1
|
Caprari C, Ferri E, Vandelli MA, Citti C, Cannazza G. An emerging trend in Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPSs): designer THC. J Cannabis Res 2024; 6:21. [PMID: 38702834 PMCID: PMC11067227 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-024-00226-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery as one of the main components of cannabis and its affinity towards the cannabinoid receptor CB1, serving as a means to exert its psychoactivity, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) has inspired medicinal chemists throughout history to create more potent derivatives. Initially, the goal was to synthesize chemical probes for investigating the molecular mechanisms behind the pharmacology of Δ9-THC and finding potential medical applications. The unintended consequence of this noble intent has been the proliferation of these compounds for recreational use. This review comprehensively covers the most exhaustive number of THC-like cannabinoids circulating on the recreational market. It provides information on the chemistry, synthesis, pharmacology, analytical assessment, and experiences related to the psychoactive effects reported by recreational users on online forums. Some of these compounds can be found in natural cannabis, albeit in trace amounts, while others are entirely artificial. Moreover, to circumvent legal issues, many manufacturers resort to semi-synthetic processes starting from legal products extracted from hemp, such as cannabidiol (CBD). Despite the aim to encompass all known THC-like molecules, new species emerge on the drug users' pipeline each month. Beyond posing a significantly high public health risk due to unpredictable and unknown side effects, scientific research consistently lags behind the rapidly evolving recreational market.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Caprari
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, 41125, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Elena Ferri
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Maria Angela Vandelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Cinzia Citti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology of the National Council of Research - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology of the National Council of Research - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mamantov A. The 2-Norbornyl Cation is not a Single Minimum Energy System. PROGRESS IN REACTION KINETICS AND MECHANISM 2019. [DOI: 10.3184/007967404775363444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple and dual variable linear regression equations are presented which can estimate the sensitivity constants ρ for the solvolysis reactions of hundreds of bicyclic and tricyclic compounds. These are the first QSARs which utilize dihedral angles to estimate/predict ρ constants. These QSARs and other analyses herein support the new theory that the bridgehead hydrogen bond orbital assists the displacement of the exo leaving group in the solvolyses of 2-norbornyl derivatives. Alternative interpretions of the 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra indicate that C1 is hypercoordinated rather than C6. Consequently, in normal hydroxylic solvents the 2-norbornyl cation is not symmetrical, does not require C—C σ-bond bridging and is not a single minimum energy system, i.e. it is a pair of rapidly equilibrating cations, eq 1, structure 2b. At ≤ −158°C, the 2-norbornyl cation is proposed to be an H—C1—H σ-bond delocalized resonance hybrid structure 16/16’. Hypotheses are presented which suggest that the norbornane system can be viewed as a saturated counterpart of a conjugated π system, e.g. benzene. This new delocalization and bond concept, sigma aromaticity, can also help to explain the preferential “exo'’ reactions of norbornane and norbornene systems, the unusual stability of the 2-norbornyl cation, and perhaps provide new insight concerning the ubiquitousness of six-membered rings. Sigma aromaticity may also help account for the greater efficiency of singlet energy transfer between chromophores when the molecular spacer group is rigid rather than flexible, and electron transfer in DNA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mamantov
- Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC 20460, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Li XH, Fang P, Chen D, Hou XL. Kinetic resolution of 4-substituted-3,4-dihydrocoumarins via Pd-catalyzed asymmetric allylic alkylation reaction: enantioselective synthesis of trans-3,4-disubstituted-3,4-dihydrocoumarins. Org Chem Front 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4qo00178h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
4
|
Kim JY, Kwon W, Kim HS, Suh S, In MK. Estimation of measurement uncertainty for the quantification of 11-nor-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid and its glucuronide in urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 38:164-70. [PMID: 24519562 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bku008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, the estimation of the measurement uncertainty has become a significant issue in the quality control of forensic drug testing. In the present study, the uncertainty of the measurement was calculated for the quantification of 11-nor-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) and its glucuronide conjugate (THC-COOH-glu) in urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The procedure was based on liquid-liquid extraction of a volume of urine (800 µL) with ethyl acetate. The sources of uncertainty were identified and classified into four major categories as follows: standard preparation, calibration curve, method precision and bias. The overall contribution of combined standard uncertainty on THC-COOH increased in the order of standard preparation (0.9%), method precision (10.4%), calibration curve (30.3%) and bias (58.4%) and, while calibration curve (53.0%) and bias (40.4%) gave the bigger contributions to the combined standard uncertainty for THC-COOH-glu than method precision and standard preparation, which accounted for 6.3 and 0.3%, respectively. The reliability of a measurement was expressed by stating the expanded uncertainty of the measurement result at 95% confidence level. The concentrations of THC-COOH and THC-COOH-glu in the urine sample with their expanded uncertainties were 10.20 ± 1.14 ng/mL and 25.42 ± 5.01 ng/mL, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Young Kim
- Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, 157 Banpodaero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-730, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kim JY, Lee JI, Cheong JC, Suh YJ, In MK. Uncertainty evaluation of the analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hair by GC-NCI-MS/MS. ANALYTICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.5806/ast.2011.24.1.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
6
|
Kim JY, In MK. Determination of 11-nor-Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in hair using gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry in negative ion chemical ionization mode. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:1339-42. [PMID: 17340556 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
|
7
|
Lemberger L, Axelrod J, Kopin IJ. METABOLISM AND DISPOSITION OF TETRAHYDROCANNABINOLS IN NÄIVE SUBJECTS AND CHRONIC MARIJUANA USERS. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1971.tb13994.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
8
|
Marchei E, Pellegrini M, Pacifici R, Palmi I, Lozano J, García-Algar O, Pichini S. Quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its Major Metabolites in Meconium by Gas Chromatographic-mass Spectrometric Assay: Assay Validation and Preliminary Results of the “Meconium Project”. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28:700-6. [PMID: 17038890 DOI: 10.1097/01.ftd.0000245380.95186.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A rapid and simple procedure based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is described for determination of Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) and 11-nor-Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) in meconium using Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta-THC) and deuterated THC-COOH as internal standards. The biological matrix was subjected to liquid-liquid extraction after enzyme hydrolysis for conjugated analytes.Chromatography was performed on a fused silica capillary column and analytes were determined in the selected-ion-monitoring (SIM) mode. The method was validated in the range 20 to 500 microg/g using 1g of meconium per assay. The method was applied to the analysis of meconium in a cohort of newborns to assess eventual fetal exposure to cannabis. Within positive samples, THC-COOH and THC-OH (range: 33.7 to 182.1 and 20.7 to 493.3 microg/g, respectively) were both present in the majority of cases with only 1 specimen with THC-OH as the most abundant metabolite and 2 with THC only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Marchei
- Drug Research and Evaluation Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V.le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kim JY, Suh SI, In MK, Paeng KJ, Chung BC. Simultaneous determination of cannabidiol, cannabinol, and \gD9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human hair by gas chromatography-mass spectrometryin human hair by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Arch Pharm Res 2005; 28:1086-91. [PMID: 16212242 DOI: 10.1007/bf02977406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
An analytical method was developed for evaluating the cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) level in human hair using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Hair samples (50 mg) were washed with isopropyl alcohol and cut into small fragments (< 1 mm). After adding a deuterated internal standard, the hair samples were incubated in 1.0 M NaOH for 10 min at 95 degrees C. The analytes from the resulting hydrolyzed samples were extracted using a mixture of n-hexane-ethyl acetate (75:25, v/v). The extracts were then evaporated, derivatized, and injected into the GC-MS. The recovery ranges of CBD, CBN, and delta9-THC at three concentration levels were 37.9-94.5% with good correlation coefficients (r2 >0.9989). The intra-day precision and accuracy ranged from -9.4% to 17.7%, and the inter-day precision and accuracy ranged from -15.5% to 14.5%, respectively. The limits of detection (LOD) for CBD, CBN, and delta9-THC were 0.005, 0.002, and 0.006 ng/mg, respectively. The applicability of this method of analyzing the hair samples from cannabis abusers was demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Young Kim
- Drug Analysis Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-730, Korea.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sheweita SA. Narcotic drugs change the expression of cytochrome P450 2E1 and 2C6 and other activities of carcinogen-metabolizing enzymes in the liver of male mice. Toxicology 2003; 191:133-42. [PMID: 12965116 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-483x(03)00252-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Drug-metabolizing enzymes play a great role in the bioactivation and also detoxification of zenobiotics and carcinogens such as N-nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Therefore, the present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of narcotic drugs such as cannabis (hashish) and diacetylmorphine (heroin) on the activity of N-nitrosodimethylamine N-demethylase I [NDMA-dI], arylhydrocarbon [benzo(a)pyerne] hydroxylase [AHH], cytochrome P450 (CYP), cytochrome b(5), NADPH-cytochrome c reductase, glutathione-S-transferase, and levels of glutathione and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS). In addition, the present study showed the influence of hashish and heroin after single (24 h) and repeated-dose treatments (4 consecutive days) on the expression of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP 2E1) and cytochrome P450 2C6 (CYP 2C6). The expression of CYP 2E1 was slightly induced after single-dose and markedly induced after repeated dose-treatments of mice with hashish (10 mg kg(-1) body weight). Contrarily, heroin markedly induced the expression of CYP 2C6 after single-dose and potentially reduced this expression after repeated-dose treatments. It is believed that N-nitrosamines are activated principally by CYP 2E1 and in support of this, the activity of NDMA-dI was found to be increased after single- and repeated-dose treatments of mice with hashish by 23 and 41%, respectively. In addition, single- and repeated-dose treatments of mice with hashish increased: (1) the total hepatic content of CYP by 112 and 206%, respectively; (2) AHH activity by 110 and 165%, respectively; (3) NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity by 21 and 98%, respectively; (4) and glutathione level by 81 and 173%, respectively. Also, single-dose treatments of mice with heroin increased the total hepatic content of CYP, AHH, NADPH-cytochrome c reductase, and glutathione level by 126, 72, 39, 205%, respectively. However, repeated dose-treatments of mice with heroin did not change such activities except cytochrome c reductase activity increased by 20%. Interestingly, the level of free radicals, TBARS, was potentially decreased after single or repeated-dose treatments with either hashish or heroin. It is clear from this study that the effects of hashish are different from those of heroin on the above mentioned enzymes particularly after repeated dose treatments. It is concluded that hashish induced the expression of CYP 2E1 and other carcinogen-metabolizing enzymes activities, and this induction could potentiate the deleterious effects of N-nitrosamines and aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g. benzo(a)pyrene, upon the liver and probably other organs. Such alterations may also change the therapeutic actions of other drugs, which are primarily metabolized by the P450 system, when administered to peoples using hashish or heroin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salah A Sheweita
- Department of Bioscience and Technology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
The chemical research on the plant cannabinoids and their derivatives over two centuries is concisely reviewed. The tortuous path leading to the discovery of the endogenous cannabinoids is described. Future directions, which will probably be followed are delineated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Mechoulam
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Medical Faculty, Ein Kerem Campus, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Narimatsu S, Watanabe K, Yamamoto I, Yoshimura H. Sex difference in the oxidative metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 1991; 41:1187-94. [PMID: 1848985 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(91)90657-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of the major components of marihuana, was studied using liver microsomes of adult male and female rats. There was no significant difference in the rates of the cannabinoid oxidation in terms of nmol per min per nmol of liver microsomal cytochrome P450 or of nmol per min per mg of microsomal protein between male and female rats. delta 9-THC was biotransformed to various metabolites including 11-hydroxy-delta 9-THC (11-OH-delta 9-THC), 8 alpha-OH-delta 9-THC, 8 alpha,11-diOH-delta 9-THC, 3'-OH-delta 9-THC by liver microsomes of male rats, while it was oxidized selectively to 11-OH-delta 9-THC by liver microsomes of female rats. After intraperitoneal administration of delta 9-THC, various metabolites were again found in the liver of the male rat, while in the female rat oxidation of the methyl group at the 9-position was a major metabolic pathway. These results demonstrate that an apparent sex-related difference exists in the oxidative metabolism of delta 9-THC in the rat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Narimatsu
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Japan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
|
14
|
Harvey DJ. The mass spectra of the trimethylsilyl derivatives of the hydroxy and acid metabolites of delta 1- and delta 6-tetrahydrocannabinol. BIOMEDICAL MASS SPECTROMETRY 1981; 8:579-88. [PMID: 6275928 DOI: 10.1002/bms.1200081205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Deuterium labelling and high resolution mass measurements have been used to investigate the fragmentation mechanisms leading to diagnostic ions in the mass spectra of the trimethylsilyl derivatives of 58 hydroxy and acid metabolites of delta 1- and delta 6-tetrahydrocannabinol and of two related compounds, 2 alpha- and 2 beta-hydroxy-delta 6-tetrahydrocannabinol. The spectra of most of the hydroxy metabolites contained abundant ions which were characteristic of the position of hydroxy substitution. These could be used diagnostically to determine the structures of polysubstituted metabolites.
Collapse
|
15
|
Watanabe K, Yamamoto I, Oguri K, Yoshimura H. Comparison in mice of pharmacological effects of delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites oxidized at 11-position. Eur J Pharmacol 1980; 63:1-6. [PMID: 6247159 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(80)90110-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
|
16
|
Binder M, Barlage U. Metabolic Transformation of (3R, 4R)-?1(7)-Tetrahydrocannabinol by a Rat Liver Microsomal Preparation. Helv Chim Acta 1980. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19800630126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
17
|
Nordqvist M, Lindgren JE, Agurell S. Acidic metabolites of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol isolated from rabbit urine. J Pharm Pharmacol 1979; 31:231-7. [PMID: 36462 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1979.tb13485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The in vivo metabolism of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta1-THC) was investigated in the rabbit after i.v. administration. Thirteen acidic metabolites were isolated from rabbit urine and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. One additional metabolite was tentatively identified. All but three were new metabolites and all but one were oxidized in the pentyl side chain. The metabolites included dicarboxylic acids, monocarboxylic acids and mono- or dihydroxylated derivatives thereof. However, the dicarboxylic acid metabolites were the most prominent.
Collapse
|
18
|
Nordqvist M, Agurell S, Rydberg M, Falk L, Ryman T. More acidic metabolites of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol isolated from rabbit urine. J Pharm Pharmacol 1979; 31:238-43. [PMID: 36463 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1979.tb13486.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The in vivo metabolism of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta1-THC) was further investigated in the rabbit after i.v. administration. Nine acidic metabolites were isolated from a previously not investigated fraction of the urine and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The major metabolites were side-chain hydroxylated monocarboxylic acids. Three side-chains monocarboxylic acids hydroxylated in allylic positions in the isoprene moiety were also characterized. The metabolites 4''-hydroxy-delta1-THC-7-oic acid and 7-hydroxy-4'',5''-bisnor-delta1-THC-3''-oic acid were hitherto not identified. An earlier described dicarboxylic metabolite was present in high concentration. Further, the identity of an O-glucuronide as an in vivo urinary metabolite of delta1-THC was here for the first time unambiguously established by m.s. and p.m.r.
Collapse
|
19
|
Binder M, Edery H, Porath G. delta7-Tetrahydrocannabinol, a non-psychotropic cannabinoid: structure-activity considerations in the cannabinoid series. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:71-80. [PMID: 116883 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50010-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
20
|
Wall ME, Brine DR. Applications of mass spectrometry in cannabinoid research. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:15-43. [PMID: 756826 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
|
21
|
|
22
|
Kaistha KK. Guide to urine testing in drug abuse prevention and multi-modality treatment programs. J Chromatogr A 1977; 141:145-96. [PMID: 19493 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)99132-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
23
|
Harvey DJ, Martin BR, Paton WD. Identification of metabolites of delta1- and delta1(6)-tetrahydrocannabinol containing a reduced double bond. J Pharm Pharmacol 1977; 29:495-7. [PMID: 19600 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1977.tb11376.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
24
|
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered 14C-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and derived radiolabeled metabolites were studied in three dogs at two doses each at 0.1 or 0.5 and 2.0 mg/kg. Two dogs were biliary cannulated; total bile was collected in one and sampled in the other. The time course for the fraction of the dose per milliliter of plasma was best fit by a sum of five exponentials, and there was no dose dependency. No drug was excreted unchanged. The mean apparent volume of distribution of the central compartment referenced to total drug concentration in the plasma was 1.31 +/- 0.07 liters, approximately the plasma volume, due to the high protein binding of 97%. The mean metabolic clearance of drug in the plasma was 124 +/- 3.8 ml/min, half of the hepatic plasma flow, but was 4131 +/- 690 ml/min referenced to unbound drug concentration in the plasma, 16.5 times the hepatic plasma flow, indicating that net metabolism of both bound and unbound drug occurs. Apparent parallel production of several metabolites occurred, but the pharmacokinetics of their appearance were undoubtedly due to their sequential production during liver passage. The apparent half-life of the metabolic process was 6.9 +/- 0.3 min. The terminal half-life of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the pseudo-steady state after equilibration in an apparent overall volume of distribtuion of 2170 +/- 555 liters referenced to total plasma concentration was 8.2 +/- 0.23 days, based on the consistency of all pharmacokinetic data. The best estimate of the terminal half-life, based only on the 7000 min that plasma levels could be monitored with the existing analytical sensitivity, was 1.24 days. However, this value was inconsistent with the metabolite production and excretion of 40-45% of dose in feces, 14-16.5% in urine, and 55% in bile within 5 days when 24% of the dose was unmetabolized and in the tissue at that time. These data were consistent with an enterohepatic recirculation of 10-15% of the metabolites. Intravenously administered radiolabeled metabolites were totally and rapidly eliminated in both bile and urine; 88% of the dose in 300 min with an apparent overall volume of distribution of 6 liters. These facts supported the proposition that the return of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol from tissue was the rate-determining process of drug elimination after initial fast distribution and metabolism and was inconsistent with the capability of enzyme induction to change the terminal half-life.
Collapse
|
25
|
Behavioral Pharmacology of the Tetrahydrocannabinols. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-004701-7.50006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
|
26
|
Abstract
Cannabinol (CBN) was metabolized in vitro by a 10,000 g supernatant from rat liver. After removal of unchanged CBN and its monohydroxylated metabolites four dihydroxylated metabolites were isolated. By nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry the compounds were identified as 1'',7-dihydroxy-CBN. Side chain hydroxylation occurred predominantly at C-4'' anc C-3''.
Collapse
|
27
|
Martin B, Agurell S, Nordqvist M, Lindgren JE. Dioxygenated metabolites of cannabidiol formed by rat liver. J Pharm Pharmacol 1976; 28:603-8. [PMID: 11306 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1976.tb02809.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of cannabidiol (CBD) was studied in vitro using a 10 000 g supernatant from rat liver. After removal of unchanged CBD and its monohydroxylated metabolites, a polar fraction remained from which ten dioxygenated metabolites were isolated. Mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were used to identify the following metabolites: 6,7-dihydroxy-CBD, 1 inch,7-dihydroxy-CBD, 3 inch,7-dihydroxy-CBD, 4 inch,7-dihydroxy-CBD, 5 inch,7-dihydroxy-CBD, 2 inch,6-dihydroxy-CBD, 3 inch,6beta-dihydroxy-CBD, 4 inch, 6beta-dihydroxy-CBD (tentative), 3 inch-hydroxy-6-oxo-CBD, and 4 inch-hydroxy-6-oxo-CBD. The abundance of isolated dihydroxy metabolites reflected the quantity of monohydroxy metabolites that was previously found. In both series, 7-hydroxylation occurred to the greatest extent. Side chain hydroxylation occurred predominantly at C-4 inch and to a lesser degree at C-3 inch. Trace amounts of metabolites were hydroxylated at C-1 inch,-2 inch, or 5 inch.
Collapse
|
28
|
Binder M. Microbial transformation of (-)-delta1-3,4-trans-tetrahydro-cannabinol by Cunninghamella blakesleeana Lender. Helv Chim Acta 1976; 59:1674-84. [PMID: 945252 DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19760590528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
29
|
Martin B, Nordqvist M, Agurell S, Lindgren JE, Leander K, Binder M. Identification of monohydroxylated metabolites of cannabidiol formed by rat liver. J Pharm Pharmacol 1976; 28:275-9. [PMID: 6714 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1976.tb04152.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) was metabolized in vitro by rat liver enzymes. Unchanged CBD and eight monohydroxylated metabolites were isolated and positively identified. As previously reported, 7-hydroxy-CBD was the major metabolite. The second most abundant metabolite was 6alpha-hydroxy-CBD; whereas only a trace amount of 6beta-hydroxy-CBD was found. In addition hydroxylation occurred in all positions of the pentyl side chain, 4 inches-hydroxy-CBD being most abundant. 3 inches-Hydroxy-CBD was formed in half of the yield of 4 inches-hydroxy-CBD, while 1 inches-, 2 inches-, 5 inches-hydroxy-CBD were each formed in approximately one fourth of the yield of 4 inches-hydroxy-CBD.
Collapse
|
30
|
Robertson LW, Lyle MA, Billets S. Biotransformation of cannabinoids bySyncephalastrum racemosum. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1975. [DOI: 10.1002/bms.1200020505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
31
|
Turkanis SA, Karler R. Influence of anticonvulsant cannabinoids on posttetanic potentiation at isolated bullfrog ganglia. Life Sci 1975; 17:569-78. [PMID: 1081172 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(75)90092-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
32
|
Siemens AJ, Kalant H. Metabolism of delta-1-tetrahydrocannabinol by the rat in vivo and in vitro. Biochem Pharmacol 1975; 24:755-62. [PMID: 235932 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(75)90116-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
33
|
del Castillo J, Anderson M, Rubottom GM. Marijuana, absinthe and the central nervous system. Nature 1975; 253:365-6. [PMID: 1110781 DOI: 10.1038/253365a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
34
|
Pitt CG, Hobbs DT, Schran H, Twine CE, Williams DL. The synthesis of deuterium, carbon-14, and carrier-free tritium labeled cannabinoids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1975. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.2590110412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
35
|
Ten Ham M, De Jong Y. Tolerance to the hypothermic and aggression-attenuating effect of delta 8 - and delta 9 - tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 1974; 28:144-8. [PMID: 4473345 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(74)90125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
36
|
Karler R, Cely W, Turkanis SA. Anticonvulsant properties of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids. Life Sci 1974; 15:931-47. [PMID: 4549949 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(74)90009-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
37
|
Widman M, Nordqvist M, Agurell S, Lindgren JE, Sandberg F. Biliary excretion of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 1974; 23:1163-72. [PMID: 4823449 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(74)90290-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
38
|
Petrzilka T, Demuth M. [Synthesis of (-)-11 Hydroxy-delta8-6a, 10a-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol]. Helv Chim Acta 1974; 57:121-50. [PMID: 4465334 DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19740570112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
39
|
Binder M, Agurell S, Leander K, Lindgren JE. [Identification of potential cannalis containing substance metabolites: nuclear resonance and mass spectroscopic studies on side chain hydroxylation of cannabinoids]. Helv Chim Acta 1974; 57:1626-41. [PMID: 4465340 DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19740570616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
40
|
Mantilla-Plata B, Harbison RD. Effects of phenobarbital and SKF 525A pretreatment, sex, liver injury, and vehicle on delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1974; 27:123-30. [PMID: 4851768 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(74)90179-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
41
|
Gill EW, Lawrence DK. The distribution of delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol and 7-hydroxy-delta-tetrahydrocannabinol in the mouse brain after intraventricular injection. J Pharm Pharmacol 1973; 25:948-52. [PMID: 4150297 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1973.tb09984.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Δ1-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ1-THC) and 7-hydroxy-Δ1-THC were injected into the cerebral ventricles of mice by an improved technique, and the potencies of the drugs were measured by the mouse catalepsy test. Both drugs were found to have the same activity when administered by this route as after intravenous injection. Autoradiographic experiments with tritium-labelled compounds showed that at the time of the peak behavioural effect almost all the injected dose of 3H-Δ1-THC (1.6 mg kg−1) or 3H-7-hydroxy-Δ1-THC (0.6 mg kg−1) remained in the intraventricular space and had not penetrated the brain tissue. Δ1-THC was found to remain in the ventricles after the behavioural effect had disappeared; 3% of the injected dose was still present 2 days after injection of 3H-Δ1-THC (1.6 mg kg−1).
Collapse
|
42
|
Leighty EG. Metabolism and distribution of cannabinoids in rats after different methods of administration. Biochem Pharmacol 1973; 22:1613-21. [PMID: 4729809 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(73)90028-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
43
|
Widman M, Nilsson IM, Agurell S, Borg H, Granstrand B. Plasma protein binding of 7-hydroxy- 1-tetrahydrocannabinol: an active 1-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolite. J Pharm Pharmacol 1973; 25:453-7. [PMID: 4146583 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1973.tb09132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
7-Hydroxy-Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol, which is a pharmacologically and psychologically active metabolite of Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in man, has been shown by equilibrium dialysis and ultrafiltration to be bound 94–99% to plasma proteins. Further experiments, using the [14C]labelled compound, with agarose and Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and ultracentrifugation suggest that albumin, α1-lipoprotein and, to a minor degree, also β-lipoprotein are involved in the protein binding of 7-hydroxy-Δ1-tetrahydrocannabinol in blood plasma.
Collapse
|
44
|
|
45
|
Brady RO, Carbone E. Comparison of the effects of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy- 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and ethanol on the electrophysiological activity of the giant axon of the squid. Neuropharmacology 1973; 12:601-5. [PMID: 4725527 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(73)90010-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
46
|
Sprague RA, Rosenkrantz H, Braude MC. Cannabinoid effects on liver glycogen stores. LIFE SCIENCES. PT. 2: BIOCHEMISTRY, GENERAL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1973; 12:409-16. [PMID: 4633623 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(73)90323-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
47
|
ten Ham M, van Noordwijk J. Lack of tolerance to the effect of two tetrahydrocannabinols on aggressiveness. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1973; 29:171-6. [PMID: 4736260 DOI: 10.1007/bf00422649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
48
|
Abstract
[(14)C]Delta(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)THC) was injected subcutaneously in rats every day for 1 to 26 days. Concentrations of Delta(9)THC and its metabolites, 11-hydroxytetrahydrocannabinol and 8,11-dihydroxytetrahydrocannabinol, were determined in various tissues. After a single injection, the concentration of Delta(9)THC in fat was ten times greater than in any other tissue examined, and persisted in this tissue for 2 weeks. With repeated injection, Delta(9)THC and its metabolites accumulated in fat and brain.
Collapse
|
49
|
Gill EW, Jones G, Lawrence DK. Contribution of the metabolite 7-hydroxy-delta1-tetrahydrocannabinol towards the pharmacological activity of delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Biochem Pharmacol 1973; 22:175-84. [PMID: 4763251 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(73)90271-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
50
|
Kupfer D, Levin E, Burstein SH. Studies on the effects of 1 -tetrahydrocannabinol ( 1 -THC) and DDT on the hepatic microsomal metabolism of 1 -THC and other compounds in the rat. Chem Biol Interact 1973; 6:59-66. [PMID: 4689910 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(73)90086-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|