Rational targeting of active-site tyrosine residues using sulfonyl fluoride probes

Identification of clickable HIV-1 capsid-targeting probes for viral replication inhibition

Of the targets for HIV-1 therapeutics, the capsid core is a relatively unexploited but alluring drug target due to its indispensable roles throughout virus replication. Because of this, we aimed to identify "clickable" covalent modifiers of the HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) for future functionalization. We screened a library of fluorosulfate compounds that can undergo sulfur(VI) fluoride exchange (SuFEx) reactions, and five compounds were identified as hits. These molecules were further characterized for antiviral effects. Several compounds impacted in vitro capsid assembly. One compound, BBS-103, covalently bound CA via a SuFEx reaction to Tyr145 and had antiviral activity in cell-based assays by perturbing virus production, but not uncoating. The covalent binding of compounds that target the HIV-1 capsid could aid in the future design of antiretroviral drugs or chemical probes that will help study aspects of HIV-1 replication.

Chemoselective Reactions of Functionalized Sulfonyl Halides

Chemoselective transformations of functionalized sulfonyl fluorides and chlorides are surveyed comprehensively. It is shown that sulfonyl fluorides provide an excellent selectivity control in their reactions. Thus, numerous conditions are tolerated by the SO2 F group - from amide and ester formation to directed ortho-lithiation and transition-metal-catalyzed cross-couplings. Meanwhile, sulfur (VI) fluoride exchange (SuFEx) is also compatible with numerous functional groups, thus confirming its title of "another click reaction". On the contrary, with a few exceptions, most transformations of functionalized sulfonyl chlorides typically occur at the SO2 Cl moiety.

Chemical technology principles for selective bioconjugation of proteins and antibodies

Proteins are multifunctional large organic compounds that constitute an essential component of a living system. Hence, control over their bioconjugation impacts science at the chemistry-biology-medicine interface. A chemical toolbox for their precision engineering can boost healthcare and open a gateway for directed or precision therapeutics. Such a chemical toolbox remained elusive for a long time due to the complexity presented by the large pool of functional groups. The precise single-site modification of a protein requires a method to address a combination of selectivity attributes. This review focuses on guiding principles that can segregate them to simplify the task for a chemical method. Such a disintegration systematically employs a multi-step chemical transformation to deconvolute the selectivity challenges. It constitutes a disintegrate (DIN) theory that offers additional control parameters for tuning precision in protein bioconjugation. This review outlines the selectivity hurdles faced by chemical methods. It elaborates on the developments in the perspective of DIN theory to demonstrate simultaneous regulation of reactivity, chemoselectivity, site-selectivity, modularity, residue specificity, and protein specificity. It discusses the progress of such methods to construct protein and antibody conjugates for biologics, including antibody-fluorophore and antibody-drug conjugates (AFCs and ADCs). It also briefs how this knowledge can assist in developing small molecule-based covalent inhibitors. In the process, it highlights an opportunity for hypothesis-driven routes to accelerate discoveries of selective methods and establish new targetome in the precision engineering of proteins and antibodies.

ABPP-CoDEL: Activity-Based Proteome Profiling-Guided Discovery of Tyrosine-Targeting Covalent Inhibitors from DNA-Encoded Libraries

DNA-encoded chemical library (DEL) has been extensively used for lead compound discovery for decades in academia and industry. Incorporating an electrophile warhead into DNA-encoded compounds recently permitted the discovery of covalent ligands that selectively react with a particular cysteine residue. However, noncysteine residues remain underexplored as modification sites of covalent DELs. Herein, we report the design and utility of tyrosine-targeting DELs of 67 million compounds. Proteome-wide reactivity analysis of tyrosine-reactive sulfonyl fluoride (SF) covalent probes suggested three enzymes (phosphoglycerate mutase 1, glutathione s-transferase 1, and dipeptidyl peptidase 3) as models of tyrosine-targetable proteins. Enrichment with SF-functionalized DELs led to the identification of a series of tyrosine-targeting covalent inhibitors of the model enzymes. In-depth mechanistic investigation revealed their novel modes of action and reactive ligand-accessible hotspots of the enzymes. Our strategy of combining activity-based proteome profiling and covalent DEL enrichment (ABPP-CoDEL), which generated selective covalent binders against a variety of target proteins, illustrates the potential use of this methodology in further covalent drug discovery.

Direct mapping of ligandable tyrosines and lysines in cells with chiral sulfonyl fluoride probes

Advances in chemoproteomic technology have revealed covalent interactions between small molecules and protein nucleophiles, primarily cysteine, on a proteome-wide scale. Most chemoproteomic screening approaches are indirect, relying on competition between electrophilic fragments and a minimalist electrophilic probe with inherently limited proteome coverage. Here we develop a chemoproteomic platform for direct electrophile-site identification based on enantiomeric pairs of clickable arylsulfonyl fluoride probes. Using stereoselective site modification as a proxy for ligandability in intact cells, we identify 634 tyrosines and lysines within functionally diverse protein sites, liganded by structurally diverse probes. Among multiple validated sites, we discover a chiral probe that modifies Y228 in the MYC binding site of the epigenetic regulator WDR5, as revealed by a high-resolution crystal structure. A distinct chiral probe stimulates tumour cell phagocytosis by covalently modifying Y387 in the recently discovered immuno-oncology target APMAP. Our work provides a deep resource of ligandable tyrosines and lysines for the development of covalent chemical probes.

Development of a covalent cereblon-based PROTAC employing a fluorosulfate warhead

Many cereblon (CRBN) ligands have been used to develop proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs), but all are reversible binders of the E3 ubiquitin ligase. We recently described the use of sulfonyl exchange chemistry to design binders that covalently engage histidine 353 in CRBN for the first time. Here we show that covalent CRBN ligands can be used to develop efficient PROTAC degraders. We demonstrate that the fluorosulfate PROTAC FS-ARV-825 covalently labels CRBN in vitro, and in cells the BRD4 degrader is insensitive to wash-out and competition by potent reversible CRBN ligands, reflecting enhanced pharmacodynamics. We anticipate that covalent CRBN-based PROTACs will enhance degradation efficiencies, thus expanding the scope of addressable targets using the heterobifunctional degrader modality.

A structural biology view on the enzymes involved in eukaryotic mRNA turnover

The cellular environment contains numerous ribonucleases that are dedicated to process mRNA transcripts that have been targeted for degradation. Here, we review the three dimensional structures of the ribonuclease complexes (Pan2-Pan3, Ccr4-Not, Xrn1, exosome) and the mRNA decapping enzymes (Dcp2, DcpS) that are involved in mRNA turnover. Structures of major parts of these proteins have been experimentally determined. These enzymes and factors do not act in isolation, but are embedded in interaction networks which regulate enzyme activity and ensure that the appropriate substrates are recruited. The structural details of the higher order complexes that form can, in part, be accurately deduced from known structural data of sub-complexes. Interestingly, many of the ribonuclease and decapping enzymes have been observed in structurally different conformations. Together with experimental data, this highlights that structural changes are often important for enzyme function. We conclude that the known structural data of mRNA decay factors provide important functional insights, but that static structural data needs to be complemented with information regarding protein motions to complete the picture of how transcripts are turned over. In addition, we highlight multiple aspects that influence mRNA turnover rates, but that have not been structurally characterized so far.

Efficient Ligand Discovery Using Sulfur(VI) Fluoride Reactive Fragments

Sulfur(VI) fluorides (SFs) have emerged as valuable electrophiles for the design of "beyond-cysteine" covalent inhibitors and offer potential for expansion of the liganded proteome. Since SFs target a broad range of nucleophilic amino acids, they deliver an approach for the covalent modification of proteins without requirement for a proximal cysteine residue. Further to this, libraries of reactive fragments present an innovative approach for the discovery of ligands and tools for proteins of interest by leveraging a breadth of mass spectrometry analytical approaches. Herein, we report a screening approach that exploits the unique properties of SFs for this purpose. Libraries of SF-containing reactive fragments were synthesized, and a direct-to-biology workflow was taken to efficiently identify hit compounds for CAII and BCL6. The most promising hits were further characterized to establish the site(s) of covalent modification, modification kinetics, and target engagement in cells. Crystallography was used to gain a detailed molecular understanding of how these reactive fragments bind to their target. It is anticipated that this screening protocol can be used for the accelerated discovery of "beyond-cysteine" covalent inhibitors.

Visible-light-mediated sulfonylation of anilines with sulfonyl fluorides

Sulfonylaniline motif plays an important role in pharmaceutical sciences. Developed methods towards this structure are typically lack of good modifiability and stability. In this study, visible-light-mediated sulfonylation of aniline using sulfonyl fluoride as a modifiable and stable sulfonylation reagent is described. A variety of substituted sulfonylanilines were synthesized under mild reaction conditions with moderate to good efficiency. The example of late-stage sulfonylation highlighted the advantage of using sulfonyl fluoride as a sulfonylation reagent. In addition, the crucial influence of counterions on the photocatalyst observed in this system would inspire further research on the photochemistry of sulfonyl fluoride.

Exploring Covalent Bond Formation at Tyr-82 for Inhibition of Ral GTPase Activation

Ral RAS GTPases are directly activated by KRAS through a trimeric complex with a guanine exchange factor. Ral is considered undruggable and lacks an accessible cysteine for covalent drug development. Previously we had reported an aryl sulfonyl fluoride fragment that formed a covalent bond at Tyr-82 on Ral and created a deep and well-defined pocket. Here, we explore this pocket further through design and synthesis of several fragment derivatives. The fragment core is modified by introducing tetrahydronaphthalene or benzodioxane rings to enhance affinity and stability of the sulfonyl fluoride reactive group. The deep pocket in the Switch II region is also explored by modifying the aromatic ring of the fragment that is ensconced into the pocket. Compounds 19 (SOF-658) and 26 (SOF-648) formed a single robust adduct specifically at Tyr-82, inhibited Ral GTPase exchange in buffer and in mammalian cells, and blocked invasion of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cancer cells. Compound 19 (SOF-658) was stable in buffer, mouse, and human microsomes suggesting that further optimization could lead to small molecules to probe Ral activity in tumor models.

Covalent drug discovery using sulfur(VI) fluoride exchange warheads

INTRODUCTION

Covalent drug discovery has traditionally focused on targeting cysteine, but the amino acid is often absent in protein binding sites. This review makes the case to move beyond cysteine labeling using sulfur (VI) fluoride exchange (SuFEx) chemistry to expand the druggable proteome.

AREAS COVERED

Recent advances in SuFEx medicinal chemistry and chemical biology are described, which have enabled the development of covalent chemical probes that site-selectively engage amino acid residues (including tyrosine, lysine, histidine, serine, and threonine) in binding pockets. Areas covered include chemoproteomic mapping of the targetable proteome, structure-based design of covalent inhibitors and molecular glues, metabolic stability profiling, and synthetic methodologies that have expedited the delivery of SuFEx modulators.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite recent innovations in SuFEx medicinal chemistry, focused preclinical research is required to ensure the field moves from early chemical probe discovery to the delivery of transformational covalent drug candidates. The authors believe that covalent drug candidates designed to engage residues beyond cysteine using sulfonyl exchange warheads will likely enter clinical trials in the coming years.

Synthesis of Pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridinyl, Pyrazolo[1,5-a]quinolinyl, and Pyrazolo[5,1-a]isoquinolinyl Sulfonyl Fluorides via a [3 + 2] Annulation

A [3 + 2] cycloaddition reaction of N-aminopyridines, N-aminoquinolines, and N-aminoisoquinolines with 1-bromoethene-1-sulfonyl fluoride (BESF) was performed to obtain optimum yields of various useful pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridinyl, pyrazolo[1,5-a]quinolinyl, and pyrazolo[5,1-a]isoquinolinyl sulfonyl fluorides (43-90% yield). The transformation process showed broad substrate specificity, mild reaction conditions, and operational simplicity. Therefore, the reaction has great applicable value in the field of medicinal chemistry and other disciplines.

Sulfur(VI) fluorides as tools in biomolecular and medicinal chemistry

Recent advances in the synthesis of sulfur(VI)-fluorides has enabled incredible growth in their application in biomolecular chemistry. This review aims to serve as a primer highlighting synthetic strategies toward a diversity of S(VI) fluorides and their application in chemical biology, bioconjugation, and medicinal chemistry.

2-Ethynylbenzaldehyde-Based, Lysine-Targeting Irreversible Covalent Inhibitors for Protein Kinases and Nonkinases

Lysine-targeting irreversible covalent inhibitors have attracted growing interests in recent years, especially in the fields of kinase research. Despite encouraging progress, few chemistries are available to develop inhibitors that are exclusively lysine-targeting, selective, and cell-active. We report herein a 2-ethynylbenzaldehyde (EBA)-based, lysine-targeting strategy to generate potent and selective small-molecule inhibitors of ABL kinase by selectively targeting the conserved catalytic lysine in the enzyme. We showed the resulting compounds were cell-active, capable of covalently engaging endogenous ABL kinase in K562 cells with long-residence time and few off-targets. We further validated the generality of this strategy by developing EBA-based irreversible inhibitors against EGFR (a kinase) and Mcl-1 (a nonkinase) that covalently reacted with the catalytic and noncatalytic lysine within each target.

Chemical modification of proteins - challenges and trends at the start of the 2020s

Ribosomally expressed proteins perform multiple, versatile, and specialized tasks throughout Nature. In modern times, chemically modified proteins, including improved hormones, enzymes, and antibody-drug-conjugates have become available and have found advanced industrial and pharmaceutical applications. Chemical modification of proteins is used to introduce new functionalities, improve stability or drugability. Undertaking chemical reactions with proteins without compromising their native function is still a core challenge as proteins are large conformation dependent multifunctional molecules. Methods for functionalization ideally should be chemo-selective, site-selective, and undertaken under biocompatible conditions in aqueous buffer to prevent denaturation of the protein. Here the present challenges in the field are discussed and methods for modification of the 20 encoded amino acids as well as the N-/C-termini and protein backbone are presented. For each amino acid, common and traditional modification methods are presented first, followed by more recent ones.

Profiling Sulfur(VI) Fluorides as Reactive Functionalities for Chemical Biology Tools and Expansion of the Ligandable Proteome

Here, we report a comprehensive profiling of sulfur(VI) fluorides (S^VI-Fs) as reactive groups for chemical biology applications. S^VI-Fs are reactive functionalities that modify lysine, tyrosine, histidine, and serine sidechains. A panel of S^VI-Fs were studied with respect to hydrolytic stability and reactivity with nucleophilic amino acid sidechains. The use of S^VI-Fs to covalently modify carbonic anhydrase II (CAII) and a range of kinases was then investigated. Finally, the S^VI-F panel was used in live cell chemoproteomic workflows, identifying novel protein targets based on the type of S^VI-F used. This work highlights how S^VI-F reactivity can be used as a tool to expand the liganded proteome.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Activity Screening of Some Novel 3-(2-(3-(Substituted benzyloxy)oxetan-3-yl)-3-fluorophenoxy)-8-fluoro-2-methylquinoline Derivatives as Potential Antimycobacterial Agents

Microbial infections remain a grave threat to global health security due to increasing antibiotic resistance. The coronavirus pandemic has increased the risk of microbial infection. To combat these infections, the search for new therapeutic agents is in high demand. A series of new 3-(2-(3-(substituted benzyloxy)oxetan-3-yl)-3-fluorophenoxy)-8-fluoro-2-methylquinoline (9a-i) derivatives have been synthesized. The structure of synthesized compounds was analyzed by spectroscopic methods. The newly synthesized oxetanyl-quinoline derivatives were evaluated for in vitro antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (NCIM 2574), Proteus mirabilis (NCIM 2388), Bacillus subtilis (NCIM 2063), Staphylococcus albus (NCIM 2178), and in vitro antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger (ATCC 504) and Candida albicans (NCIM 3100). Six oxetanyl-quinoline derivatives 9a, 9b, 9c, 9d, 9e, and 9h have shown good antibacterial activity against P. mirabilis with MIC 31.25-62.5 μM, 3-(((3-(2-fluoro-6-((8-fluoro-2-methylquinolin-3-yl)oxy)phenyl)oxetan-3-yl)oxy)methyl)benzonitrile (9f) reporting comparable activity against P. mirabilis with respect to the standard drug streptomycin. Compound 9a also showed good activity against B. subtilis with MIC 31.25 μM. The eight compounds 9a, 9b, 9d, 9e, 9f, 9g, 9h, and 9i have shown good antifungal activity against A. niger. The synthesized compounds were also screened for antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv by MTT assay. Among the nine derivatives, compounds 9b, 9c, 9d, 9f, 9g, 9h, and 9i showed excellent antimycobacterial activity with MIC 3.41-12.23 μM, and two derivatives showed good activity with MIC 27.29-57.73 μM. All the derivatives were further evaluated for cytotoxicity against the Vero cell line and were found to be nontoxic. The in silico study of compounds 9a-i was performed against ATP synthase (PDB ID: 4V1F) and most of the compounds showed the stable and significant binding to ATP synthase, confirming their plausible mode of action as ATP synthase inhibitors. Thus, the significant antimycobacterial activity of 3-(2-(3-(substituted benzyloxy)oxetan-3-yl)-3-fluorophenoxy)-8-fluoro-2-methylquinoline derivatives has suggested that the oxatenyl-quinoline compounds could assist in the development of lead compounds to treat mycobacterial infections.

Advances in covalent drug discovery

Covalent drugs have been used to treat diseases for more than a century, but tools that facilitate the rational design of covalent drugs have emerged more recently. The purposeful addition of reactive functional groups to existing ligands can enable potent and selective inhibition of target proteins, as demonstrated by the covalent epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors used to treat various cancers. Moreover, the identification of covalent ligands through 'electrophile-first' approaches has also led to the discovery of covalent drugs, such as covalent inhibitors for KRAS(G12C) and SARS-CoV-2 main protease. In particular, the discovery of KRAS(G12C) inhibitors validates the use of covalent screening technologies, which have become more powerful and widespread over the past decade. Chemoproteomics platforms have emerged to complement covalent ligand screening and assist in ligand discovery, selectivity profiling and target identification. This Review showcases covalent drug discovery milestones with emphasis on the lessons learned from these programmes and how an evolving toolbox of covalent drug discovery techniques facilitates success in this field.

Tyrosine bioconjugation with hypervalent iodine

Hypervalent iodine reagents have recently emerged as powerful tools for late-stage peptide and protein functionalization. Herein we report a tyrosine bioconjugation methodology for the introduction of hypervalent iodine onto biomolecules under physiological conditions. Tyrosine residues were engaged in a selective addition onto the alkynyl bond of ethynylbenziodoxolones (EBX), resulting in stable vinylbenziodoxolones (VBX) bioconjugates. The methodology was successfully applied to peptides and proteins and tolerated all other nucleophilic residues, with the exception of cysteine. The generated VBX were further functionalized by palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling and azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions. The method could be successfully used to modify bioactive natural products and native streptavidin to enable thiol-mediated cellular uptake.

Covalent drugs targeting histidine - an unexploited opportunity?

Covalent drugs and chemical probes often possess pharmacological advantages over reversible binding ligands, such as enhanced potency and pharmacodynamic duration. The highly nucleophilic cysteine thiol is commonly targeted using acrylamide electrophiles, but the amino acid is rarely present in protein binding sites. Sulfonyl exchange chemistry has expanded the covalent drug discovery toolkit by enabling the rational design of irreversible inhibitors targeting tyrosine, lysine, serine and threonine. Probes containing the sulfonyl fluoride warhead have also been shown to serendipitously label histidine residues in proteins. Histidine targeting is an attractive prospect because the residue is frequently proximal to protein small molecule ligands and the imidazole side chain possesses desirable nucleophilicity. We recently reported the design of cereblon molecular glues to site-selectively modify a histidine in the thalidomide binding site using sulfonyl exchange chemistry. We believe that histidine targeting holds great promise for future covalent drug development and this Opinion highlights these opportunities.

A reductive dehalogenative process for chemo- and stereoselective synthesis of 1,3-dienylsulfonyl fluorides

A method for the mild and efficient synthesis of 1,3-dienylsulfonyl fluorides was developed via dehalogenation of α-halo-1,3-dienylsulfonyl fluorides in the presence of zinc powder and acetic acid, achieving exclusive chemo- and stereoselectivities. This protocol was successfully applied to the synthesis of heterocyclic dienylsulfonyl fluorides and polyene sulfonyl fluoride.

Diversity oriented clicking delivers β-substituted alkenyl sulfonyl fluorides as covalent human neutrophil elastase inhibitors

Diversity Oriented Clicking (DOC) is a discovery method geared toward the rapid synthesis of functional libraries. It combines the best attributes of both classical and modern click chemistries. DOC strategies center upon the chemical diversification of core "SuFExable" hubs-exemplified by 2-Substituted-Alkynyl-1-Sulfonyl Fluorides (SASFs)-enabling the modular assembly of compounds through multiple reaction pathways. We report here a range of stereoselective Michael-type addition pathways from SASF hubs including reactions with secondary amines, carboxylates, 1H-1,2,3-triazole, and halides. These high yielding conjugate addition pathways deliver unprecedented β-substituted alkenyl sulfonyl fluorides as single isomers with minimal purification, greatly enriching the repertoire of DOC and holding true to the fundamentals of modular click chemistry. Further, we demonstrate the potential for biological function - a key objective of click chemistry - of this family of SASF-derived molecules as covalent inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase.

Dual roles of drug or its metabolite-protein conjugate: Cutting-edge strategy of drug discovery using shotgun proteomics

Many drugs can bind directly to proteins or be bioactivated by metabolizing enzymes to form reactive metabolites (RMs) that rapidly bind to proteins to form drug-protein conjugates or metabolite-protein conjugates (DMPCs). The close relationship between DMPCs and idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions (IADRs) has been recognized; drug discovery teams tend to avoid covalent interactions in drug discovery projects. Covalent interactions in DMPCs can provide high potency and long action duration and conquer the intractable targets, inspiring drug design, and development. This forms the dual role feature of DMPCs. Understanding the functional implications of DMPCs in IADR control and therapeutic applications requires precise identification of these conjugates from complex biological samples. While classical biochemical methods have contributed significantly to DMPC detection in the past decades, the low abundance and low coverage of DMPCs have become a bottleneck in this field. An emerging transformation toward shotgun proteomics is on the rise. The evolving shotgun proteomics techniques offer improved reproducibility, throughput, specificity, operability, and standardization. Here, we review recent progress in the systematic discovery of DMPCs using shotgun proteomics. Furthermore, the applications of shotgun proteomics supporting drug development, toxicity mechanism investigation, and drug repurposing processes are also reviewed and prospected.

A practical fluorosulfonylating platform via photocatalytic imidazolium-based SO2F radical reagent

Sulfonyl fluorides are key components in the fields of chemical biology, materials science and drug discovery. In this line, the highly active SO₂F radical has been employed for the construction of sulfonyl fluorides, but the utilization of gaseous ClSO₂F as radical precursor is limited due to the tedious and hazardous preparation. Meanwhile, the synthesis of sulfonyl fluorides from inert SO₂F₂ gas through a fluorosulfonyl radical (·SO₂F) process has met with inevitable difficulties due to the high homolytic bond dissociation energy of the S(VI)-F bond. Here we report a radical fluorosulfonylation strategy for the stereoselective synthesis of alkenyl sulfonyl fluorides and functional alkyl sulfonyl fluorides with an air-stable crystalline benzimidazolium fluorosulfonate cationic salt reagent. This bench-stable redox-active reagent offers a useful and operational protocol for the radical fluorosulfonylation of unsaturated hydrocarbons with good yield and high stereoselectivity, which can be further transformed into valuable functional SO₂F moieties.

Sulfonyl fluorides have potential application in chemical biology, materials science, and drug discovery, but their preparation remains challenging. Here, the authors report an air-stable fluorosulfonylating reagent that enables the radical fluorosulfonylation, hydrofluorosulfonylation and migratory SO₂F-difunctionalization of unsaturated hydrocarbons to construct a variety of sulfonyl fluoride compounds.

A cascade reaction for regioselective construction of pyrazole-containing aliphatic sulfonyl fluorides

A copper-catalyzed cascade reaction of α-diazocarbonyl compounds with ethenesulfonyl fluoride (ESF) is developed, affording a variety of highly functionalized pyrazolyl aliphatic sulfonyl fluorides in good to excellent yields (66-98%). This transformation features broad substrates, exclusive regioselectivity, high atom economy and operational simplicity, thus providing a straightforward method for the direct construction of pyrazole-containing aliphatic sulfonyl fluorides, which will provide great applicable value in medicinal chemistry and other related disciplines.

Inverse Drug Discovery identifies weak electrophiles affording protein conjugates

Traditional biochemical target-based and phenotypic cell-based screening approaches to drug discovery have produced the current covalent and non-covalent pharmacopoeia. Strategies to expand the druggable proteome include Inverse Drug Discovery, which involves incubating one weak organic electrophile at a time with the proteins of a living cell to identify the conjugates formed. An alkyne substructure in each organic electrophile enables affinity chromatography-mass spectrometry, which produces a list of proteins that each distinct compound reacts with. Herein, we review Inverse Drug Discovery in the context of organic compounds of intermediate complexity harboring Sulfur(VI)-fluoride exchange (SuFEx) electrophiles used to expand the cellular proteins that can be targeted covalently.

Reactive chemistry for covalent probe and therapeutic development

Bioactive small molecules that form covalent bonds with a target protein are important tools for basic research and can be highly effective drugs. This review highlights reactive groups found in a collection of thiophilic and oxophilic drugs that mediate pharmacological activity through a covalent mechanism of action (MOA). We describe the application of advanced proteomic and bioanalytical methodologies for assessing selectivity of these covalent agents to guide and inspire the search for additional electrophiles suitable for covalent probe and therapeutic development. While the emphasis is on chemistry for modifying catalytic serine, threonine or cysteine residues, we devote a substantial fraction of the review to a collection of exploratory reactive groups of understudied residues on proteins.

Sulfonyl fluorides as targets and substrates in the development of new synthetic methods

The advent of sulfur(VI)-fluoride exchange (SuFEx) processes as transformations with click-like reactivity has invigorated research into electrophilic species featuring a sulfur-fluorine bond. Among these, sulfonyl fluorides have emerged as the workhorse functional group, with diverse applications being reported. Sulfonyl fluorides are used as electrophilic warheads by both medicinal chemists and chemical biologists. The balance of reactivity and stability that is so attractive for these applications, particularly the resistance of sulfonyl fluorides to hydrolysis under physiological conditions, has provided opportunities for synthetic chemists. New synthetic approaches that start with sulfur-containing substrates include the activation of sulfonamides using pyrilium salts, the deoxygenation of sulfonic acids, and the electrochemical oxidation of thiols. Employing non-sulfur-containing substrates has led to the development of transition-metal-catalysed processes based on palladium, copper and nickel, as well as the use of SO₂F₂ gas as an electrophilic hub. Selectively manipulating molecules that already contain a sulfonyl fluoride group has also proved to be a popular tactic, with metal-catalysed processes again at the fore. Finally, coaxing sulfonyl fluorides to engage with nucleophiles, when required, and under suitable reaction conditions, has led to new activation methods. This Review provides an overview of the challenges in the efficient synthesis and manipulation of these intriguing functional groups.

‘Awaken’ aryl sulfonyl fluoride: a new partner in the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction

An example of the activation of the –SO2F group, which is traditionally considered a stable group even in the presence of a transition metal, is described using a novel partner in the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction catalyzed by Pd(OAc)2 and Ruphos as ligands.

Applications of DABSO as an SO2 Gas Surrogate in Organic Synthesis

1,4-Diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane bis(sulfur dioxide), DABCO.SO2, or DABSO, a bench-stable colorless solid, is industrially produced by the reaction of DABCO with the condensed and bubbled sulfur dioxide gas at low temperatures. However,...

Fatty Acyl Sulfonyl Fluoride as an Activity-Based Probe for Profiling Fatty Acid-Associated Proteins in Living Cells

Fatty acids play fundamental structural, metabolic, functional, and signaling roles in all biological systems. Altered fatty acid levels and metabolism have been associated with many pathological conditions. Chemical probes have greatly facilitated biological studies on fatty acids. Herein, we report the development and characterization of an alkynyl-functionalized long-chain fatty acid-based sulfonyl fluoride probe for covalent labelling, enrichment, and identification of fatty acid-associated proteins in living cells. Our quantitative chemical proteomics show that this sulfonyl fluoride probe targets diverse classes of fatty acid-associated proteins including many metabolic serine hydrolases that are known to be involved in fatty acid metabolism and modification. We further validate that the probe covalently modifies the catalytically or functionally essential serine or tyrosine residues of its target proteins and enables evaluation of their inhibitors. The sulfonyl fluoride-based chemical probe thus represents a new tool for profiling the expression and activity of fatty acid-associated proteins in living cells.

Luminol anchors improve the electrochemical-tyrosine-click labelling of proteins

New methods for chemo-selective modifications of peptides and native proteins are important in chemical biology and for the development of therapeutic conjugates. Less abundant and uncharged amino-acid residues are interesting targets to form less heterogeneous conjugates and preserve biological functions. Phenylurazole (PhUr), N-methylphenylurazole (NMePhUr) and N-methylluminol (NMeLum) derivatives were described as tyrosine (Y) anchors after chemical or enzymatic oxidations. Recently, we developed the first electrochemical Y-bioconjugation method coined eY-click to activate PhUr in biocompatible media. In this work, we assessed the limitations, benefits and relative efficiencies of eY-click conjugations performed with a set of PhUr, NMePhUr and NMeLum derivatives. Results evidenced a high efficiency of NMeLum that showed a complete Y-chemoselectivity on polypeptides and biologically relevant proteins after soft electrochemical activation. Side reactions on nucleophilic or heteroaromatic amino-acids such as lysine or tryptophan were never observed during mass spectrometry analysis. Myoglobine, bovine serum albumin, a plant mannosidase, glucose oxidase and the therapeutically relevant antibody trastuzumab were efficiently labelled with a fluorescent probe in a two-step approach combining eY-click and strain-promoted azide–alkyne cyclization (SPAAC). The proteins conserved their structural integrity as observed by circular dichroism and the trastuzumab conjugate showed a similar binding affinity for the natural HER2 ligand as shown by bio-layer interferometry. Compared to our previously described protocol with PhUr, eY-click with NMeLum species showed faster reaction kinetics, higher (complete) Y-chemoselectivity and reactivity, and offers the interesting possibility of the double tagging of solvent-exposed Y.

We assessed the relative efficiencies of tyrosine anchors in the electrochemical conjugation of peptides and proteins. Luminol derivatives showed faster reaction kinetics, complete tyrosine-chemoselectivity, and possible double modification.

Copper-Promoted Conjugate Addition of Carboxylic Acids to Ethenesulfonyl Fluoride (ESF) for Constructing Aliphatic Sulfonyl Fluorides

A CuO-promoted direct hydrocarboxylation of ethenesulfonyl fluoride (ESF) was developed using carboxylic acid as a nucleophile under mild conditions. A variety of molecules containing both ester group and aliphatic sulfonyl fluoride moiety exhibit great potential in medicinal chemistry and chemical biology. Furthermore, the modification of the known drugs Ibuprofen and Aspirin was also demonstrated.

SMaSh: A Streptavidin Mass Shift Assay for Rapidly Quantifying Target Occupancy by Irreversible Inhibitors

The streptavidin mass shift (SMaSh) assay is a robust and fast approach for quantifying target protein occupancy by a covalent inhibitor or ligand. It exploits the biotin-streptavidin bond using the Simple Western platform. One measurement on a single sample determines both total and occupied target protein simultaneously and is, therefore, self-normalizing. The approach works in diverse and complex biological matrices and, with no need for matched vehicle-treated controls, readily applies to tissues from animal pharmacology models. Assessing occupancy is critical in the development of targeted covalent drugs. We demonstrate its use by characterizing and validating a variety of chemical probes for Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK, UniprotKB Q10607) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK1/2/MAPK1/2, UniprotKB P28482 and P27361) and determining target engagement of covalent inhibitors for both targets and off-target engagement for ERK. We demonstrated that it works in cell lysates, tissues, and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The SMaSh assay is superior to traditional methods and broadly useful as a tool in assessing covalent biological probes or targeted covalent inhibitors.

Identification of simple arylfluorosulfates as potent agents against resistant bacteria

Sulfur fluoride exchange (SuFEx), a next generation of click chemistry, opens an avenue for drug discovery. We report here the discovery and structure-activity relationship studies of a series of arylfluorosulfates, synthesized via SuFEx, as antibacterial agents. Arylfluorosulfates 3, 81, and 101 showed potency to overcome multidrug resistance and were not susceptible to the generation of resistance. They exhibited rapid bactericidal potency and selectively killed gram-positive bacterial strains. These compounds also exhibited the ability to disrupt established bacterial biofilm and kill persisters derived from biofilm. Furthermore, arylfluorosulfate 3 had a synergistic effect with streptomycin and gentamicin. In addition, their anti-MRSA potency was evaluated and determined by the Caenorhabditis elegans model.

Synthetic Routes to Arylsulfonyl Fluorides

The goal of this mini-review is to shed the light on the existing methodologies to access arylsulfonyl fluorides. Today, a plethora of methods making use of a different pool of starting materials and in the presence of catalyst or under catalyst free conditions are disclosed in the literature.

Exploration of the Reactivity of Multivalent Electrophiles for Affinity Labeling: Sulfonyl Fluoride as a Highly Efficient and Selective Label

Here we explored the reactivity of a set of multivalent electrophiles cofunctionalized with a carbohydrate ligand on gold nanoparticles to achieve efficient affinity labeling for target protein analysis. Evaluation of the reactivity and selectivity of the electrophiles against three different cognate binding proteins identified arylsulfonyl fluoride as the most efficient protein-reactive group in this study. We demonstrated that multivalent arylsulfonyl fluoride probe 4 at 50 nm concentration achieved selective affinity labeling and enrichment of a model protein PNA in cell lysate, which was more effective than photoaffinity probe 1 with arylazide group. Labeling site analysis by LC-MS/MS revealed that the nanoparticle-immobilized arylsulfonyl fluoride group can target multiple amino acid residues around the ligand binding site of the target proteins. Our study highlights the utility of arylsulfonyl fluoride as a highly effective multivalent affinity label suitable for covalently capturing unknown target proteins.

Oxidation-Induced "One-Pot" Click Chemistry

Click chemistry has been established rapidly as one of the most valuable methods for the chemical transformation of complex molecules. Due to the rapid rates, clean conversions to the products, and compatibility of the reagents and reaction conditions even in complex settings, it has found applications in many molecule-oriented disciplines. From the vast landscape of click reactions, approaches have emerged in the past decade centered around oxidative processes to generate in situ highly reactive synthons from dormant functionalities. These approaches have led to some of the fastest click reactions know to date. Here, we review the various methods that can be used for such oxidation-induced "one-pot" click chemistry for the transformation of small molecules, materials, and biomolecules. A comprehensive overview is provided of oxidation conditions that induce a click reaction, and oxidation conditions are orthogonal to other click reactions so that sequential "click-oxidation-click" derivatization of molecules can be performed in one pot. Our review of the relevant literature shows that this strategy is emerging as a powerful approach for the preparation of high-performance materials and the generation of complex biomolecules. As such, we expect that oxidation-induced "one-pot" click chemistry will widen in scope substantially in the forthcoming years.

Discovery of a Cell-Active SuTEx Ligand of Prostaglandin Reductase 2

Sulfonyl-triazoles have emerged as a new reactive group for covalent modification of tyrosine sites on proteins through sulfur-triazole exchange (SuTEx) chemistry. The extent to which this sulfur electrophile can be tuned for developing ligands with cellular activity remains largely underexplored. Here, we performed fragment-based ligand discovery in live cells to identify SuTEx compounds capable of liganding tyrosine sites on diverse protein targets. We verified our quantitative chemical proteomic findings by demonstrating concentration-dependent activity of SuTEx ligands, but not inactive counterparts, against recombinant protein targets directly in live cells. Our structure-activity relationship studies identified the SuTEx ligand HHS-0701 as a cell-active inhibitor capable of blocking prostaglandin reductase 2 (PTGR2) biochemical activity.

Development and application of novel electrophilic warheads in target identification and drug discovery

Nucleophilic amino acids play important roles in maintenance of protein structure and function, covalent modification of such amino acid residues by therapeutic agents is an efficient way to treat human diseases. Most of current clinical drugs are structurally limited to α,β-unsaturated amide as an electrophilic warhead. To alleviate this issue, many novel electrophiles have been developed in recent years that can covalently bind to different amino acid residues and provides a unique way to interrogate proteins, including "undruggable" targets. With an activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) approach, the activity and functionality of a protein and its binding sites can be assessed. This facilitates an understanding of protein function, and contributes to the discovery of new druggable targets and lead compounds. Meanwhile, many novel inhibitors bearing new reactive warhead were developed and displayed remarkable pharmaceutical properties. In this perspective, we have reviewed the recent remarkable progress of novel electrophiles and their applications in target identification and drug discovery.