Engineered Ionic Gates for Ion Conduction Based on Sodium and Potassium Activated Nanochannels

Dual signal output detection of acetamiprid residues in medicine and food homology products via nanopore biosensor

Acetamiprid (ACE) is used in plant cultivation and their accumulation is a threat to ecology and health. Herein, a fluorescence/ion current dual-readout nanopore biosensor was designed for ACE detection. The carboxyfluorescein (FAM) labeled ACE aptamer was hybridized with complementary DNA (cDNA) to form partially hybridized double stranded DNA (dsDNA), and modified on the nanopore surface. ACE could specifically interact with FAM-aptamer and compete it against the nanopore surface. The probe changed from dsDNA to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), which triggering the ionic current signal switched from "closed" to "open" and the fluorescence signal changed from "on" to "off". The sensor exhibited linear range 0.5-100 ng/mL and with detection limit of 0.12 ng/mL. Meanwhile, the sensor can be employed for the detection of ACE residues in medicine and food homology (MFH) products. More importantly, the dual signal output detection results can be cross-verified, ensuring the accuracy of the detection.

Detection of Analytes with the Outer Surface of Solid-State Nanochannels: From pm to μm

Accurately simulating or sensitively monitoring specific substances, such as ions, molecules, and proteins in the life process, is essential for gaining a fundamental comprehension of the underlying biological mechanism, which has been a trending topic for many years. Solid-state nanochannels, inspired by biological ion channels, have been developed for decades and have achieved significant success, representing the forefront of the interdisciplinary fields of bioanalytical chemistry and nanotechnology. Typically, solid-state nanochannels with a pore size of less than 100 nm are selected to construct nanochannel-based biosensors, which can be an excellent platform to analyze small analytes, such as ions and small molecules, in a restricted space and simulate the intricate process of ion transport in living organisms. Furthermore, by integrating functional components that are termed probes into artificial devices, the nanochannel system has emerged as a remarkable tool for label-free and highly sensitive detection in practical applications. Nonetheless, the detection of large substances (more than nanoscale in size) has consistently posed a significant challenge, since previous research on solid-state nanochannels has mainly concentrated on the contribution of probes at the inner wall, which requires the biotargets to enter the nanochannel for successful detection. Moreover, the lack of testing techniques for the chemical and physical properties of probes anchored deep inside confined nanochannels results in an unclear working mechanism, which is another issue that cannot be ignored. The requirement for a more efficient and extensive detection platform has spurred an in-depth study of nanochannels, which provides innovative insight concentrating on the less restricted space on the outer surface (OS) of nanochannels and the probes at the OS (POS).In this Account, several approaches to constructing the OS and modifying POS are briefly summarized. Subsequently, ultrasensitive detection of analytes across a range of sizes, encompassing not only the ions and small molecules from ∼100 pm to ∼2 nm but also the large substances from ∼2 nm to ∼20 μm through the use of POS in the last five years, is introduced. Through the characterization of OS and the precise control of POS, the sensing mechanism, including surface charge and wettability, with POS is discussed unambiguously. Additionally, an intelligent model using dual-signal responses such as electrical and optical to enhance the responsiveness and accuracy of quantitative analysis is discussed, which can distinguish the conformation of an analyte by the exposed single cysteine thiol group. We expect that this timely Account will offer instructive insights into the development of a nanochannel-based platform to facilitate the analysis of biomolecules of varying sizes.

Sub-femtomolar drug monitoring via co-calibration mechanism with nanoconfined DNA probes

Synthetic drugs fundamentally reshape the illicit drug market due to their low cost, ease of production, and rapid manufacturing processes. However, current drug detection methods, which rely on complex instruments, have limited applicability and often neglect the influence of pH fluctuations, leading to potential bias and unreliable results. Herein, we propose co-calibration DNA probes on a nanoconfined biosensor (NCBS), covering the range of sweat pH 3-8 to achieve significantly enhanced target signal recognition. The NCBS exhibits a linear response range of 103-108 fM with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 3.58 fM in artificial sweat. Compared to the single-aptamer NCBS, the dual-aptamer NCBS offers a broader linear response range, primarily due to the synergistic effects of changes in surface wettability and the capture of hydrion, which together reduce signal interference in proton transport. The linear response range doubles, and its detection sensitivity improves by 4-5 orders of magnitude compared to existing drug detection methods. This sensing strategy expands the application scope of aptamer-based composite probes, offering an approach for ultra-sensitive drug detection and demonstrating significant potential in sweat sensing and drug monitoring fields.

Olfactory-Inspired Separation-Sensing Nanochannel-Based Electronics for Wireless Sweat Monitoring

Human sweat has the potential to be sufficiently utilized for noninvasive monitoring. Given the complexity of sweat secretion, the sensitivity and selectivity of sweat monitoring should be further improved. Here, we developed an olfactory-inspired separation-sensing nanochannel-based electronic for sensitive and selective sweat monitoring, which was simultaneously endowed with interferent separation and target detection performances. The special separation-sensing strategy imparts functional composite membranes with a high sensitivity of 113 mV dec-1 for potassium detection. The excellent mechanical properties and conformability of the Kevlar aramid nanofiber layer bring well-wearing performances to realize continuous wireless sweat monitoring. The recognition between functional molecules and target ions is proved at the molecular level in detail in the article. The replacement of functional molecules proves the universality of the strategy for performance enhancement in intricate biofluid analysis systems.

The Effect of Electrolyte Properties on Ionic Transport through Solid-State Nanopores: Experiment and Simulation

Nanopore membranes enable versatile technologies that are employed in many different applications, ranging from clean energy generation to filtration and sensing. Improving the performance can be achieved by conducting numerical simulations of the system, for example, by studying how the nanopore geometry or surface properties change the ionic transport behavior or fluid dynamics of the system. A widely employed tool for numerical simulations is finite element analysis (FEA) using software, such as COMSOL Multiphysics. We found that the prevalent method of implementing the electrolyte in the FEA can diverge significantly from physically accurate values. It is often assumed that salt molecules fully dissociate, and the effect of the temperature is neglected. Furthermore, values for the diffusion coefficients of the ions, as well as permittivity, density, and viscosity of the fluid, are assumed to be their bulk values at infinite dilution. By performing conductometry experiments with an amorphous SiO2 nanopore membrane with conical pores and simulating the pore system with FEA, it is shown that the common assumptions do not hold for different mono- and divalent chlorides (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2) at concentrations above 100 mM. Instead, a procedure is presented where all parameters are implemented based on the type of salt and concentration. This modification to the common approach improves the accuracy of the numerical simulations and thus provides a more comprehensive insight into ion transport in nanopores that is otherwise lacking.

Triboiontronics with temporal control of electrical double layer formation

The nanoscale electrical double layer plays a crucial role in macroscopic ion adsorption and reaction kinetics. In this study, we achieve controllable ion migration by dynamically regulating asymmetric electrical double layer formation. This tailors the ionic-electronic coupling interface, leading to the development of triboiontronics. Controlling the charge-collecting layer coverage on dielectric substrates allows for charge collection and adjustment of the substrate-liquid contact electrification property. By dynamically managing the asymmetric electrical double layer formation between the dielectric substrate and liquids, we develop a direct-current triboiontronic nanogenerator. This nanogenerator produces a transferred charge density of 412.54 mC/m2, significantly exceeding that of current hydrovoltaic technology and conventional triboelectric nanogenerators. Additionally, incorporating redox reactions to the process enhances the peak power and transferred charge density to 38.64 W/m2 and 540.70 mC/m2, respectively.

High-efficiency dysprosium-ion extraction enabled by a biomimetic nanofluidic channel

Biological ion channels exhibit high selectivity and permeability of ions because of their asymmetrical pore structures and surface chemistries. Here, we demonstrate a biomimetic nanofluidic channel (BNC) with an asymmetrical structure and glycyl-L-proline (GLP) -functionalization for ultrafast, selective, and unidirectional Dy3+ extraction over other lanthanide (Ln3+) ions with very similar electronic configurations. The selective extraction mainly depends on the amplified chemical affinity differences between the Ln3+ ions and GLPs in nanoconfinement. In particular, the conductivities of Ln3+ ions across the BNC even reach up to two orders of magnitude higher than in a bulk solution, and a high Dy3+/Nd3+ selectivity of approximately 60 could be achieved. The designed BNC can effectively extract Dy3+ ions with ultralow concentrations and thereby purify Nd3+ ions to an ultimate content of 99.8 wt.%, which contribute to the recycling of rare earth resources and environmental protection. Theoretical simulations reveal that the BNC preferentially binds to Dy3+ ion due to its highest affinity among Ln3+ ions in nanoconfinement, which attributes to the coupling of ion radius and coordination matching. These findings suggest that BNC-based ion selectivity system provides alternative routes to achieving highly efficient lanthanide separation.

Geometrically Scalable Iontronic Memristors: Employing Bipolar Polyelectrolyte Gels for Neuromorphic Systems

Iontronics that are capable of mimicking the functionality of biological systems within an artificial fluidic network have long been pursued for biomedical applications and ion-based intelligence systems. Here, we report on facile and robust realization of iontronic bipolar memristors featuring a three-layer polyelectrolyte gel structure. Significant memristive hysteresis of ion currents was successfully accomplished, and the memory time proved geometrically scalable from 200 to 4000 s. These characteristics were enabled by the ion concentration polarization-induced rectification ratio within the polyelectrolyte gels. The memristors exhibited memory dynamics akin to those observed in unipolar devices, while the bipolar structure notably enabled prolonged memory time and enhanced the ion conductance switching ratio with mesoscale (10-1000 μm) geometry precision. These properties endow the devices with the capability of effective neuromorphic processing with pulse-based input voltage signals. Owing to their simple fabrication process and superior memristive performance, the presented iontronic bipolar memristors are versatile and can be easily integrated into small-scale iontronic circuits, thereby facilitating advanced neuromorphic computing functionalities.

Single-Pore Nanofluidic Logic Memristor with Reconfigurable Synaptic Functions and Designable Combinations

The biological neural network is a highly efficient in-memory computing system that integrates memory and logical computing functions within synapses. Moreover, reconfiguration by environmental chemical signals endows biological neural networks with dynamic multifunctions and enhanced efficiency. Nanofluidic memristors have emerged as promising candidates for mimicking synaptic functions, owing to their similarity to synapses in the underlying mechanisms of ion signaling in ion channels. However, realizing chemical signal-modulated logic functions in nanofluidic memristors, which is the basis for brain-like computing applications, remains unachieved. Here, we report a single-pore nanofluidic logic memristor with reconfigurable logic functions. Based on the different degrees of protonation and deprotonation of functional groups on the inner surface of the single pore, the modulation of the memristors and the reconfiguration of logic functions are realized. More noteworthy, this single-pore nanofluidic memristor can not only avoid the average effects in multipore but also act as a fundamental component in constructing complex neural networks through series and parallel circuits, which lays the groundwork for future artificial nanofluidic neural networks. The implementation of dynamic synaptic functions, modulation of logic gates by chemical signals, and diverse combinations in single-pore nanofluidic memristors opens up new possibilities for their applications in brain-inspired computing.

Ion transport in nanofluidics under external fields

Nanofluidic channels with tailored ion transport dynamics are usually used as channels for ion transport, to enable high-performance ion regulation behaviors. The rational construction of nanofluidics and the introduction of external fields are of vital significance to the advancement and development of these ion transport properties. Focusing on the recent advances of nanofluidics, in this review, various dimensional nanomaterials and their derived homogeneous/heterogeneous nanofluidics are first briefly introduced. Then we discuss the basic principles and properties of ion transport in nanofluidics. As the major part of this review, we focus on recent progress in ion transport in nanofluidics regulated by external physical fields (electric field, light, heat, pressure, etc.) and chemical fields (pH, concentration gradient, chemical reaction, etc.), and reveal the advantages and ion regulation mechanisms of each type. Moreover, the representative applications of these nanofluidic channels in sensing, ionic devices, energy conversion, and other areas are summarized. Finally, the major challenges that need to be addressed in this research field and the future perspective of nanofluidics development and practical applications are briefly illustrated.

Archaea-Inspired Switchable Nanochannels for On-Demand Lithium Detection by pH Activation

With the rapid development of the lithium ion battery industry, emerging lithium (Li) enrichment in nature has attracted ever-growing attention due to the biotoxicity of high Li levels. To date, fast lithium ion (Li+) detection remains urgent but is limited by the selectivity, sensitivity, and stability of conventional technologies based on passive response processes. In nature, archaeal plasma membrane ion exchangers (NCLX_Mj) exhibit Li+-gated multi/monovalent ion transport behavior, activated by different stimuli. Inspired by NCLX_Mj, we design a pH-controlled biomimetic Li+-responsive solid-state nanochannel system for on-demand Li+ detection using 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)benzoxazole (HPBO) units as Li+ recognition groups. Pristine HPBO is not reactive to Li+, whereas negatively charged HPBO enables specific Li+ coordination under alkaline conditions to decrease the ion exchange capacity of nanochannels. On-demand Li+ detection is achieved by monitoring the decline in currents, thereby ensuring precise and stable Li+ recognition (>0.1 mM) in the toxic range of Li+ concentration (>1.5 mM) for human beings. This work provides a new approach to constructing Li+ detection nanodevices and has potential for applications of Li-related industries and medical services.

Ionic Transistors

Biological voltage-gated ion channels, which behave as life's transistors, regulate ion transport precisely and selectively through atomic-scale selectivity filters to sustain important life activities. By this inspiration, voltage-adaptable ionic transistors that use ions as signal carriers may provide an alternative information processing unit beyond solid-state electronic devices. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the first generation of biomimetic ionic transistors, including their operating mechanisms, device architecture development, and property characterizations. Despite its infancy, significant progress has been made in the applications of ionic transistors in fields such as DNA detection, drug delivery, and ionic circuits. Challenges and prospects of full exploitation of ionic transistors for a broad spectrum of practical applications are also discussed.

Strongly Enhanced Polarization in a Ferroelectric Crystal by Conduction-Proton Flow

Ion conductors comprising noncentrosymmetric frameworks have emerged as new functional materials. However, strongly correlated polarity functionality and ion transport have not been achieved. Herein, we report a ferroelectric proton conductor, K2MnN(CN)4·H2O (1·H2O), exhibiting the strong correlation between its polar skeleton and conductive ions that generate anomalous ferroelectricity via the proton-bias phenomenon. The application of an electric field of ±1 kV/cm (0.1 Hz) on 1·H2O at 298 K produced the ferroelectricity (polarization = 1.5 × 104 μC/cm2), which was enhanced by the ferroelectric-skeleton-trapped conductive protons. Furthermore, the strong polarity-proton transport coupling of 1·H2O induced a proton-rectification-like directional ion-conductive behavior that could be adjusted by the magnitude and direction of DC electric fields. Moreover, 1·H2O exhibited reversible polarity switching between the polar 1·H2O and its dehydrated form, 1, with a centrosymmetric structure comprising an order-disorder-type transition of the nitrido-bridged chains.

Pure Covalent-Organic Framework Membrane as a Label-Free Biomimetic Nanochannel for Sensitive and Selective Sensing of Chiral Flavor Substances

Chiral flavor substances play an important role in the human perception of different tastes. Here, we report a pure covalent-organic framework (COF) membrane nanochannel in combination with a chiral gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) selector for sensing chiral flavor substances. The pure COF membrane with a proper pore size is selected as the nanochannel, while l-cysteine-modified AuNPs (l-Cys-AuNPs) are used as the chiral selector. l-Cys-AuNPs show stronger binding to the S-enantiomer than the R-enantiomer, causing current reduction to different degrees for the R- and S-enantiomer to achieve chiral sensing due to the synergistic effect of the size exclusion of the COF nanochannel and the chiral selectivity of l-Cys-AuNPs. The developed COF membrane nanochannel sensing platform not only allows an easy balance of the permeability and selectivity, which is difficult to achieve in traditional polymer membrane nanochannel sensors, but also exhibits better chiral performance than commercial artificial anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) nanochannel sensors. The developed nanochannel sensor is successfully applied for sensing flavor enantiomers such as limonene, propanediol, methylbutyric acid, and butanol with the enantiomer excess values of 55.2% (propanediol) and 72.4% (limonene) and the low detection limits of 36 (limonene) and 71 (propanediol) ng L-1. This study provides a new idea for the construction of nanochannel platforms based on the COF for sensitive and selective chiral sensing.

Functionalized nanopores based on hybridization chain reaction: Fabrication and microRNA sensing

Enzyme-free hybridization chain reaction (HCR) technology is often used as a signal amplification tool for the detection of different targets. In this study, an ultrasensitive and label-free method for detecting miRNA-21 was developed using the nanopore ionic current rectification (ICR) technology coupled with HCR technology. The probe oligonucleotide (DNA1) was combined with the gold-coated nanopore through the Au-S bond to form a DNA1-functionalized gold-coated nanopore (DNA1-Au-coated nanopore). Since miRNA-21 is partially complementary to DNA1, it can be selectively recognized by DNA1-functionalized gold-coated nanopores. The target (miRNA-21) can induce the opening of hairpin DNA and HCR reaction after the introduction of hairpin DNA H1 and H2. The concentration of miRNA-21 will affect the combination of H1 and H2 on the inner wall of the nanopore, and its surface charge will change with the internal modification, thereby changing the ion current rectification ratio. Under the condition that the concentration of H1, H2 and HCR reaction time are constant, the change of ICR ratio is linearly correlated with the logarithm of miRNA-21 concentration within a certain range, which shows that the sensing strategy we designed can achieve target miRNA-21 detection. This ultrasensitive miRNA holds great promise in the field of cancer diagnosis.

Charging Metal-Organic Framework Membranes by Incorporating Crown Ethers to Capture Cations for Ion Sieving

Protein channels on the biofilm conditionally manipulate ion transport via regulating the distribution of charge residues, making analogous processes on artificial membranes a hot spot and challenge. Here, we employ metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) membrane with charge-adjustable subnano-channel to selectively govern ion transport. Various valent ions are binded with crown ethers embedded in the MOF cavity, which act as charged guest to regulate the channels' charge state from the negativity to positivity. Compared with the negatively charged channel, the positive counterpart obviously enhances Li+ /Mg2+ selectivity, which benefit from the reinforcement of the electrostatic repulsion between ions and the channel. Meanwhile, theoretical calculations reveal that Mg2+ transport through the more positively charged channel needed to overcome higher entrance energy barrier than that of Li+ . This work provides a subtle strategy for ion-selective transport upon regulating the charge state of insulating membrane, which paves the way for the application like seawater desalination and lithium extraction from salt lakes.

Learning from the Brain: Bioinspired Nanofluidics

The human brain completes intelligent behaviors such as the generation, transmission, and storage of neural signals by regulating the ionic conductivity of ion channels in neuron cells, which provides new inspiration for the development of ion-based brain-like intelligence. Against the backdrop of the gradual maturity of neuroscience, computer science, and micronano materials science, bioinspired nanofluidic iontronics, as an emerging interdisciplinary subject that focuses on the regulation of ionic conductivity of nanofluidic systems to realize brain-like functionalities, has attracted the attention of many researchers. This Perspective provides brief background information and the state-of-the-art progress of nanofluidic intelligent systems. Two main categories are included: nanofluidic transistors and nanofluidic memristors. The prospects of nanofluidic iontronics' interdisciplinary progress in future artificial intelligence fields such as neuromorphic computing or brain-computer interfaces are discussed. This Perspective aims to give readers a clear understanding of the concepts and prospects of this emerging interdisciplinary field.

Nanopores: synergy from DNA sequencing to industrial filtration - small holes with big impact

Nanopores in thin membranes play important roles in science and industry. Single nanopores have provided a step-change in portable DNA sequencing and understanding nanoscale transport while multipore membranes facilitate food processing and purification of water and medicine. Despite the unifying use of nanopores, the fields of single nanopores and multipore membranes differ - to varying degrees - in terms of materials, fabrication, analysis, and applications. Such a partial disconnect hinders scientific progress as important challenges are best resolved together. This Viewpoint suggests how synergistic crosstalk between the two fields can provide considerable mutual benefits in fundamental understanding and the development of advanced membranes. We first describe the main differences including the atomistic definition of single pores compared to the less defined conduits in multipore membranes. We then outline steps to improve communication between the two fields such as harmonizing measurements and modelling of transport and selectivity. The resulting insight is expected to improve the rational design of porous membranes. The Viewpoint concludes with an outlook of other developments that can be best achieved by collaboration across the two fields to advance the understanding of transport in nanopores and create next-generation porous membranes tailored for sensing, filtration, and other applications.

Engineering solid nanochannels with macrocyclic host-guest chemistry for stimuli responses and molecular separations

Biological channels in the cell membrane play a critical role in the regulation of signal transduction and transmembrane transport. Researchers have been committed to building biomimetic nanochannels to imitate the above significant biological processes. Unlike the fragile feature of biological channels, numerous solid nanochannels have aroused extensive interests for their controllable chemical properties on the surface and superior mechanical properties. Surface functionalization has been confirmed to be vital to determine the properties of solid nanochannels. Macrocyclic hosts (e.g., the crown ethers, cyclodextrins, calix[n]arenes, cucurbit[n]urils, pillar[n]arenes, and trianglamine) can be tailored to the interior surface of the nanochannels with the performance of stimuli response and separation. Macrocycles have good reversibility and high selectivity toward specific ions or molecules, promoting functionalies of solid nanochannels. Hence, the combination of macrocyclic hosts and solid nanochannels is conducive to taking both advantages and achieving applications in functional nanochannels (e.g., membranes separations, biosensors, and smart devices). In this review, the most recent advances in nanochannel membranes decorated by macrocyclic host-guest chemistry are briefed. A variety of macrocyclic hosts-based responsive nanochannels are organized (e.g., the physical stimuli and specific molecules or ions stimuli) and nanochannels are separated (e.g., water purifications, enantimerseparations, and organic solvent nanofiltration), respectively. Hopefully, this review can enlighten on how to effectively build functional nanochannels and facilitate their practical applications in membrane separations.

Chiral Transport in Nanochannel Based Artificial Drug Transporters

The precise regulation of chiral drug transmembrane transport can be achieved through drug transporters in living organisms. However, implementing this process in vitro is still a formidable challenge due to the complexity of the biological systems that control drug enantiomeric transport. Herein, a facile and feasible strategy is employed to construct chiral L-tyrosine-modified nanochannels (L-Tyr nanochannels) based on polyethylene terephthalate film, which could enhance the chiral recognition of propranolol isomers (R-/S-PPL) for transmembrane transport. Moreover, conventional fluorescence spectroscopy, patch-clamp technology, laser scanning confocal microscopy, and picoammeter technology are employed to evaluate the performance of nanochannels. The results show that the L-Tyr nanochannel have better chiral selectivity for R-/S-PPL compared with the L-tryptophan (L-Trp) channel, and the chiral selectivity coefficient is improved by about 4.21-fold. Finally, a detailed theoretical analysis of the chirality selectivity mechanism is carried out. The findings would not only enrich the basic theory research related to chiral drug transmembrane transport, but also provide a new idea for constructing artificial channels to separate chiral drugs.

Electrokinetic behavior of conical nanopores functionalized with two polyelectrolyte layers: effect of pH gradient

The behavior of ionic current rectification of a conical nanopore functionalized with two polyelectrolyte (PE) layers via layer-by-layer deposition subject to an extra applied pH gradient is investigated theoretically. The applied pH, the electric potential, the half-cone angle of the conical nanopore, and the fixed charge densities of the PE layers are examined in detail for their influence on the ionic current rectification (ICR) behavior of the nanopore. We found that this behavior depends highly on the direction of the pH gradient, which arises because the associated electroosmotic flow plays a significant role. The mechanisms of ionic transport in the present pH asymmetric system are discussed. The results gathered reveal that the ICR behavior of a nanopore can be tuned effectively by applying an extra pH gradient. We also examine the case where two PE layers are uniformly merged into one layer. In this case, both the fixed charge density and the concentration profile are quite different from those when two PE layers are present.

Materials discovery of ion-selective membranes using artificial intelligence

Significant attempts have been made to improve the production of ion-selective membranes (ISMs) with higher efficiency and lower prices, while the traditional methods have drawbacks of limitations, high cost of experiments, and time-consuming computations. One of the best approaches to remove the experimental limitations is artificial intelligence (AI). This review discusses the role of AI in materials discovery and ISMs engineering. The AI can minimize the need for experimental tests by data analysis to accelerate computational methods based on models using the results of ISMs simulations. The coupling with computational chemistry makes it possible for the AI to consider atomic features in the output models since AI acts as a bridge between the experimental data and computational chemistry to develop models that can use experimental data and atomic properties. This hybrid method can be used in materials discovery of the membranes for ion extraction to investigate capabilities, challenges, and future perspectives of the AI-based materials discovery, which can pave the path for ISMs engineering.

Bioinspired Artificial Ion Pumps

Ion pumps are important membrane-spanning transporters that pump ions against the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane. In biological systems, ion pumping is essential to maintain intracellular osmotic pressure, to respond to external stimuli, and to regulate physiological activities by consuming adenosine triphosphate. In recent decades, artificial ion pumping systems with diverse geometric structures and functions have been developing rapidly with the progress of advanced materials and nanotechnology. In this Review, bioinspired artificial ion pumps, including four categories: asymmetric structure-driven ion pumps, pH gradient-driven ion pumps, light-driven ion pumps, and electron-driven ion pumps, are summarized. The working mechanisms, functions, and applications of those artificial ion pumping systems are discussed. Finally, a brief conclusion of underpinning challenges and outlook for future research are tentatively discussed.

Solid-state nanopore: chemical modifications, interactions, and functionalities

Nanopore technology is a burgeoning detection technology for single-molecular sensing and ion rectification. Solid-state nanopores have attracted more and more attention because of their higher stability and tunability than biological nanopores. However, solid-state nanopores still suffer the drawbacks of low signal-to-noise ratio and low resolution, which hinders their practical applications. Thus, developing operatical and useful methods to overcome the shortages of solid-state nanopores is urgently needed. Here, we summarize the recent research on nanopore modification to achieve this goal. Modifying solid-state nanopores with different coating molecules can improve the selectivity, sensitivity, and stability of nanopores. The modified molecules can introduce different functions into the nanopores, greatly expanding the applications of this novel detection technology. We hope that this review of nanopore modification will provide new ideas for this field.

Nanoionics from Biological to Artificial Systems: An Alternative Beyond Nanoelectronics

Ion transport under nanoconfined spaces is a ubiquitous phenomenon in nature and plays an important role in the energy conversion and signal transduction processes of both biological and artificial systems. Unlike the free diffusion in continuum media, anomalous behaviors of ions are often observed in nanostructured systems, which is governed by the complex interplay between various interfacial interactions. Conventionally, nanoionics mainly refers to the study of ion transport in solid-state nanosystems. In this review, to extent this concept is proposed and a new framework to understand the phenomena, mechanism, methodology, and application associated with ion transport at the nanoscale is put forward. Specifically, here nanoionics is summarized into three categories, i.e., biological, artificial, and hybrid, and discussed the characteristics of each system. Compared with nanoelectronics, nanoionics is an emerging research field with many theoretical and practical challenges. With this forward-looking perspective, it is hoped that nanoionics can attract increasing attention and find wide range of applications as nanoelectronics.

Mechanisms of Enzymatic Transduction in Nanochannel Biosensors

The immobilization of enzymes in solid-state nanochannels is a new avenue for the design of biosensors with outstanding selectivity and sensitivity. This work reports the first theoretical model of an enzymatic nanochannel biosensor. The model is applied to the system previously experimentally studied by Lin, et al. (Anal. Chem. 2014, 86, 10546): a hourglass nanochannel modified by glucose oxidase for the detection of glucose. Our predictions are in good agreement with experimental observations as a function of the applied potential, pH and glucose concentration. The sensing mechanism results from the combination of three processes: i) the establishment of a steady-state proton concentration gradient due to a reaction-diffusion mechanism, ii) the effect of that gradient on the charge of the adsorbed enzymes and native surface groups, and iii) the effect of the resulting surface charge on the ionic current. Strategies to improve the sensor performance based on this mechanism are identified and discussed.

Biomimetic Nanochannels: From Fabrication Principles to Theoretical Insights

Biological nanochannels which can regulate ionic transport across cell membranes intelligently play a significant role in physiological functions. Inspired by these nanochannels, numerous artificial nanochannels have been developed during recent years. The exploration of smart solid-state nanochannels can lay a solid foundation, not only for fundamental studies of biological systems but also practical applications in various fields. The basic fabrication principles, functional materials, and diverse applications based on artificial nanochannels are summarized in this review. In addition, theoretical insights into transport mechanisms and structure-function relationships are discussed. Meanwhile, it is believed that improvements will be made via computer-guided strategy in designing more efficient devices with upgrading accuracy. Finally, some remaining challenges and perspectives for developments in both novel conceptions and technology of this inspiring research field are stated.

Gating Effects for Ion Transport in Three-Dimensional Functionalized Covalent Organic Frameworks

The development of bioinspired nano/subnano-sized (<2 nm) ion channels is still considered a great challenge due to the difficulty in precisely controlling pore's internal structure and chemistry. Herein, for the first time, we report that three-dimensional functionalized covalent organic frameworks (COFs) can act as an effective nanofluidic platform for intelligent modulation of the ion transport. By strategic attachment of 12-crown-4 groups to the monomers as ion-driver door locks, we demonstrate that gating effects of functionalized COFs can be activated by lithium ions. The obtained materials exhibit an outstanding selective ion transmission performance with a high gating ratio (up to 23.6 for JUC-590), which is among the highest values in metal ion-activated solid-state nanochannels reported so far. Furthermore, JUC-590 offers high tunability, selectivity, and recyclability of ion transport proved by the experimental and simulated studies.

Bio-inspired Track-Etched Polymeric Nanochannels: Steady-State Biosensors for Detection of Analytes

Bio-inspired polymeric nanochannel (also referred as nanopore)-based biosensors have attracted considerable attention on account of their controllable channel size and shape, multi-functional surface chemistry, unique ionic transport properties, and good robustness for applications. There are already very informative reviews on the latest developments in solid-state artificial nanochannel-based biosensors, however, which concentrated on the resistive-pulse sensing-based sensors for practical applications. The steady-state sensing-based nanochannel biosensors, in principle, have significant advantages over their counterparts in term of high sensitivity, fast response, target analytes with no size limit, and extensive suitable range. Furthermore, among the diverse materials, nanochannels based on polymeric materials perform outstandingly, due to flexible fabrication and wide application. This compressive Review summarizes the recent advances in bio-inspired polymeric nanochannels as sensing platforms for detection of important analytes in living organisms, to meet the high demand for high-performance biosensors for analysis of target analytes, and the potential for development of smart sensing devices. In the future, research efforts can be focused on transport mechanisms in the field of steady-state or resistive-pulse nanochannel-based sensors and on developing precisely size-controlled, robust, miniature and reusable, multi-functional, and high-throughput biosensors for practical applications. Future efforts should aim at a deeper understanding of the principles at the molecular level and incorporating these diverse pore architectures into homogeneous and defect-free multi-channel membrane systems. With the rapid advancement of nanoscience and biotechnology, we believe that many more achievements in nanochannel-based biosensors could be achieved in the near future, serving people in a better way.

Origin of Ultrahigh Rectification in Polyelectrolyte Bilayers Modified Conical Nanopores

The switching of "ON" and "OFF" states of an ionic diode is investigated by considering a conical nanopore partially functionalized two polyelectrolyte (PE) layers via layer-by-layer deposition. Through observing the inversion of its rectification behavior, we demonstrate the function of the PE bilayers in ionic transport regulation. The ionic diode exhibits an ultrahigh ion rectification at a low level of pH. In an aqueous NaCl solution at pH 2, for example, the ratio of the current at "ON" state and that at "OFF" state can be about 800 and 200 for 1 and 100 mM, respectively. This remarkable gating behavior can be explained by the anion-pump-induced ion accumulation in the neutral region as well as the depletion zone at the interface. Our results further demonstrate the possibility of achieving an ultrahigh rectification in an ionic diode having a unipolar-like configuration.

Recent advances in polymeric nanostructured ion selective membranes for biomedical applications

Nano structured ion-selective membranes (ISMs) are very attractive materials for a wide range of sensing and ion separation applications. The present review focuses on the design principles of various ISMs; nanostructured and ionophore/ion acceptor doped ISMs, and their use in biomedical engineering. Applications of ISMs in the biomedical field have been well-known for more than half a century in potentiometric analysis of biological fluids and pharmaceutical products. However, the emergence of nanotechnology and sophisticated sensing methods assisted in miniaturising ion-selective electrodes to needle-like sensors that can be designed in the form of implantable or wearable devices (smartwatch, tattoo, sweatband, fabric patch) for health monitoring. This article provides a critical review of recent advances in miniaturization, sensing and construction of new devices over last decade (2011-2021). The designing of tunable ISM with biomimetic artificial ion channels offered intensive opportunities and innovative clinical analysis applications, including precise biosensing, controlled drug delivery and early disease diagnosis. This paper will also address the future perspective on potential applications and challenges in the widespread use of ISM for clinical use. Finally, this review details some recommendations and future directions to improve the accuracy and robustness of ISMs for biomedical applications.

Bioinspired Solid-State Nanochannel Sensors: From Ionic Current Signals, Current, and Fluorescence Dual Signals to Faraday Current Signals

Inspired from bioprotein channels of living organisms, constructing "abiotic" analogues, solid-state nanochannels, to achieve "smart" sensing towards various targets, is highly seductive. When encountered with certain stimuli, dynamic switch of terminal modified probes in terms of surface charge, conformation, fluorescence property, electric potential as well as wettability can be monitored via transmembrane ionic current, fluorescence intensity, faraday current signals of nanochannels and so on. Herein, the modification methodologies of nanochannels and targets-detecting application are summarized in ions, small molecules, as well as biomolecules, and systematically reviewed are the nanochannel-based detection means including 1) by transmembrane current signals; 2) by the coordination of current- and fluorescence-dual signals; 3) by faraday current signals from nanochannel-based electrode. The coordination of current and fluorescence dual signals offers great benefits for synchronous temporal and spatial monitoring. Faraday signals enable the nanoelectrode to monitor both redox and non-redox components. Notably, by incorporation with confined effect of tip region of a needle-like nanopipette, glorious in-vivo monitoring is conferred on the nanopipette detector at high temporal-spatial resolution. In addition, some outlooks for future application in reliable practical samples analysis and leading research endeavors in the related fantastic fields are provided.

Space charge modulation and ion current rectification of a cylindrical nanopore functionalized with polyelectrolyte brushes subject to an applied pH-gradient

Considering versatile potential applications of bioinspired membranes, we simulate the electrokinetic behavior of a cylindrical nanopore, surface modified by a polyelectrolyte (PE) layer. Taking account of the effect of electroosmotic flow and an additionally applied pH gradient, the influences of the strength of the pH gradient, the PE layer thickness, the length of the nanopore and its radius on its conductance and ion current rectification (ICR) performance are assessed. We show that if pH_U (the pH at the higher pH end of the nanopore) is fixed at 11 and pH_L (the pH at the lower pH end of the nanopore) varies from 3 to 11, the rectification factor R_f has a local maximum occurring in 6 < pH_L <8; the greater the magnitude of the applied potential bias |V| the smaller the pH_L at which the local maximum occurs. The influence of the PE layer thickness on the nanopore rectification performance is important only if 5 < pH_L <8, and the optimum performance is reached at a medium thick PE layer (ca. 3 nm). Possible mechanisms associated with the ion transport phenomenon under consideration are proposed and discussed in detail.

Nanopore-Based Electrodes for Quinotrione Detection: Host-Guest-Induced Electrochemical Signal Switching

Nanopore-based detection techniques, with a wide range of transport properties, exhibit impressive selectivity and sensitivity for analytes. To expand the application of nanoporous sensors, real-time and fast detection of targets, all within a portable device, is highly desired for nanopore-based sensors. In addition, to improve the accuracy of the output signal, more appropriate readout methods also need to be explored. In this manuscript, we describe a nanopore-based electrode, regarded as NAC-P6-PC@AuE, prepared by coupling a pillararene-based nanoporous membrane with an electrochemical impedance measurement method. The fabricated device is demonstrated by exposing pillararene-based receptors to trace amounts of pesticide molecules. NAC-P6-PC@AuE devices exhibit distinguished selectivity to quinotrione, as well as the ability to quantify quinotrione with a limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 10 nM. The mechanism that allows sensing was verified using finite-element simulations and may be explained as host-guest-induced surface charge shielding, which influences the electrochemical response of probe molecules. The applications of this nanopore-based electrode may be extended toward other target molecules by decorating the nanopore surfaces with specifically chosen receptors.

Size and density adjustment of nanostructures in nanochannels for screening performance improvement

Biomimetic solid-state nanochannel/nanopore with flexible geometric structures, mechanical robustness and multifunctional surfaces have attracted extensive attention in separation, catalysis, drug delivery and other fields. Nanostructures have been introduced in nanoconfines to compress substances passthrough for high-efficient screening. However, precise controls of the nanostructure's growth in nanoconfines is rare. Herein, we developed a method to control size and number density of nanoparticles in nanochannels by adjusting polydopamine reducing conditions, achieving (1) particle size increasing, density increasing; (2) particle size increasing, density decreasing; (3) particle size increasing, density invariant; (4) particle size invariant, density increasing. The nanoparticles compressed the space of functional molecules decorated on them. Increasing size and density of nanoparticle enhanced the steric hinderance of functional molecules decorated on them and improved the wetting and chirality screening through nanochannels.

Ion track etching of polycarbonate membranes monitored by in situ small angle X-ray scattering

In situ small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements of ion track etching in polycarbonate foils are used to directly monitor the selective dissolution of ion tracks with high precision, including the early stages of etching. Detailed information about the track etching kinetics and size, shape, and size distribution of an ensemble of nanopores is obtained. Time resolved measurements as a function of temperature and etchant concentration show that the pore radius increases almost linearly with time for all conditions and the etching process can be described by an Arrhenius law. The radial etching shows a power law dependency on the etchant concentration. An increase in the etch rate with increasing temperature or concentration of the etchant reduces the penetration of the etchant into the polymer but does not affect the pore size distribution. The in situ measurements provide an estimate for the track etch rate, which is found to be approximately three orders of magnitude higher than the radial etch rate. The measurement methodology enables new experiments studying membrane fabrication and performance in liquid environments.

Target-Triggered Assembly in a Nanopipette for Electrochemical Single-Cell Analysis

Engineered nanopipette tools have recently emerged as a powerful approach for electrochemical nanosensing, which has major implications in both fundamental biological research and biomedical applications. Herein, we describe a generic method of target-triggered assembly of aptamers in a nanopipette for nanosensing, which is exemplified by sensitive and rapid electrochemical single-cell analysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a ubiquitous energy source in life and important signaling molecules in many physiological processes. Specifically, a layer of thiolated aptamers is immobilized onto a Au-coated interior wall of a nanopipette tip. With backfilled pairing aptamers, the engineered nanopipette is then used for probing intracellular ATP via the ATP-dependent linkage of the split aptamers. Due to the higher surface charge density from the aptamer assembly, the nanosensor would exhibit an enhanced rectification signal. Besides, this ATP-responsive nanopipette tool possesses excellent selectivity and stability as well as high recyclability. This work provides a practical single-cell nanosensor capable of intracellular ATP analysis. More generally, integrated with other split recognition elements, the proposed mechanism could serve as a viable basis for addressing many other important biological species.

Nanobubble-controlled nanofluidic transport

Nanofluidic platforms offering tunable material transport are applicable in biosensing, chemical detection, and filtration. Prior studies have achieved selective and controllable ion transport through electrical, optical, or chemical gating of complex nanostructures. Here, we mechanically control nanofluidic transport using nanobubbles. When plugging nanochannels, nanobubbles rectify and occasionally enhance ionic currents in a geometry-dependent manner. These conductance effects arise from nanobubbles inducing surface-governed ion transport through interfacial electrolyte films residing between nanobubble surfaces and nanopipette walls. The nanobubbles investigated here are mechanically generated, made metastable by surface pinning, and verified with cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. Our findings are relevant to nanofluidic device engineering, three-phase interface properties, and nanopipette-based applications.

Ionic Current Rectification of Porous Anodic Aluminum Oxide (AAO) with a Barrier Oxide Layer

Synthetic nanofluidic diodes with highly nonlinear current-voltage characteristics are currently of particular interest because of their potential applications in biosensing, separation, energy harvesting, and nanofluidic electronics. We report the ionic current rectification (ICR) characteristics of a porous anodic aluminum oxide membrane, whose one end of the nanochannels is closed by a barrier oxide layer. The membrane exhibits intriguing pH-dependent ion transport characteristics, which cannot be explained by the conventional surface charge governed ionic transport mechanism. We reveal experimentally and theoretically that the space charge density gradient present across the 40-nm-thick barrier oxide is mainly responsible for the evolution of ICR. Based on our findings, we demonstrate the formation of a single 5-8-nm-sized pore in each hexagonal cell of the barrier oxide. The present work would provide valuable information for the design and fabrication of future ultrathin nanofluidic devices without being limited by the engineering of the nanochannel geometry or surface charge.