The Power of Radiocarbon in Biogeochemical Studies of the Marine Carbon Cycle: Insights from Studies of Dissolved and Particulate Organic Carbon (DOC and POC)

A methodological review of compound-specific radiocarbon analysis for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental matrices

Identifying the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in complex environmental matrices is essential for understanding the impact of combustion-related human activities on the environment. Since the turn of the century, advances in analytical capability and accuracy of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) have made it possible to accurately determine the source apportionment of PAHs based on their radiocarbon (14C) mass conservation. This also allows us to trace the environmental transport processes of PAHs from the perspective of molecular 14C. However, natural environmental matrices have very low concentrations of PAHs (ppb to ppm level). To meet the requirements of carbon weight for 14C measurement by AMS, trace PAHs in complex environmental matrices must be enriched thousands of times, and then higher purity individual PAH molecules should be obtained through a series of complex purification procedures. Therefore, the technical difficulty is the main challenge in expanding the application of compound-specific 14C analysis in environmental science. This article reviews the detailed pretreatment procedures for 14C measurement of specific PAHs, including sample enrichment, extraction and purification of aromatic components, preparation of compound-specific PAHs by preparative capillary gas chromatography, graphitization of samples with ultra-small carbon content, and relevant quality control and assurance procedures. This study aims to help environmental geoscientists understand the technical process of 14C analysis of PAHs and inspire new scientific questions related to environmental science. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review of the technical method of compound-specific 14C analysis for PAHs.

Influences of hydrodynamics on microbial community assembly and organic carbon composition of resuspended sediments in shallow marginal seas

Hydrodynamic processes play a crucial role in driving the transmission of sediments, likely harboring diverse microbes and heterogeneous organic carbon (OC) in the ocean. Here we conducted continuous micro-erosion experiments on surface sediments retrieved from shallow marginal seas, and analyzed the microbial community structures, OC content, and isotope compositions (δ13C and Δ14C) of resuspended sediments to investigate the effects of hydrodynamics on microbial assembly and OC composition in marginal seas. Our results showed that gene abundance and major microbial compositions in resuspended sediments changed with varying benthic shear stresses, which evolved towards diversification after continuous hydrodynamic erosion. Aerobic bacteria were more likely to be eroded out from sediments under lower shear stresses compared with anaerobic bacteria. Our study provides evidence that hydrodynamic disturbances shape the assembly of microbial communities with different metabolic functions, especially for bacteria, which may spatially influence the microbial-mediated biogeochemical transformation in marginal seas. Isotopic results revealed that more terrestrial OC was resuspended under initial erosion, while more marine OC was eroded out with increasing shear stresses, suggesting that hydrodynamics may control the redistribution of different sourced OC and contribute to the dispersion and degradation of terrestrial OC during transport process. Our findings further suggest that the nature of resuspended OC may influence the assembly of sediment-attached microbes due to their metabolic preference for carbon sources, as evidenced by correlations between OC compositions and microbial diversity and abundance. We thus suggest that hydrodynamic disturbance is an extrinsic physical driver of OC redistribution and microbial reassembly, whereas OC may be an intrinsic factor influencing microbial colonization, helping to interpret the spatial heterogeneity of microbes and OC compositions observed in marginal sea sediments. Our study underscores the significant roles of hydrodynamic-driven sediment resuspension in shaping diverse microbial communities and redistributing OC in aquatic systems, and highlights the importance of this process in biogeochemical cycles and ecological environment evolution in shallow marginal sea systems.

Distribution patterns of six metals and their influencing factors in M4 seamount seawater of the Western Pacific

Metals are crucial to the stability of marine ecosystems, and it is important to analyze their spatial heterogeneity. This study examined the distribution and influencing factors of six metals such as manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) in M4 seamount of the Western Pacific. The results showed that the factors affecting the distribution of metals are complex. The concentration ranges of Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Cd in the M4 seamount were 0-0.05, 0-0.44, 0-0.0014, 0-0.082, 0.12-0.16, and 0-0.013 μg/L, respectively, roughly equivalent to those of other open seas, however, there were also some differences. Specifically, the distribution of ferromanganese nodules and Co-rich crusts, resulted in a significant increase in the concentration of metals such as Mn, Fe, and Co in the bottom. This study will significantly contribute to our understanding of the spatial heterogeneity of metals in seamount areas.

An approach for carbon content measurement in marine sediment: Application of organic and elemental carbon analyzer

Organic and Elemental Carbon (OEC) is widely applied in the atmospheric sciences for determining carbon content and distinguishing black carbon contents of aerosols, with an advantage that OEC-based approach can provide thermograms derived from carbonaceous material. It is potential to adopt the advantage to measure the content and composition of organic carbon (OC)% in marine sediments. Here, we utilized the OEC analyzer to measure the OC% in marine sediment based on the pyrolytic oxidation principle, and obtain the OC-derived carbon dioxide (CO₂) thermograms. We examined marine sediments and reference materials to understand the stability and reproducibility of OC% measurements using our approach. The findings indicate that the OC% results (ranging from 1.44 to 1.59%, ave. 1.55 ± 0.03%, n = 64) based on this approach are accurate. In addition, CO₂ concentration thermograms obtained by repeated measurements exhibit a strong reproducibility. Our approach can thus provide the concentrations of thermally-evolved CO₂ with increasing heating temperature to deeply understand the reactivities of OC and the compositions in sediments. We suggest that the OEC-based OC% measurement is credible when samples preparation is well-performed (e.g., suitable sample mass and uniformly distributed loading). To sum up, we provide a means to accurately determine the OC% in marine sediments in terms of the ramped-pyrolysis principle.

Pelagic microplastics in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre: A prevalent anthropogenic component of the particulate organic carbon pool

Due to its ever-increasing ocean inputs, fossil-based microplastics (MP) comprise a considerable constituent in the particulate organic carbon (POC) pool, which is instrumental in ocean biogeochemical cycling. Their distribution within the oceanic water column and the underpinning processes, however, remain unclear. Here we show that MP prevail throughout the water column of the eastern North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, comprising 334 #/m3 (84.5% of plastic particles <100 µm), with exponential relationships between concentrations and water depth in the upper 500-m layer and marked accumulation below this layer. Our results suggest that the biological carbon pump (BCP) strongly contributes to the water column MP redistribution in terms of polymer type, material density and particle size, which in turn could influence the efficiency of organic matter export to the deep sea. We further show that 14C-depleted plastic particles predictably are an emerging nonneglectable perturbation to radiocarbon signatures in the deep ocean through depletion of the 14C/C ratio in the POC pool. Our data provide insight into vertical MP flux and highlight the potential role of MP in alternating the marine particulate pool and interactions with the BCP.

Isotopic Insights into Organic Composition Differences between Supermicron and Submicron Sea Spray Aerosol

To elucidate the seawater biological and physicochemical factors driving differences in organic composition between supermicron and submicron sea spray aerosol (SSA_super and SSA_sub), carbon isotopic composition (δ¹³C) measurements were performed on size-segregated, nascent SSA collected during a phytoplankton bloom mesocosm experiment. The δ¹³C measurements indicate that SSA_super contains a mixture of particulate and dissolved organic material in the bulk seawater. After phytoplankton growth, a greater amount of freshly produced carbon was observed in SSA_super with the proportional contribution being modulated by bacterial activity, emphasizing the importance of the microbial loop in controlling the organic composition of SSA_super. Conversely, SSA_sub exhibited no apparent relationship with biological activity but tracked closely with surface tension measurements probing the topmost ∼0.2-1.5 μm of the sea surface microlayer. This probing depth is similar to a bubble's film thickness at the ocean surface, suggesting that SSA_sub organic composition may be influenced by the presence of surfactants at the air-sea interface that are transferred into SSA_sub by bubble bursting. Our findings illustrate the substantial impact of seawater dynamics on the pronounced organic compositional differences between SSA_super and SSA_sub and demonstrate that these two SSA populations should be considered separately when assessing their contribution to marine aerosols and climate.

New Perspectives on the Marine Carbon Cycle-The Marine Dissolved Organic Matter Reactivity Continuum

This perspective challenges our current understanding of the marine carbon cycle, including an alternative explanation of bulk 14C-DOM measurements. We propose the adoption of the carbon reactivity continuum concept previously established for lakes and sediments for the oceans using kinetic data and term this the marine DOM reactivity continuum. We need to gain a fundamental understanding of the biogeochemical drivers of surface water DOM concentrations and reactivity, biological carbon pump efficiency, and the autotrophic communities that are the ultimate but variable sources of marine DOM. This perspective is intended to shift our focus to a more inclusive kinetic model and may lead us to a more accurate assessment of the active and dynamic role marine DOM plays in the global carbon cycle. Currently, the kinetic data to establish and validate such a marine DOM reactivity continuum model are still lacking, and their resolution depends on the discovery of new organic tracers that span large differences in reactivity and microbial degradation rates. We may need to refocus our efforts in deciphering the structure and reactivity of marine organic molecules in a kinetic context, including the microbial and physicochemical constraints on molecular reactivity that are present in the deep ocean.

Multiple controls on carbon dynamics in mixed karst and non-karst mountainous rivers, Southwest China, revealed by carbon isotopes (δ13C and Δ14C)

Riverine transport of carbon from the land to the oceans plays a significant role in global carbon cycle. However, multiple processes can affect aquatic carbon cycling, and the carbon sources and processing in river systems are still elusive. Here, we analysed the water chemistry and dual carbon isotopes (δ¹³C and Δ¹⁴C) of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) from mixed karst and non-karst subtropical monsoonal catchments, southwest China. The water chemistry of the river water showed that DIC concentrations were mainly controlled by carbonate weathering and modulated by agricultural activities and geomorphic characteristics (i.e. elevation and slope), but the stable isotope of DIC (δ¹³C_DIC) was highly affected by CO₂ outgassing and in-stream photosynthesis. The C/N ratios and stable isotope of POC (δ¹³C_POC) indicated that the composition of riverine POC derived from a mixture of terrestrial sources and algae/microbial sources. Based on the δ¹³C and Δ¹⁴C of POC, we used a Bayesian mixing model to constrain the POC sources, which showed that aquatic photosynthesis was the main source for POC. Our findings suggest that carbon dynamics in subtropical rivers are highly affected by aquatic photosynthesis, which has significant implications on carbon cycling within river systems.

Degradation of ester linkages in rice straw components by Sphingobium species recovered from the sea bottom using a non-secretory tannase-family α/β hydrolase

Microbial decomposition of allochthonous plant components imported into the aquatic environment is one of the vital steps of the carbon cycle on earth. To expand the knowledge of the biodegradation of complex plant materials in aquatic environments, we recovered a sunken wood from the bottom of Otsuchi Bay, situated in northeastern Japan in 2012. We isolated Sphingobium with high ferulic acid esterase activity. The strain, designated as OW59, grew on various aromatic compounds and sugars, occurring naturally in terrestrial plants. A genomic study of the strain suggested its role in degrading hemicelluloses. We identified a gene encoding a non-secretory tannase-family α/β hydrolase, which exhibited ferulic acid esterase activity. This enzyme shares the consensus catalytic triad (Ser-His-Asp) within the tannase family block X in the ESTHER database. The molecules, which had the same calculated elemental compositions, were produced consistently in both the enzymatic and microbial degradation of rice straw crude extracts. The non-secretory tannase-family α/β hydrolase activity may confer an important phenotypic feature on the strain to accelerate plant biomass degradation. Our study provides insights into the underlying biodegradation process of terrestrial plant polymers in aquatic environments.

The Influence of Dissolved Organic Carbon on the Microbial Community Associated with Tetraselmis striata for Bio-Diesel Production

The green alga Tetraselmis striata is regarded as a suitable candidate microalga for bio-diesel production. Recently, T. striata was cultured near Yeonghueung Island, Korea, in a “marine culturing field”; however, its environmental impacts are not yet studied. We estimated the amount of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) released from T. striata cultivation in the marine culturing field, and we investigated the changes in bacterial composition. Then, we designed and installed a mesocosm for further understanding. From the mesocosm results, the DOC released from the cultivation of T. striata led to changes in bacterial communities, disturbance of the microbial food web structure, rapid depletion of nutrients, and a decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH. Our novel work demonstrates that large amounts of DOC secreted by large-scale microalgal cultures such as that of T. striata can potentially have a significant impact on the structure and function of the surrounding microbial ecosystem.

Massive peatland carbon banks vulnerable to rising temperatures

Peatlands contain one-third of the world's soil carbon (C). If destabilized, decomposition of this vast C bank could accelerate climate warming; however, the likelihood of this outcome remains unknown. Here, we examine peatland C stability through five years of whole-ecosystem warming and two years of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (eCO₂). Warming exponentially increased methane (CH₄) emissions and enhanced CH₄ production rates throughout the entire soil profile; although surface CH₄ production rates remain much greater than those at depth. Additionally, older deeper C sources played a larger role in decomposition following prolonged warming. Most troubling, decreases in CO₂:CH₄ ratios in gas production, porewater concentrations, and emissions, indicate that the peatland is becoming more methanogenic with warming. We observed limited evidence of eCO₂ effects. Our results suggest that ecosystem responses are largely driven by surface peat, but that the vast C bank at depth in peatlands is responsive to prolonged warming.

Removal of Refractory Dissolved Organic Carbon in the Amundsen Sea, Antarctica

The removal mechanism of refractory deep-ocean dissolved organic carbon (deep-DOC) is poorly understood. The Amundsen Sea Polynya (ASP) serves as a natural test basin for assessing the fate of deep-DOC when it is supplied with a large amount of fresh-DOC and exposed to strong solar radiation during the polynya opening in austral summer. We measured the radiocarbon content of DOC in the water column on the western Amundsen shelf. The radiocarbon content of DOC in the surface water of the ASP reflected higher primary production than in the region covered by sea ice. The radiocarbon measurements of DOC, taken two years apart in the ASP, were different, suggesting rapid cycling of DOC. The increase in DOC concentration was less than expected from the observed increase in radiocarbon content from those at the greatest depths. Based on a radiocarbon mass balance, we show that deep-DOC is consumed along with fresh-DOC in the ASP. Our observations imply that water circulation through the surface layer, where fresh-DOC is produced, may play an important role in global DOC cycling.

Fossil Fuel-Derived Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Taiwan Strait, China, and Fluxes across the Air-Water Interface

On the basis of the application of compound-specific radiocarbon analysis (CSRA) and air-water exchange models, the contributions of fossil fuel and biomass burning derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as well as their air-water transport were elucidated. The results showed that fossil fuel-derived PAHs (an average contribution of 89%) presented the net volatilization process at the air-water interface of the Taiwan Strait in summer. Net volatile fluxes of the dominant fluorene and phenanthrene (>58% of the total PAHs) were 27 ± 2.8 μg m^-2 day^-1, significantly higher than the dry deposition fluxes (average 0.43 μg m^-2 day^-1). The Δ¹⁴C contents of selected PAHs (fluorene, phenanthrene plus anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene) determined by CSRA in the dissolved seawater ranged from -997 ± 4‰ to -873 ± 6‰, indicating that 89-100% (95 ± 4%) of PAHs were supplied by fossil fuels. The South China Sea warm current originating from the southwest China in summer (98%) and the Min-Zhe coastal current originating from the north China in winter (97%) input more fossil fuel PAHs than the Jiulong River estuary (90%) and Xiamen harbor water (93%). The more radioactive decayed ¹⁴C of fluoranthene (a 4-ring PAH) than that of phenanthrene and anthracene (3-ring PAHs) represented a greater fossil fuel contribution to the former in dissolved seawater.

Combined use of radiocarbon and stable carbon isotope to constrain the sources and cycling of particulate organic carbon in a large freshwater lake, China

The concentrations and isotopic compositions of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) were measured in order to better constrain the sources and cycling of POC in Lake Fuxian, the largest deep freshwater lake in China. Model results based on the combined δ¹³C and Δ¹⁴C, showed that the average lake-wide contributions of autochthonous POC, terrestrial POC, and resuspended sediment POC to the bulk POC in Lake Fuxian were 61%, 22%, and 17%, respectively. This indicated autochthonous POC might play a dominant role in sustaining large oligotrophic lake ecosystem. A mean 17% contribution of resuspended sediment POC to the bulk POC implied that sediment might have more significant influence on aquatic environment and ecosystem than previously recognized in large deep lakes. The contributions of different sources POC to the water-column POC were a function of the initial composition of the source materials, photosynthesis, physical regime of the lake, sediment resuspension, respiration and degradation of organic matter, and were affected indirectly by environmental factors such as light, temperature, DO, wind speed, turbidity, and nutrient concentration. This study is not only the first systematic investigation on the radiocarbon and stable isotope compositions of POC in large deep freshwater lake in China, but also one of the most extensive radiocarbon studies on the ecosystem of any great lakes in the world. The unique data constrain relative influences of autochthonous POC, terrestrial POC, and resuspended sediment POC, and deepen the understanding of the POC cycling in large freshwater lakes. This study is far from comprehensive, but it serves to highlight the potential of combined radiocarbon and stable carbon isotope for constraining the sources and cycling of POC in large lake system. More radiocarbon investigations on the water-column POC and the aquatic food webs are necessary to illuminate further the fate of autochthonous POC, terrestrial POC, and resuspended sediment POC, and their eco-environmental effects.

Tectonically-triggered sediment and carbon export to the Hadal zone

Sediments in deep ocean trenches may contain crucial information on past earthquake history and constitute important sites of carbon burial. Here we present ¹⁴C data on bulk organic carbon (OC) and its thermal decomposition fractions produced by ramped pyrolysis/oxidation for a core retrieved from the >7.5 km-deep Japan Trench. High-resolution ¹⁴C measurements, coupled with distinctive thermogram characteristics of OC, reveal hemipelagic sedimentation interrupted by episodic deposition of pre-aged OC in the trench. Low δ¹³C values and diverse ¹⁴C ages of thermal fractions imply that the latter material originates from the adjacent margin, and the co-occurrence of pre-aged OC with intervals corresponding to known earthquake events implies tectonically triggered, gravity-flow-driven supply. We show that ¹⁴C ages of thermal fractions can yield valuable chronological constraints on sedimentary sequences. Our findings shed new light on links between tectonically driven sedimentological processes and marine carbon cycling, with implications for carbon dynamics in hadal environments.

Within sediments in deep ocean trenches an earthquake record may be observed. Here, the authors present ¹⁴C data on bulk organic carbon (OC) and thermal decomposition from a sediment core in the Japan Trench and match OC values with known earthquake events.

Hydrocarbon composition and concentrations in the Gulf of Mexico sediments in the 3 years following the Macondo well blowout

In April of 2010, the Macondo well blowout in the northern Gulf of Mexico resulted in an unprecedented release of oil into the water column at a depth of approximately 1500 m. A time series of surface and subsurface sediment samples were collected to the northwest of the well from 2010 to 2013 for molecular biomarker and bulk carbon isotopic analyses. While no clear trend was observed in subsurface sediments, surface sediments (0-3 cm) showed a clear pattern with total concentrations of n-alkanes, unresolved complex mixture (UCM), and petroleum biomarkers (terpanes, hopanes, steranes) increasing from May to September 2010, peaking in late November 2010, and strongly decreasing in the subsequent years. The peak in hydrocarbon concentrations were corroborated by higher organic carbon contents, more depleted Δ¹⁴C values and biomarker ratios similar to those of the initial MC252 crude oil reported in the literature. These results indicate that at least part of oil discharged from the accident sedimented to the seafloor in subsequent months, resulting in an apparent accumulation of hydrocarbons on the seabed by the end of 2010. Sediment resuspension and transport or biodegradation may account for the decrease in sedimented oil quantities in the years following the Macondo well spill.

Sustained deposition of contaminants from the Deepwater Horizon spill

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in 1.6-2.6 × 10(10) grams of petrocarbon accumulation on the seafloor. Data from a deep sediment trap, deployed 7.4 km SW of the well between August 2010 and October 2011, disclose that the sinking of spill-associated substances, mediated by marine particles, especially phytoplankton, continued at least 5 mo following the capping of the well. In August/September 2010, an exceptionally large diatom bloom sedimentation event coincided with elevated sinking rates of oil-derived hydrocarbons, black carbon, and two key components of drilling mud, barium and olefins. Barium remained in the water column for months and even entered pelagic food webs. Both saturated and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon source indicators corroborate a predominant contribution of crude oil to the sinking hydrocarbons. Cosedimentation with diatoms accumulated contaminants that were dispersed in the water column and transported them downward, where they were concentrated into the upper centimeters of the seafloor, potentially leading to sustained impact on benthic ecosystems.

Using natural abundance radiocarbon to trace the flux of petrocarbon to the seafloor following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

In 2010, the Deepwater Horizon accident released 4.6–6.0 × 10(11) grams or 4.1 to 4.6 million barrels of fossil petroleum derived carbon (petrocarbon) as oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Natural abundance radiocarbon measurements on surface sediment organic matter in a 2.4 × 10(10) m(2) deep-water region surrounding the spill site indicate the deposition of a fossil-carbon containing layer that included 1.6 to 2.6 × 10(10) grams of oil-derived carbon. This quantity represents between 0.5 to 9.1% of the released petrocarbon, with a best estimate of 3.0–4.9%. These values may be lower limit estimates of the fraction of the oil that was deposited on the seafloor because they focus on a limited mostly deep-water area of the Gulf, include a conservative estimate of thickness of the depositional layer, and use an average background or prespill radiocarbon value for sedimentary organic carbon that produces a conservative value. A similar approach using hopane tracer estimated that 4–31% of 2 million barrels of oil that stayed in the deep sea settled on the bottom. Converting that to a percentage of the total oil that entered into the environment (to which we normalized our estimate) converts this range to 1.8 to 14.4%. Although extrapolated over a larger area, our independent estimate produced similar values.

Hidden cycle of dissolved organic carbon in the deep ocean

Marine dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a large (660 Pg C) reactive carbon reservoir that mediates the oceanic microbial food web and interacts with climate on both short and long timescales. Carbon isotopic content provides information on the DOC source via δ(13)C and age via Δ(14)C. Bulk isotope measurements suggest a microbially sourced DOC reservoir with two distinct components of differing radiocarbon age. However, such measurements cannot determine internal dynamics and fluxes. Here we analyze serial oxidation experiments to quantify the isotopic diversity of DOC at an oligotrophic site in the central Pacific Ocean. Our results show diversity in both stable and radio isotopes at all depths, confirming DOC cycling hidden within bulk analyses. We confirm the presence of isotopically enriched, modern DOC cocycling with an isotopically depleted older fraction in the upper ocean. However, our results show that up to 30% of the deep DOC reservoir is modern and supported by a 1 Pg/y carbon flux, which is 10 times higher than inferred from bulk isotope measurements. Isotopically depleted material turns over at an apparent time scale of 30,000 y, which is far slower than indicated by bulk isotope measurements. These results are consistent with global DOC measurements and explain both the fluctuations in deep DOC concentration and the anomalous radiocarbon values of DOC in the Southern Ocean. Collectively these results provide an unprecedented view of the ways in which DOC moves through the marine carbon cycle.

Fossil organic carbon in wastewater and its fate in treatment plants

This study reports the presence of fossil organic carbon in wastewater and its fate in wastewater treatment plants. The findings pinpoint the inaccuracy of current greenhouse gas accounting guidelines which defines all organic carbon in wastewater to be of biogenic origin. Stable and radiocarbon isotopes ((13)C and (14)C) were measured throughout the process train in four municipal wastewater treatment plants equipped with secondary activated sludge treatment. Isotopic mass balance analyses indicate that 4-14% of influent total organic carbon (TOC) is of fossil origin with concentrations between 6 and 35 mg/L; 88-98% of this is removed from the wastewater. The TOC mass balance analysis suggests that 39-65% of the fossil organic carbon from the influent is incorporated into the activated sludge through adsorption or from cell assimilation while 29-50% is likely transformed to carbon dioxide (CO2) during secondary treatment. The fossil organic carbon fraction in the sludge undergoes further biodegradation during anaerobic digestion with a 12% decrease in mass. 1.4-6.3% of the influent TOC consists of both biogenic and fossil carbon is estimated to be emitted as fossil CO2 from activated sludge treatment alone. The results suggest that current greenhouse gas accounting guidelines, which assume that all CO2 emission from wastewater is biogenic may lead to underestimation of emissions.

Inputs of fossil carbon from wastewater treatment plants to U.S. rivers and oceans

Every day more than 500 million cubic meters of treated wastewater are discharged into rivers, estuaries, and oceans, an amount slightly less than the average flow of the Danube River. Typically, wastewaters have high organic carbon (OC) concentrations and represent a large fraction of total river flow and a higher fraction of river OC in densely populated watersheds. Here, we report the first direct measurements of radiocarbon (14C) in municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent. The radiocarbon ages of particulate and dissolved organic carbon (POC and DOC) in effluent are old and relatively uniform across a range of WWTPs in New York and Connecticut Wastewater DOC has a mean radiocarbon age of 1630 +/- 500 years B.P. and a mean delta13C of -26.0 +/- 1 per thousand. Mass balance calculations indicate that 25% of wastewater DOC is fossil carbon, which is likely derived from petroleum-based household products such as detergents and pharmaceuticals. These findings warrant reevaluation of the "apparent age" of riverine DOC, the total flux of petroleum carbon to U.S. oceans, and OC source assignments in waters impacted by sewage.