Reactions of OH and SO4.bul.- with Some Halobenzenes and Halotoluenes: A Radiation Chemical Study

Photochemical reaction kinetics and mechanism of bisphenol A with K2S2O8 in aqueous solution: a laser flash photolysis study

The photochemical reaction kinetics and mechanism of bisphenol A (BPA) with potassium persulfate (K2S2O8) were investigated by using 266 nm laser flash photolysis and gas chromatography mass spectrum (GC-MS) technique. Sulfate radical (SO4•−), generated upon K2S2O8 photolysis, reacted with BPA with the overall rate constant of (1.61 ± 0.15) × 109 L mol−1 s−1, and two main reaction mechanisms were involved. One was addition channel to generate BPA–SO4•− adduct with a specific second-order rate constant of (1.09 ± 0.15) × 109 L mol−1 s−1. Molecular oxygen was involved in the decay of the BPA–SO4•− adduct with a rate constant of (1.28 ± 0.14) × 108 L mol−1 s−1. Another channel was the formation of BPA’s phenoxyl radical, likely derived from a deprotonation of the cation radical (BPA•+) generated from single electron transfer reactions. The specific rate constant of BPA’s phenoxyl radical formation was determined to be (6.16 ± 0.08) × 108 L mol−1 s−1. The overall rate constant was in line with the sum of aforementioned two specific rate constants for two main reaction channels. By comparing these rate constants, it was indicated that SO4•− addition channel accounted for ∼65% (1.09/1.61) to the overall reaction, and phenoxyl radical formation accounted for only ∼35% (0.62/1.61). The transformation products of BPA were identified by using GC-MS including 4-isopropylphenol, 4-isopropenylphenol, and 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol, and the reaction mechanism was proposed. These results may provide microscopic kinetics and mechanism information on BPA degradation using SO4•−-based advanced oxidation processes.

Assessing the contribution of hydroxylation species in the photochemical transformation of primidone (pharmaceutical)

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are a group of emerging contaminants that have frequently been detected in aqueous environments. Phototransformation driven by solar irradiation is one of the most important natural processes for the elimination of PPCPs. In this study, primidone (PMD) was chosen as a model "photorefractory" compound. A series of experiments were conducted to assess if reactive intermediates (RIs), such as hydroxyl radical (HO), singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and triplet states of dissolved organic matter (³DOM^⁎), inhibited or enhanced the photochemical transformation of PMD under simulated solar irradiation. The results indicate that HO plays a key role in the photodegradation of PMD and that dissolved oxygen can affect the degradation rate of PMD by promoting HO formation. Our results demonstrated that PMD can not only react with free HO (HO_-free) but also react with lower-energy hydroxylation agents (HO_-like). The contributions of HO_-free and HO_-like to PMD degradation in various dissolved organic matter (DOM) solutions were estimated by a methane-quenching experiment. The results indicated that the HO_-like species were important in the photodegradation of "photorefractory" compounds. The bimolecular reaction rate constant of the reaction of free HO with PMD was measured as (5.21 ± 0.02) × 10⁹ M^-1 s^-1 by using electron pulse radiolysis. Furthermore, PMD was used as a probe to estimate the steady-state concentration of HO_-free in various DOM solutions. Using the multivariate statistical strategies of orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) and hierarchical clustering, 28 photochemical transformation products (TPs) of PMD were successfully identified from the DOM matrix.

Aqueous Phase Kinetic Studies Involving Intermediates of Environmental Interest: Phosphate Radicals and Their Reactions with Substituted Benzenes

This manuscript describes our research work devoted to the understanding of the aqueous phase reactions of phosphate and polyphosphate radicals. Inorganic phosphate and polyphosphate radicals were generated after photolysis of peroxo-diphosphate, tripolyphosphate and pyrophosphate ions. The reactions of SO4•-radicals with P2O74- and P3O105- are also discussed.

The logarithm of the bimolecular rate constants for the reactions of the three phosphate radicals (H2PO4• HPO4•- PO4•2-) with substituted benzenes are discussed in terms of Hammett correlations and a reaction mechanism is proposed. Phenoxyl type radical formation from the reactions of H2PO4• and HPO4•- radicals with phenol, chlorobenzene, and α, α, α-trifluorotoluene (TFT) supports the contribution of an addition pathway yielding a phosphate adduct with the substituted benzene. Additional information on the absorption spectra and decay kinetics of the hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals of chlorobenzene and TFT is also given.

Quantitative structure-activity relationships for reactivities of sulfate and hydroxyl radicals with aromatic contaminants through single-electron transfer pathway

Sulfate radical anion (SO₄^•-) and hydroxyl radical (OH) based advanced oxidation technologies has been extensively used for removal of aromatic contaminants (ACs) in waters. In this study, we investigated the Gibbs free energy (ΔG_SET^∘) of the single electron transfer (SET) reactions for 76 ACs with SO₄^•- and OH, respectively. The result reveals that SO₄^•- possesses greater propensity to react with ACs through the SET channel than OH. We hypothesized that the electron distribution within the molecule plays an essential role in determining the ΔG_SET^∘ and subsequent SET reactions. To test the hypothesis, a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model was developed for predicting ΔG_SET^∘ using the highest occupied molecular orbital energies (E_HOMO), a measure of electron distribution and donating ability. The standardized QSAR models are reported to be ΔG^°_SET=-0.97×E_HOMO - 181 and ΔG^°_SET=-0.97×E_HOMO - 164 for SO₄^•- and OH, respectively. The models were internally and externally validated to ensure robustness and predictability, and the application domain and limitations were discussed. The single-descriptor based models account for 95% of the variability for SO₄^•- and OH. These results provide the mechanistic insight into the SET reaction pathway of radical and non-radical bimolecular reactions, and have important applications for radical based oxidation technologies to remove target ACs in different waters.

Photochemical reaction between biphenyl and N(III) in the atmospheric aqueous phase

The photochemical reaction between biphenyl (Bp) and N(III) under irradiation at 365 nm UV light was investigated. The results showed that Bp conversion efficiency was strongly influenced by N (III) concentration, Bp initial concentration and pH. Species-specific rate constants determined by reaction of Bp with H₂ONO⁺ (k₁), HONO (k₂) and NO₂^- (k₃) were k₁ = (0.058 ± 0.005 L mol^-1 s^-1), k₂ = (0.12 ± 0.06 L mol^-1 s^-1) and k₃ = (0.0019 ± 0.0003 L mol^-1 s^-1), respectively. Laser flash photolysis studies confirmed that OH radical deriving from the photolysis of N(III) attacked aromatic ring to form Bp-OH adduct with a rate constant of 9.4 × 10⁹ L mol^-1 s^-1. The products analysis suggested that Bp-OH adduct could be nitrated by N (III) and NO₂ to generate nitro-compounds.

Mechanistic study of photo-oxidation of Bisphenol-A (BPA) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and sodium persulfate (SPS)

The removal of Bisphenol-A (BPA) from contaminated water using advanced oxidation methods such as UV-C assisted oxidation by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and sodium persulfate (SPS) has been reported by the authors earlier (Sharma et al., 2015a). In the present study, the authors report the removal of BPA from aqueous solution by the above two methods and its degradation mechanism. UV-C light (254 nm wavelength, 40 W power) was applied to BPA contaminated water at natural pH (pHN) under room temperature conditions. Experiments were carried out with the initial BPA concentration in the range of 0.04 mM-0.31 mM and the oxidant/BPA molar ratio in the range of 294:1-38:1 for UV-C/H2O2 and 31.5-4.06:1 for UV-C/SPS systems. The removal of BPA enhanced with decreasing BPA concentration. The total organic carbon also decreased with the UV-C irradiation time under optimum conditions ([H2O2]0 = 11.76 mM; [SPS]0 = 1.26 mM; temperature (29 ± 3 °C). Competition of BPA for reaction with HO or [Formula: see text] radicals at its higher concentrations results in a decrease in the removal of BPA. The intermediates with smaller and higher molecular weights than that of BPA were found in the treated water. Based on GC-MS and FTIR spectra of the reaction mixture, the formation of hydroxylated by-products testified the HO mediated oxidation pathway in the BPA degradation, while the formation of quinones and phenoxy phenols pointed to the [Formula: see text] dominating pathway through the formation of hydroxycyclohexadienyl (HCHD) and BPA phenoxyl radicals. The main route of BPA degradation is the hydroxylation followed by dehydration, coupling and ring opening reactions.

Degradation of diclofenac by advanced oxidation and reduction processes: kinetic studies, degradation pathways and toxicity assessments

Many pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites are found in surface and ground waters suggesting their ineffective removal by conventional wastewater treatment technologies. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs), which utilize free radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants, are alternatives to traditional water treatment. This study reports the absolute rate constants for reaction of diclofenac sodium and model compound (2, 6-dichloraniline) with the two major AO/RP radicals: the hydroxyl radical (•OH) and hydrated electron (e(aq)(-)). The bimolecular reaction rate constants (M(-1) s(-1)) for diclofenac for •OH was (9.29 ± 0.11) × 10(9), and for e(-)(aq) was (1.53 ± 0.03) ×10(9). To provide a better understanding of the decomposition of the intermediate radicals produced by hydroxyl radical reactions, transient absorption spectra are observed from 1 - 250 μs. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using (60)Co γ-irradiation and LC-MS. The toxicity of products was evaluated using luminescent bacteria. These data are required for both evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds and for studies of their fate and transport in surface waters where radical chemistry may be important in assessing their lifetime.

Tropospheric aqueous-phase free-radical chemistry: radical sources, spectra, reaction kinetics and prediction tools

The most important radicals which need to be considered for the description of chemical conversion processes in tropospheric aqueous systems are the hydroxyl radical (OH), the nitrate radical (NO(3)) and sulphur-containing radicals such as the sulphate radical (SO(4)(-)). For each of the three radicals their generation and their properties are discussed first in the corresponding sections. The main focus herein is to summarize newly published aqueous-phase kinetic data on OH, NO(3) and SO(4)(-) radical reactions relevant for the description of multiphase tropospheric chemistry. The data compilation builds up on earlier datasets published in the literature. Since the last review in 2003 (H. Herrmann, Chem. Rev. 2003, 103, 4691-4716) more than hundred new rate constants are available from literature. In case of larger discrepancies between novel and already published rate constants the available kinetic data for these reactions are discussed and recommendations are provided when possible. As many OH kinetic data are obtained by means of the thiocyanate (SCN(-)) system in competition kinetic measurements of OH radical reactions this system is reviewed in a subchapter of this review. Available rate constants for the reaction sequence following the reaction of OH+SCN(-) are summarized. Newly published data since 2003 have been considered and averaged rate constants are calculated. Applying competition kinetics measurements usually the formation of the radical anion (SCN)(2)(-) is monitored directly by absorption measurements. Within this subchapter available absorption spectra of the (SCN)(2)(-) radical anion from the last five decades are presented. Based on these spectra an averaged (SCN)(2)(-) spectrum was calculated. In the last years different estimation methods for aqueous phase kinetic data of radical reactions have been developed and published. Such methods are often essential to estimate kinetic data which are not accessible from the literature. Approaches for rate constant prediction include empirical correlations as well as structure activity relationships (SAR) either with or without the usage of quantum chemical descriptors. Recently published estimation methods for OH, NO(3) and SO(4)(-) radical reactions in aqueous solution are finally summarized, compared and discussed.

Degradation of tetracycline antibiotics: Mechanisms and kinetic studies for advanced oxidation/reduction processes

This study involves elucidating the destruction mechanisms of four tetracyclines via reactions with ()OH and solvated electrons (e(aq)(-)). The first step is to evaluate the bimolecular rate constants for the reaction of ()OH and e(aq)(-). Transient absorption spectra for the intermediates formed by the reaction of ()OH were also measured over the time period of 1-250micros to assist in selecting the appropriate wavelength for the absolute bimolecular reaction rate constants. For these four compounds, tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, and doxycycline, the absolute rate constants with ()OH were (6.3+/-0.1)x10(9), (5.2+/-0.2)x10(9), (5.6+/-0.1)x10(9), and (7.6+/-0.1)x10(9) M(-1) s(-1), and for e(aq)(-) were (2.2+/-0.1)x10(10), (1.3+/-0.2)x10(10), (2.3+/-0.1)x10(10), and (2.5+/-0.1)x10(10) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The efficiencies for ()OH reaction with the four tetracyclines ranged from 32% to 60%. The efficiencies for e(aq)(-) reaction were 15-29% except for chlortetracycline which was significantly higher (97%) than the other tetracyclines in spite of the similar reaction rate constants for e(aq)(-) in all cases. To evaluate the use of advanced oxidation/reduction processes for the destruction of tetracyclines it is necessary to have reaction rates, reaction efficiencies and destruction mechanisms. This paper is the first step in eventually realizing the formulation of a detailed kinetic destruction model for these four tetracycline antibiotics.

Radiolysis studies on the destruction of microcystin-LR in aqueous solution by hydroxyl radicals

In this study, steady-state and time-resolved radiolysis methods were used to determine the primary reaction pathways and kinetic parameters for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with microcystin-LR (MC-LR). The fundamental kinetic data is critical for the accurate evaluation of hydroxyl-radical based technologies for the destruction of this problematic class of cyanotoxins. The bimolecular rate constant for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR is 2.3 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) based on time-resolved competition kinetics with SCN-at low conversions using pulsed radiolysis experiments. The reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR can occur via a number of competing reaction pathways, including addition to the benzene ring and diene and abstraction of aliphatic hydrogen atoms. LC-MS analyses indicate the major products from the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with MC-LR involve addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring and diene moieties of the Adda side chain. Transient absorption spectroscopy monitored between 260-500 nm, following pulsed hydroxyl radical generation, indicate the formation of a transient species with absorption maxima at 270 and 310 nm. The absorption maxima and lifetime of the transient species are characteristic of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals resulting from the addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring. The rate constant for the formation of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radical is 1.0 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) accounting for approximately 40% of the primary reaction pathways. Representative rate constants and partitioning of hydroxyl radical reactions were assessed based on the reactivities of surrogate substrates and individual amino acids. Summation of the individual reactivities of hydroxyl radical at the different reactive sites (amino acids) leads to a rate constant of 2.1 x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1) in good agreementwith the rate constant determined in our studies. The relative magnitude of the rate constants for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with the individual amino acids and appropriate surrogates, suggest 60-70% reactions of hydroxyl radical occur at the benzene and diene functional groups of the Adda moiety.

Free-radical destruction of beta-lactam antibiotics in aqueous solution

Many pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites are being found in surface and ground waters, indicating their ineffective removal by conventional wastewater treatment technologies. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs), which utilize free-radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants, are alternatives to traditional water treatment. This study reports the absolute rate constants for reaction of three beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin G, penicillin V, amoxicillin) and a model compound (+)-6-aminopenicillanic acid with the two major AO/RP reactive species: hydroxyl radical ((*)OH) and hydrated electron (e(-)aq). The bimolecular reaction rate constants (M(-1) s(-1)) for penicillin G, penicillin V, amoxicillin, and (+)-6-aminopenicillanic acid for (*)OH were (7.97 +/- 0.11) x 10(9), (8.76 +/- 0.28) x 10(9), (6.94 +/- 0.44) x 10(9), and (2.40 +/- 0.05) x 10(9) and for e(-)aq were (3.92 +/- 0.10) x 10(9), (5.76 +/- 0.24) x 10(9), (3.47 +/- 0.07) x 10(9), and (3.35 +/- 0.06) x 10(9), respectively. To provide a better understanding of the decomposition of the intermediate radicals produced by hydroxyl radical reactions, transient absorption spectra were observed from 1 to 100 micros. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using (137)Cs gamma irradiation and LC-MS. These data are required for both evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds and studies of their fate and transport in surface waters where radical chemistry may be important in assessing their lifetime.

Free radical destruction of beta-blockers in aqueous solution

Many pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites are currently found in surface and ground waters which indicates their ineffective removal by conventional water treatment technologies. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/ RPs) are alternatives to traditional water treatment, which utilize free radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants. This study reports the absolute rate constants for reaction of three beta-blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol) with the two major AO/RP radicals; the hydroxyl radical (*OH) and hydrated electron ((e-)aq). The bimolecular reaction rate constants for *OH are (7.05 +/- 0.27) x 10(9), (8.39 +/- 0.06) x 10(9), and (1.07 +/- 0.02) x 10(10), and for (e-)aq they are (5.91 +/- 0.21) x 10(8), (1.73 +/- 0.03) x 10(8), and (1.26 +/- 0.02) x 10(10), respectively. Transient spectra were observed for the intermediate radicals produced by hydroxyl radical reactions. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using 60Co gamma-irradiation and LC-MS. These data are required for both evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds and for studies of their fate and transport in surface waters where radical chemistry may be important in assessing their lifetime.