPK gene family.

Biochemical regulation of in vivo function of plant calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPK)

Calcium (Ca(2+)) is a major second messenger in plant signal transduction mediating stress- and developmental processes. Plant Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are mono-molecular Ca(2+)-sensor/protein kinase effector proteins, which perceive Ca(2+) signals and translate them into protein phosphorylation and thus represent an ideal tool for signal transduction. This review focuses on recent developments in CDPK structural analysis and CDPK in vivo phosphorylation substrate identification. We discuss mechanisms implicated in the in vivo regulation of CDPK activity including Ca(2+) binding to the CDPK EF-hands, Ca(2+)-triggered intra-molecular conformation changes, and CDPK (auto)-phosphorylation. Moreover, we address regulation and integration into signaling cascades of selected members of the plant CDPK family, for which in vivo function and phosphorylation in abiotic and biotic stress signaling have been demonstrated. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 12th European Symposium on Calcium.

StCDPK5 confers resistance to late blight pathogen but increases susceptibility to early blight pathogen in potato via reactive oxygen species burst

• Potato (Solanum tuberosum) calcium-dependent protein kinase (StCDPK5) has been shown to phosphorylate the N-terminal region of plasma membrane RBOH (respiratory burst oxidase homolog) proteins, and participate in StRBOHB-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst. The constitutively active form, StCDPK5VK, provides a useful tool for gain-of-function analysis of RBOH in defense responses. • StCDPK5- and StCDPK5VK-green fluorescent protein fusion proteins were predominantly targeted to the plasma membrane, and conditional expression of StCDPK5VK activated StRBOHA-D. The interaction was confirmed by bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay. We generated transgenic potato plants containing StCDPK5VK under the control of a pathogen-inducible promoter to investigate the role of ROS burst on defense responses to blight pathogens. • Virulent isolates of the late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans and the early blight pathogen Alternaria solani induced hypersensitive response-like cell death accompanied by ROS production at the infection sites of transgenic plants. Transgenic plants showed resistance to the near-obligate hemibiotrophic pathogen P. infestans and, by contrast, increased susceptibility to the necrotrophic pathogen A. solani. • These results indicate that RBOH-dependent ROS contribute to basal defense against near-obligate pathogens, but have a negative role in resistance or have a positive role in expansion of disease lesions caused by necrotrophic pathogens.

Alternaric acid stimulates phosphorylation of His-tagged RiCDPK2, a calcium-dependent protein kinase in potato plants

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPK) are an essential component of plant defense mechanisms against pathogens. We investigated the effect of alternaric acid, a host-specific toxin produced by the plant fungal pathogen Alternaria solani (Pleosporaceae), on a putative plasma membrane and cytosolic kinase RiCDPK2 of potato (Solanum tuberosum) and on hypersensitive cell death of host potato cells. Alternaric acid, in the presence of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, stimulated in vitro phosphorylation of His-tagged RiCDPK2, a Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase found in potato plants. We concluded that Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ play an important role in the interaction between alternaric acid and RiCDPK2. Based on our observations, alternaric acid regulates RiCDPK2 kinase during the infection process in an interaction between host and A. solani, leading to the inhibition of hypersensitive cell death in the host. We suggest that alternaric acid is a primary determinant by which A. solani stimulates CDPK activity in the host, suppressing hypersensitive cell death.

Phosphorylation of calcineurin B-like (CBL) calcium sensor proteins by their CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs) is required for full activity of CBL-CIPK complexes toward their target proteins

Calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) represent a family of calcium sensor proteins that interact with a group of serine/threonine kinases designated as CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs). CBL-CIPK complexes are crucially involved in relaying plant responses to many environmental signals and in regulating ion fluxes. However, the biochemical characterization of CBL-CIPK complexes has so far been hampered by low activities of recombinant CIPKs. Here, we report on an efficient wheat germ extract-based in vitro transcription/translation protocol that yields active full-length wild-type CIPK proteins. We identified a conserved serine residue within the C terminus of CBLs as being phosphorylated by their interacting CIPKs. Remarkably, our studies revealed that CIPK-dependent CBL phosphorylation is strictly dependent on CBL-CIPK interaction via the CIPK NAF domain. The phosphorylation status of CBLs does not appear to influence the stability, localization, or CIPK interaction of these calcium sensor proteins in general. However, proper phosphorylation of CBL1 is absolutely required for the in vivo activation of the AKT1 K(+) channel by CBL1-CIPK23 and CBL9-CIPK23 complexes in oocytes. Moreover, we show that by combining CBL1, CIPK23, and AKT1, we can faithfully reconstitute CBL-dependent enhancement of phosphorylation of target proteins by CIPKs in vitro. In addition, we report that phosphorylation of CBL1 by CIPK23 is also required for the CBL1-dependent enhancement of CIPK23 activity toward its substrate. Together, these data identify a novel general regulatory mechanism of CBL-CIPK complexes in that CBL phosphorylation at their flexible C terminus likely provokes conformational changes that enhance specificity and activity of CBL-CIPK complexes toward their target proteins.

Genetic diversity analysis of abiotic stress response gene TaSnRK2.7-A in common wheat

Sucrose non-fermenting1-related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2) plays a key role in plant stress signaling transduction pathways. In this study, one copy of TaSnRK2.7, a SnRK2 member of common wheat, was isolated and characterized for nucleotide diversity among 45 wheat accessions with different stress-response features. Most of the accessions were elite wheat cultivars, which had been subject to population bottlenecks and intensive selection during breeding. Nucleotide and haplotype diversity across the entire TaSnRK2.7-A region was 0.00076 and 0.590, respectively, and diversity in non-coding regions was higher than that in coding regions. Sliding-window analysis showed variable levels of nucleotide variation along the entire TaSnRK2.7-A region; the sixth intron and ninth exon represented variation-enriched regions. As predicted, neutrality tests revealed that population bottlenecks or purifying selection had acted on the TaSnRK2.7-A gene, a relatively conserved gene. Furthermore, strong linkage disequilibrium between SNP loci extends across the entire TaSnRK2.7-A region. These findings demonstrate that the TaSnRK2.7-A genomic region has evolved under extensive selection pressure during crop breeding.

Stomatal closure by fast abscisic acid signaling is mediated by the guard cell anion channel SLAH3 and the receptor RCAR1

S-type anion channels are direct targets of abscisic acid (ABA) signaling and contribute to chloride and nitrate release from guard cells, which in turn initiates stomatal closure. SLAC1 was the first component of the guard cell S-type anion channel identified. However, we found that guard cells of Arabidopsis SLAC1 mutants exhibited nitrate conductance. SLAH3 (SLAC1 homolog 3) was also present in guard cells, and coexpression of SLAH3 with the calcium ion (Ca2+)-dependent kinase CPK21 in Xenopus oocytes mediated nitrate-induced anion currents. Nitrate, calcium, and phosphorylation regulated SLAH3 activity. CPK21-dependent SLAH3 phosphorylation and activation were blocked by ABI1, a PP2C-type protein phosphatase that is inhibited by ABA and inhibits the ABA signaling pathway in guard cells. We reconstituted the ABA-stimulated phosphorylation of the SLAH3 amino-terminal domain by CPK21 in vitro by including the ABA receptor-phosphatase complex RCAR1-ABI1 in the reactions. We propose that ABA perception by the complex consisting of ABA receptors of the RCAR/PYR/PYL family and ABI1 releases CPK21 from inhibition by ABI1, and then CPK21 is further activated by an increase in the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration, leading to its phosphorylation of SLAH3. Thus, the identification of SLAH3 as the nitrate-, calcium-, and ABA-sensitive guard cell anion channel provides insights into the relationship among stomatal response to drought, signaling by nitrate, and nitrate metabolism.

Characterization of a common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) TaSnRK2.7 gene involved in abiotic stress responses

Sucrose non-fermenting-1-related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2) plays a key role in the plant stress signalling transduction pathway via phosphorylation. Here, a SnRK2 member of common wheat, TaSnRK2.7, was cloned and characterized. Southern blot analysis suggested that the common wheat genome contains three copies of TaSnRK2.7. Subcellular localization showed the presence of TaSnRK2.7 in the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Expression patterns revealed that TaSnRK2.7 is expressed strongly in roots, and responds to polyethylene glycol, NaCl, and cold stress, but not to abscisic acid (ABA) application, suggesting that TaSnRK2.7 might participate in non-ABA-dependent signal transduction pathways. TaSnRK2.7 was transferred to Arabidopsis under the control of the CaMV-35S promoter. Function analysis showed that TaSnRK2.7 is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, decreasing osmotic potential, enhancing photosystem II activity, and promoting root growth. Its overexpression results in enhanced tolerance to multi-abiotic stress. Therefore, TaSnRK2.7 is a multifunctional regulatory factor in plants, and has the potential to be utilized in transgenic breeding to improve abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants.