Larvicidal and adulticidal activity of alkylphthalide derivatives from rhizome of Cnidium officinale against Drosophila melanogaster

Alkylphthalides with intracellular triglyceride metabolism-promoting activity from the rhizomes of Cnidium officinale Makino

Methanol extract of the Cnidium officinale Makino rhizome, which is used as a crude drug Cnidium Rhizome (Cnidii Rhizoma; "Senkyu" in Japanese) and is listed in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia XVIII, showed intracellular triglyceride metabolism-promoting activity in high glucose-pretreated HepG2 cells. Thirty-five constituents, including two new alkylphthalide glycosides, senkyunosides A (1) and B (2), and a neolignan with a new stereoisomeric structure (3), were isolated in the extract. Their stereostructures were elucidated based on chemical and spectroscopic evidence. Among the isolates, several alkylphthalides, (Z)-3-butylidene-7-methoxyphthalide (9) and senkyunolides G (10), H (14), and I (15), and a polyacetylene falcarindiol (26), were found to show significant activity without any cytotoxicity at 10 μM.

Cnidium officinale Makino: Phytology, Phytochemistry, Toxicology, Pharmacology and Prescriptions (1967-2023)

Cnidium officinale Makino (COM), a perennial herbaceous plant in the Apiaceous family, widely distribute in Eastern Asia and Asia-Temperate. It has a long history application as a traditional medicine for invigorating the blood and removing blood stasis, and also has been employed to diet, pesticide, herbal bathing materials, the cosmetic and skin care industry. However, there has been no associated review of literature in the past half a century (1967-2023). By searching the international authoritative databases and collecting 229 literatures closely related to COM, herewith a comprehensive and systematic review was conducted. The phytology includes plant distribution and botanical characteristics. The phytochemistry covers 8 major categories, 208 compounds in total, and the quantitative determination of 14 monomer compounds, total polyphenols and total flavonoids. The clinical trial in pregnant women and toxic experiments in mice, the pharmacology of 7 aspects and 82 frequently used prescriptions are summarized. It is expected that this paper will provide forward-looking scientific thinking and literature support for the further modern research, development and utilization of COM.

Antifungal activity of Ligusticum chuanxiong essential oil and its active composition butylidenephthalide against Sclerotium rolfsii

BACKGROUND

Peanut stem rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii is an epidemic disastrous soil-borne disease. Recently, natural products tend to be safe alternative antifungal agents to combat pathogens.

RESULTS

This work determined the preliminary antifungal activity of 29 essential oils against S. rolfsii and found that Ligusticum chuanxiong essential oil (LCEO) showed the best antifungal activity, with an EC50 value of 81.79 mg L-1 . Sixteen components (98.78%) were identified in LCEO by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, the majority by volume comprising five phthalides (93.14%). Among these five phthalides, butylidenephthalide was the most effective compound against S. rolfsii. Butylidenephthalide not only exhibited favorable in vitro antifungal activity against the mycelial growth, sclerotia production and germination of S. rolfsi, but also presented efficient in vivo efficacy in the control of peanut stem rot. Seven days after application in the glasshouse, the protective and curative efficacy of butylidenephthalide at 300 mg L-1 (52.02%, 44.88%) and LCEO at 1000 mg L-1 (49.60%, 44.29%) against S. rolfsii were similar to that of the reference fungicide polyoxin at 300 mg L-1 (54.61%, 48.28%). Butylidenephthalide also significantly decreased the oxalic acid and polygalacturonase content of S. rolfsii, suggesting a decreased infection ability on plants. Results of biochemical actions indicated that butylidenephthalide did not have any effect on the cell membrane integrity and permeability but significantly decreased nutrient contents, disrupted the mitochondrial membrane, inhibited energy metabolism and induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation of S. rolfsii.

CONCLUSION

Our results could provide an important reference for understanding the application potential and mechanisms of butylidenephthalide in the control of S. rolfsii. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Three unprecedented thioether-linked dimeric pyrimidines isolated from the medicinal-edible herb Ligusticum striatum DC

Three unprecedented thioether-linked dimeric pyrimidines, namely ligusticumines A-C, together with twelve known compounds were isolated and identified from the traditional Chinese medicinal-edible herb, Ligusticum striatum DC. The structures of all the isolated compounds were determined from NMR, HRESIMS and X-ray diffraction spectroscopies. Additionally, a novel 3-step synthetic route was developed to synthesize ligusticumine C by substitution, thiolation and coupling, with an overall yield of 5.4%. The inhibitory activities of the isolated compounds against phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) were tested, of which, (3S)-butylphthalide, a characteristic component of L. striatum, showed a potent inhibitory effect on PI3Kα (IC₅₀: 3.6 μg/mL).

Identification of the metabolites of neocnidilide in rat, monkey and human liver microsomes by liquid chromatography coupled to benchtop Orbitrap mass spectrometry

Neocnidilide, a bioactive component isolated from Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, displayed anti-inflammatory activity. The present work was performed to investigate in vitro metabolism of neocnidilide using liver microsomes. Neocnidilide (10 μM) was incubated with NADPH-supplemented rat monkey and human liver microsomes. To identify the reactive metabolites, glutathione (GSH) was included in the incubations. Liquid chromatography coupled to an Orbitrap mass spectrometer was used to detect and identify the metabolites. The structures of the metabolites were characterized by accurate masses and fragmentation patterns. A total of six hydroxylation metabolites and nine GSH conjugates were tentatively identified characterized. The metabolic pathways included hydroxylation, dehydrogenation and GSH conjugation. M6 was the major metabolite in human liver microsomes. CYP1A2 (25%), 2B6 (31.6%), 2C9 (10.5%) and 3A4 (18%) were the predominant isoenzymes governing its formation. This study provides valuable information on the in vitro metabolism of neocnidilide, which is indispensable for the further safety assessment of this compound.

Response of Cnidium officinale Makino Plants to Heat Stress and Selection of Superior Clones Using Morphological and Molecular Analysis

Cnidium officinale is a medicinal plant cultivated for its rhizomes, which are used in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean traditional medicine. This medicinal crop is highly susceptible to heat stress and cannot be cultivated in regions of higher temperatures. In the present study, ten clones from Korea (clones 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 14, 15, 22, and 26) were evaluated for their heat tolerance in vitro at 25, 30, 32.5, and 35 °C, and growth characteristics including plant height, the number of leaves and roots were evaluated. The initial experiment was conducted to find the threshold level for significant damage to the plant, while the second experiment was to screen the germplasm to select heat-tolerant clones. Most of the clones were sensitive to heat stress (clones 1, 2, 8, 11, 14, 15, 22, and 26), and few clones (clones 5 and 6) could perform well at an elevated temperature of 32.5 °C. Molecular analysis of the expression of heat-responsive genes, including heat shock protein (CoHSP), catalase (CoCAT), and cystine protease (CoCP), was performed by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) carried out with heat-tolerant and heat-sensitive clones. Two of the heat-tolerant clones (clones 5 and 6) showed significant expression of CoHSP and CoCAT genes at elevated temperature treatment. These clones can be used for further evaluation and cultivation.

Comparison of Volatile Oil between the Ligusticum sinese Oliv. and Ligusticum jeholense Nakai et Kitag. Based on GC-MS and Chemical Pattern Recognition Analysis

Ligustici Rhizoma et Radix (LReR) is the dried rhizomes and roots of Ligusticum sinese Oliv. (LS) or Ligusticum jeholense Nakai et Kitag. (LJ). However, in the market, LS and LJ are frequently confused with each other. Since the volatile oils are both the main active components and quality control indicators of LReR, a strategy combining gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and chemical pattern recognition (CPR) was used to compare the volatile components of LJ and LS. Total ion chromatography (TIC) revealed that phthalides (i.e., neocnidilide) and phenylpropanoids (i.e., myristicin) could be thought of as the most critical components in the volatile oils of LJ and LS, respectively. In addition, the chemical components of the volatile oils in LJ and LS were successfully distinguished by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Moreover, two quality markers, including myristicin and neocnidilide, with a very high discriminative value for the classification of LJ and LS, were found by orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The relative contents of myristicin and neocnidilide were 10.86 ± 6.18% and 26.43 ± 19.63% for LJ, and 47.43 ± 12.66% and 2.87 ± 2.31% for LS. In conclusion, this research has developed an effective approach to discriminating LJ and LS based on volatile oils by combining GC-MS with chemical pattern recognition analysis.

Electrophysiological and behavioural responses of Stegobium paniceum to volatile compounds from Chinese medicinal plant materials

BACKGROUND

Stegobium paniceum (Coleoptera, Anobiidae) is an important pest of stored products causing severe damage to dried Chinese medicinal plant materials (CMPMs). Plant volatiles play an important role in host-searching of insects. The olfactory responses of S. paniceum to the most abundant volatile components of some drugstore attractant CMPMs such as Panax notoginseng, Angelica sinensis, Gastrodia elata and Peucedanum praeruptorum, namely falcarinol, 3-n-butylphthalide, p-cresol and β-pinene, respectively, were studied by electroantennography (EAG) and behavioural bioassays in six- and four-arm olfactometers.

RESULTS

EAG recordings showed that male and female antennae are able to perceive the test compounds in a wide range of concentrations and in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, for each dose of different compounds tested, no significant differences were found between the mean male and female EAG responses. In six-arm olfactometer bioassays, S. paniceum exhibited positive responses to falcarinol, 3-n-butylphthalide, p-cresol and β-pinene at doses of 1, 10, 100, 500 and 1000 μg. The most attractive dose was 500 μg for falcarinol, 100 μg for 3-n-butylphthalide, 500 μg for p-cresol and 1000 μg for β-pinene. Olfactory preferences of S. paniceum, based on comparison of these four compounds at their optimally attractive concentrations in a four-arm olfactometer, were 3-n-butylphthalide > p-cresol > falcarinol > β-pinene.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the four volatiles of CMPMs are perceived by the peripheral olfactory system of S. paniceum adults and are able to individually elicit a positive chemotaxis in S. paniceum adults confirming the role of chemical cues in host-plant detection and selection of this pest. Further field studies are needed to evaluate the potential of the attractive compounds identified in this study, particularly 3-n-butylphthalide, to be applied as a novel monitoring and control tool against this storage-beetle pest. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

A Tau Pathogenesis-Based Network Pharmacology Approach for Exploring the Protections of Chuanxiong Rhizoma in Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of neurodegenerative dementia and one of the top medical concerns worldwide. Currently, the approved drugs to treat AD are effective only in treating the symptoms, but do not cure or prevent AD. Although the exact causes of AD are not understood, it is recognized that tau aggregation in neurons plays a key role. Chuanxiong Rhizoma (CR) has been widely reported as effective for brain diseases such as dementia. Thus, we explored the protections of CR in AD by a tau pathogenesis–based network pharmacology approach. According to ultra-HPLC with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry data and Lipinski’s rule of five, 18 bioactive phytochemicals of CR were screened out. They were shown corresponding to 127 tau pathogenesis–related targets, among which VEGFA, IL1B, CTNNB1, JUN, ESR1, STAT3, APP, BCL2L1, PTGS2, and PPARG were identified as the core ones. We further analyzed the specific actions of CR-active phytochemicals on tau pathogenesis from the aspects of tau aggregation and tau-mediated toxicities. It was shown that neocnidilide, ferulic acid, coniferyl ferulate, levistilide A, Z-ligustilide, butylidenephthalide, and caffeic acid can be effective in reversing tau hyperphosphorylation. Neocnidilide, senkyunolide A, butylphthalide, butylidenephthalide, Z-ligustilide, and L-tryptophan may be effective in promoting lysosome-associated degradation of tau, and levistilide A, neocnidilide, ferulic acid, L-tryptophan, senkyunolide A, Z-ligustilide, and butylidenephthalide may antagonize tau-mediated impairments of intracellular transport, axon and synaptic damages, and neuron death (especially apoptosis). The present study suggests that acting on tau aggregation and tau-mediated toxicities is part of the therapeutic mechanism of CR against AD.

Anethum sowa Roxb. ex fleming: A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological and toxicological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming (Syn. Peucedanum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming, Family: Apiaceae) is a pharmacologically important as aromatic and medicinal plant. Various parts of this plant are used in traditional medicine systems for carminative, uterine and colic pain, digestion disorder, flatulence in babies, appetite-stimulating agent and used to treat mild flue and cough. The essential oil is used for aromatherapy. It is also used as a spice for food flavouring and culinary preparations in many Asian and European countries.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to provide a comprehensive and critical assessment from the reported traditional and pharmaceutical uses and pharmacological activities of the extracts, essential oil and phytoconstituents with emphasis on its therapeutic potential as well as toxicological evaluation of A. sowa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Online search engines such as SciFinder®, GoogleScholar®, ResearchGate®, Web of Science®, Scopus®, PubMed and additional data from books, proceedings and local prints were searched using relevant keywords and terminologies related to A. sowa for critical analyses.

RESULTS

The literature studies demonstrated that A. sowa possesses several ethnopharmacological activities, including pharmaceutical prescriptions, traditional applications, and spice in food preparations. The phytochemical investigation conducted on crude extracts has been characterized and identified various classes of compounds, including coumarins, anthraquinone, terpenoids, alkaloid, benzodioxoles, phenolics, polyphenols, phenolic and polyphenols, fatty acids, phthalides and carotenoids. The extracts and compounds from the different parts of A. sowa showed diverse in vitro and in vivo biological activities including antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, analgesic and anti-inflammatory, Alzheimer associating neuromodulatory, cytotoxic, anticancer, antidiabetes, insecticidal and larvicidal.

CONCLUSION

A. sowa is a valuable medicinal plant which is especially used in food flavouring and culinary preparations. This review summarized the pertinent information on A. sowa and its traditional and culinary uses, as well as potential pharmacological properties of essential oils, extracts and isolated compounds. The traditional uses of A. sowa are supported by in vitro/vivo pharmacological studies; however, further investigation on A. sowa should be focused on isolation and identification of more active compounds and establish the links between the traditional uses and reported pharmacological activities with active compounds, as well as structure-activity relationship and in vivo mechanistic studies before integrated into the medicine. The toxicological report confirmed its safety. Nonetheless, pharmacokinetic evaluation tests to validate its bioavailability should be encouraged.

Evaluation of fetal and neonatal outcomes after ingestion of Cnidium root (Cnidium officinale Makino) during pregnancy

Cnidium officinale Makino is a perennial plant, a member of the Umbelliferae family. Cnidium root has traditionally been used as a medicinal herb. It has analgesic, antiinflammatory, antipyretic, antibacterial, antispasmodic, vasodilatory, hypertensive, and sedative effects. However, there are no studies of reproductive toxicity in humans. Therefore, this study aimed to prospectively evaluate the fetal and neonatal outcomes in the children of women who inadvertently used Cnidium root during pregnancy. In a prospective cohort study design, 111 singleton pregnant women taking Cnidium root for various reasons, and 219 age-matched singleton pregnant women unexposed to any herbal agent (unexposed group), were followed up until delivery. In the exposed group, Cnidium root was indicated as controlling cough and cold in 54.1% of patients, at the maximal dose of 12,000 mg/day between 1 day to 12.4 weeks of gestation. Fetal outcomes, including birth weight and 1- and 5-min Apgar score, were similar for the two groups. There were four babies born with major malformations in the exposed group vs. 14 in the unexposed group (OR = 0.5; 95% CI 0.2-1.6; p = 0.190). The gestational age, length, and head circumference were relatively shorter among babies born in the exposed group. Even after adjusting for gender, there was a tenfold increase in the frequency of shorter newborns (<2SD) in the exposed group (OR = 10.1; 95% CI 1.2-87.6; p = 0.019). Our study suggests that Cnidium root is not a major human teratogen. Whether lesser gestational ages at birth and shorter birth lengths are clinically relevant after exposure to Cnidium remains to be elucidated in further studies.

Toxicity of Varronia curassavica Jacq. Essential Oil to Two Arthropod Pests and Their Natural Enemy

This study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of the Varronia curassavica Jacq. essential oil to two cosmopolitan and polyphagous pest species, the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) and the green aphid (Myzus persicae Sulzer). Additionally, we tested the essential oil toxicity to a generalist predatory insect, the green lacewing Ceraeochrysa cubana Hagen. The treatments consisted of four essential oil concentrations (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0%) and one control (Tween® 80 + water). At 0.75% concentration, the V. curassavica essential oil caused the highest mortalities for both pests. The concentration of 1.0% of the essential oil interfered mainly in the rates of oviposition and egg hatching and caused a decrease in the instantaneous population growth rate (r_i) of T. urticae. Survival of the C. cubana was not affected by the highest tested concentration of the essential oil (1%). Tested concentrations V. curassavica essential oil were toxic to T. urticae and M. persicae, but not to the predator C. cubana.

Comparative Analysis of Anti-inflammatory Activity of the Constituents of the Rhizome of Cnidium officinale Using Rat Hepatocytes

The rhizome of Cnidium officinale (Umbelliferae) (known as Senkyu in Japan; COR) has been used as a crude drug in Japanese Kampo formulas, such as Jumihaidokuto (to treat eczema and urticaria) and Kakkontokasenkyushin'i (to treat rhinitis). COR contains phthalides, which are thought to be potent principal constituents. Few studies have been reported about the comparison of anti-inflammatory activity of COR constituents. We aimed to identify the constituents in COR and compare their anti-inflammatory activity. COR was extracted with methanol and fractionated into ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble, n-butanol-soluble, and water-soluble fractions. Primary cultured rat hepatocytes were used to assess anti-inflammatory activity by monitoring the interleukin (IL)-1β-induced production of nitric oxide (NO), an inflammatory mediator. The EtOAc-soluble fraction significantly suppressed NO production without showing cytotoxicity in IL-1β-treated hepatocytes, whereas the n-butanol-soluble fraction showed less potency, and the water-soluble fraction did not significantly affect the NO levels. Four constituents were isolated from the EtOAc-soluble fraction and identified as senkyunolide A, (3S)-butylphthalide, neocnidilide, and cnidilide. Among these phthalides and (Z)-ligustilide, senkyunolide A and (Z)-ligustilide efficiently suppressed NO production in hepatocytes, whereas the others showed less potency in the suppression of NO production. Furthermore, senkyunolide A decreased the levels of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein and mRNA, as well as the levels of mRNAs encoding proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor α) and chemokine C-C motif ligand 20. These results suggest that senkyunolide A may cause the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of COR by suppressing the genes involved in inflammation.

The potential of Apiaceae species as sources of singular phytochemicals and plant-based pesticides

The Apiaceae Lindl. (=Umbelliferae Juss.), which includes several economical important vegetables, herbs, and spices, is one of the most numerous plant family. Umbelliferous crops (namely anise, fennel, carrot, coriander, parsley, etc.) are also valuable sources of botanical flavoring agents and fragrances. In addition, Apiaceae species yield a wide variety of distinctive specialized metabolites (i.e, volatile phenylpropanoids, furanocoumarins, sesquiterpene coumarins, polyacetylenes, and phthalides), some of them been described as uncommon natural phytochemicals exclusive of the family, which offers a great potential for bioprospection. Numerous studies have pointed out the outstanding biological activity of extracts and several classes of phytochemicals from Apiaceae species. Emphasis has been given to essential oils (EOs) and their constituents activities, most likely because this type of plant added value product benefits from a larger acceptance and application potential in integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated vector management (IVM) programs. Several species of the family offer a variety of unique compounds with great potential as biopesticidal and/or synergizing agents. Investigations covering their activity toward agricultural pests and phytopathogens have increased in the last years, nevertheless the interest remains strongly focus on arthropod species, predominantly those acting as vectors of human diseases. From our survey, it is patent the gap of knowledge concerning the potential molluscicidal properties of Apiaceae extracts/phytochemicals, as well as their herbicidal activities against invasive plant species. In this review, we propose to highlight the potential of Apiaceae species as suitable sources of bioactive phytochemicals with great relevance within the frame of plant-based pesticides R&D, and will discuss their applicability in real-world scenarios considering the recent developments regarding the design of stable formulations incorporating Apiaceae bioactive products. We expect that this review will encourage researchers to consider undervalued Apiaceae species as alternative sources of bioactive compounds and will give a contribute to the field by suggesting new research topics.

Antioxidant Properties and Protective Effects of Aerial Parts from Cnidium officinale Makino on Oxidative Stress-Induced Neuronal Cell Death

The rhizomes of Cnidium officinale Makino have been used as a traditional medicine for many purposes, however, use of its aerial parts is very limited. We investigated the antioxidant properties and protective effects of the aerial parts (leaves and stems) from C. officinale on H₂O₂-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma. C. officinale methanol extracts (70%) were sequentially fractionated using hexane (non-polar fraction, NF), ethyl acetate (intermediate polar fraction, IF), and water (polar fraction, PF). Total phenolics and flavonoids contents were highest in IF, followed by PF. IF also showed the strongest radical scavenging activities against 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2’-azinobis(3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), as well as superoxide, with the half maximal inhibitory concentrations of 13.2, 23.2, and 12.8 mg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, all fractions significantly inhibited linoleic acid peroxidation induced by the Fenton reaction or by UV irradiation. Both PF and IF protected against H₂O₂-induced SH-SY5Y neuronal cell death by increasing the cell survival by 22.1∼47.7 and 35.9∼50.3% at concentrations of 25∼100 and 25∼400 μg/mL, respectively, whereas NF was toxic to the cells at these concentrations. IF also significantly decreased intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species by 7.72∼47.47% at a concentration of 25∼200 μg/mL. Our results indicate that compounds from the aerial parts of C. officinale have potent antioxidant activities, which may help rescue neuronal cells from oxidative stress-induced injury. Therefore, the aerial parts, as well as the rhizomes, of C. officinale may have medicinal applications.

Design and synthesis of novel n-butyphthalide derivatives as promising botanical fungicides

In order to obtain novel botanical fungicides, three series of novel 6-substituted n-butyphthalide derivatives have been designed and synthesized via nucleophilic addition, reduction, nitrification, amination, sulfonation, Sandmeyer and Suzuki reaction. The mycelium growth rate method was used to evaluate the inhibition activity against eight phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. Preliminary bioassay tests showed that compounds 6f, 6n, 6p, 6r and 7a exhibited better activity for some fungi at 50 μg/mL than the positive drug hymexazol and lead compound n-butyphthalide (NBP). The preliminary structure-activity relationships indicated that the antifungal activity is significantly affected by the substituents on the benzene ring.

Design, Synthesis and Antifungal Activities of 6-Substituted 3-Butylphthalide Derivatives against Phytopathogenic Fungi

In order to discover novel potential antifungal agents, a series of 6-substituted 3-butylphthalide derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their antifungal activities against nine phytopathogenic fungi. Preliminary bioassay tests showed that five 3-butylphthalide derivatives exhibited more potent antifungal activities than hymexazol at the concentration of 50 μg/mL. Especially, 3-butyl-6-nitro-2-benzofuran-1(3H)-one and 3-butyl-6-hydroxy-5-nitro-2-benzofuran-1(3H)-one had significant fungicidal activity against some phytopathogenic fungi. The EC₅₀ of 3-butyl-6-nitro-2-benzofuran-1(3H)-one against FS, FO and FG were 6.6, 9.6 and 16.0 μg/mL, respectively. The EC₅₀ of 3-butyl-6-hydroxy-5-nitro-2-benzofuran-1(3H)-one against BC, PO, VM, SS and AS were 6.3, 5.9, 10.0, 4.5 and 8.4 μg/mL, respectively. The preliminary structure-activity relationships (SARs) of all target compounds were also investigated.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Celery and Parsley Fruit-Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity

Supercritical fluid extraction as an environmentally friendly technology was applied to isolate biologically active extracts from celery and parsley fruits for potential applications in the food industry. The extractions were performed under mild temperature conditions of 39.85 °C and at pressures of 10 and 30 MPa. The extracts were analyzed regarding their chemical composition, antibacterial activity, and cytotoxic effect. Sedanolide was the dominant component of the celery fruit extracts, comprising more than 70% of the obtained fraction, while the content of apiole in the parsley fruit SC CO₂ extracts exceeded 85%. The celery fruit extracts showed strong and moderately strong antibacterial activity against tested Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus (B.) cereus, B. subtilis, B. circulans, Listeria (L.) greyi, L. seeligeri and L. welshimeri, with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values between 160 and 640 µg/mL, and weak activity against the selected Salmonella isolates with a MIC of 2560 µg/mL. The parsley extract obtained at 10 MPa showed strong and moderately strong antibacterial effects against Bacillus strains with obtained MICs of 160–640 µg/mL, and weak activity against Staphylococcus, Listeria, and Salmonella with a MIC of 2560 µg/mL. Cytotoxicity investigation showed that the extracts with proven antibacterial activity had no cytotoxic effect on rabbit kidney cells at concentrations of up to 640 µg/mL.

Mode of action of 3-butylidene phthalide as a competent natural pesticide

In this study, the biological activities and mode of action of 3-butylidene phthalide (3-BPH) were studied. 3-BPH had a superior efficiency against microsclerotia of Macrophomina phaseolina compared to the commercial fungicide tricyclazole. The microsclerotia formation and pigmentation were inhibited at 100 μg/mL. Moreover, the fungicide exhibited in silico affinity toward trihydroxy naphthalene reductase (3HNR). Both 3-BPH and tricyclazole showed congruence in the orientation and interaction within the 3HNR active site. 3-BPH displayed a strong interaction with SER-164, TYR-178, and TYR-223, with estimated binding energy and inhibition constant of -6.78 kcal mol^-1, and Ki = 12.6 μM, respectively. Furthermore, it showed in vitro and in silico inhibitory activity against Drosophila melanogaster acetylcholinesterase in a concentration-dependent manner with IC₅₀ = 730 μg/mL. It also impaired Galleria mellonella phenol oxidase enzyme, which corresponds with the insect's immune system. Phytotoxicity of 3-BPH was evident against Lemna minor at 1000 μg /mL; nevertheless, it was nontoxic at the concentrations inhibiting M. phaseolina microsclerotia and dark pigments suggest that it may be safe for use on other plants at low doses. Further assays are wanted to develop 3-BPH as a novel crop protection compound.

Synthesis and antifungal activities of 3-substituted phthalide derivatives

In order to obtain novel bioactive compounds with significant antifungal activities, two series of 3-substituted phthalide derivatives were designed and synthesized via reduction, bromine substitution, and etherification. In addition, the antifungal activities of all target compounds against nine phytopathogenic fungi in vitro were tested by using the mycelial growth rate method at the concentration of 50 μg mL−1. Preliminary bioassay tests showed that some compounds exhibited more potent antifungal activities as compared with hymexazol. The preliminary structure-activity relationships (SARs) of all target compounds were also investigated.

Z-Ligustilide Exerted Hormetic Effect on Growth and Detoxification Enzymes of Spodoptera litura Larvae

Plants have evolved a variety of phytochemicals to defense insect feeding, whereas insects have also evolved diverse detoxification enzymes, which are adaptively induced as a prosurvival mechanism. Herein, Z-ligustilide in Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. was found to exhibit a similar trend in the accumulation from December to May as the occurrence of Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) larvae. Importantly, S. litura larvae feeding enhanced Z-ligustilide level in the stem and leaf (p < 0.01). Moreover, Z-ligustilide ranging from 1 to 5 mg·g⁻¹ exhibited remarkable larvicidal activity, antifeedant activity, and growth inhibition against S. litura larvae. The LC₅₀ values of larvicidal activity for phthalides in L. chuanxiong were compared as follows: Z-ligustilide > levistilide A > senkyunolide A > 3-butylidenephthalide > senkyunolide I, implicating the critical role of conjugated structure. Notably, there was a biphasic dose response for glutathione S-transferase (GST), cytochrome P450 (CYP) 450, Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and Carboxylesterase (CarE) activities and GSTs1, cytochrome P450 (CYP) 4S9, and CYP4M14 mRNA expression. Particularly, low dose (0.1 mg·g⁻¹) of Z-ligustilide conferred the resistance of S. litura larvae against chlorpyrifos (p < 0.05). Together, our data suggest that Z-ligustilide may function in a hormetic way in the chemical defense of L. chuanxiong against S. litura larvae.

Acaricidal and repellent effects of Cnidium officinale-derived material against Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae)

The acaricidal activity of a methanolic extract and fractions from the rhizome of Cnidium officinale against Dermanyssus gallinae adults was investigated. The C. officinale methanolic extract exhibited 100% acaricidal activity after 48 h of treatment at a dose of 4000 ppm. The acaricidal constituents of the plant were sequentially partitioned with several solvents and then purified using silica gel column chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed (Z)-ligustilide as a constituent of C. officinale. Acaricidal activity was examined in three experimental tests (spray, fumigation and contact), with the spraying method being the most effective. The methanolic extract of C. officinale showed both contact and fumigant activities, though only fumigant activity was observed with (Z)-ligustilide. The fumigant effects of the methanolic extract and (Z)-ligustilide caused 86.5 and 62.6% mortality, respectively, of D. gallinae adults at 48 h. Among (Z)-ligustilide, acaricides (bifenthrin, cypermethrin and spinosad) and butylidenephthalide, bifenthrin displayed the highest acaricidal activity, and the activity of butylidenephthalide was 2.3-fold higher than that of (Z)-ligustilide. These results suggest that C. officinale-derived material can be used for the development of a control agent for D. gallinae.

Impact of sesquiterpenes from Inula racemosa (Asteraceae) on growth, development and nutrition of Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

BACKGROUND

The use of botanical pesticides for protecting crops from insect pests has assumed greater importance all over the world owing to growing awareness of harmful effects of indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides. Inula racemosa Hook. f. (Asteraceae), a medicinally important perennial herb, is rich in sesquiterpenes with many biological activities. The present studies were conducted with the objective to evaluate the sesquiterpenes isolated from I. racemosa for insecticidal activity against Spodoptera litura (F.).

RESULTS

Alantolactone and isoalantolactone isolated from I. racemosa exerted growth inhibitory effects on S. litura. Addition of both the sesquiterpenes to larval diet extended the development period and reduced pupation as well as adult emergence. The dietary utilisation experiments on third-instar larvae of S. litura revealed reduction in consumption and growth rates of larvae as well as efficiency of conversion of ingested and digested food owing to alantolactone and isoalantolactone.

CONCLUSION

The root extract of I. racemosa, which is rich in two sesquiterpenes, i.e. alantolactone and isoalantolactone, has the potential for management of S. litura. However, there is a need to understand the specific mechanism of action of these compounds. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Intranasal Pretreatment with Z-Ligustilide, the Main Volatile Component of Rhizoma Chuanxiong, Confers Prophylaxis against Cerebral Ischemia via Nrf2 and HSP70 Signaling Pathways

Z-Ligustilide (Z-LIG) is a major component in Rhizoma Chuanxiong, which has been traditionally used as a health food supplement for the prevention of cerebrovascular disease in China. This study investigates the ability of intranasal Z-LIG pretreatment to enhance protection against neuronal damage in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and the role of cellular stress response mechanisms Nrf2 and HSP70. Z-LIG significantly mitigated infarct volume, neurological dysfunction, blood-brain barrier disruption, and brain edema (p < 0.01). Moreover, Z-LIG prevented the loss of collagen IV, occludin, and ZO-1 (p < 0.05) and decreased MMP-2 and -9 levels (p < 0.01). Meanwhile, Z-LIG up-regulated NQO1 and HSP70. Notably, blockage of Nrf2-driven transcription or down-regulation of HSP70 remarkably attenuated the preventive effect of Z-LIG (p < 0.05). Together, intranasal delivery of Z-LIG enhanced protection against ischemic injury via Nrf2 and HSP70 signaling pathways and has prophylactic potential in the population at high risk of stroke.

Toxicity to Diaphania hyalinata, selectivity to non-target species and phytotoxicity of furanones and phthalide analogues

BACKGROUND

Despite being of great importance to crop protection, the disadvantages of intensive and inappropriate use of pesticides have stimulated the search for more selective and less harmful agrochemicals. Thus, we have evaluated the effectiveness of 16 synthetic molecules (phthalides and precursors) to control the melonworm Diaphania hyalinata, a key pest in cucurbit crops of economic importance in Brazil. The selectivity to beneficial organisms Solenopsis saevissima and Tetragonisca angustula and the phytotoxicity to Cucumis sativus of the promising insecticides were also assessed.

RESULTS

In the screening assay, compounds 1 and 6 provided 91 and 88% mortality of the melonworm. Compound 1 presented higher toxicity (median lethal dose LD50 = 15.99 µmol g(-1) ) and higher speed on pest control (median survival time LT50 = 420 min) than compound 6 (LD50 = 44.51 µmol g(-1) and LT50 = 840 min). Both compounds inhibited less than 11% of host-plant growth and caused ≤36 and ≥93% mortality of predator and pollinator respectively.

CONCLUSION

Among the tested compounds, only compounds 1 and 6 were effective in melonworm control. Both compounds presented no considerable phytotoxicity and were selective to predator but non-selective to pollinator, which enables their application for pest control if the exposure of the bees is minimised. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

In vivo Toxicity Assessment of Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs LR14) Derived from Lactobacillus plantarum Strain LR/14 in Drosophila melanogaster

Lactic acid bacteria are known to produce antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as bacteriocins which can be employed to control pathogens and food spoilage microorganisms. However, their possible role as toxic agents against a eukaryotic system still remains unexplored. The present study deals with the in vivo evaluation of acute toxic effect of AMPs LR14, a mixture of AMPs isolated from Lactobacillus plantarum LR/14 on Drosophila melanogaster. The fly was used as a model system to measure the extent of toxicity of these peptides. The results showed that concentrations below 10 mg/ml are not significantly effective. When exposed to 10 mg/ml of AMPs LR14, acute toxic effect and a significant delay in the developmental cycle of the fly could be observed. Also, the weight and size of the flies were significantly reduced upon ingestion of these peptides. Higher concentrations (beyond 15 mg/ml) exerted a strong larvicidal effect. Detailed analysis on larval tissues and adult germ cells of the insect revealed deformity in cellular architecture, DNA fragmentation, and premature apoptosis, confirming that the peptides have a dose-dependent toxic property. Our studies provide the first information on the role of AMPs LR14 as an insecticidal agent.

Characterization of novel isobenzofuranones by DFT calculations and 2D NMR analysis

Phthalides are frequently found in naturally occurring substances and exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities. In the search for compounds with insecticidal activity, phthalides have been used as versatile building blocks for the syntheses of novel potential agrochemicals. In our work, the Diels-Alder reaction between furan-2(5H)-one and cyclopentadiene was used successfully to obtain (3aR,4S,7R,7aS)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one and (3aS,4R,7S,7aR)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one (2) and (3aS,4S,7R,7aR)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one and (3aR,4R,7S,7aS)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one (3). The endo adduct (2) was brominated to afford (3aR,4R,5R,7R,7aS,8R)-5,8-dibromohexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one and (3aS,4S,5S,7S,7aR,8S)-5,8-dibromohexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one (4) and (3aS,4R,5R,6S,7S,7aR)-5,6-dibromohexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one and (3aR,4S,5S,6R,7R,7aS)-5,6-dibromohexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzofuran-1(3H)-one (5). Following the initial analysis of the NMR spectra and the proposed two novel unforeseen products, we have decided to fully analyze the classical and non-classical assay structures with the aid of computational calculations. Computation to predict the (13) C and (1) H chemical shifts for mean absolute error analyses have been carried out by gauge-including atomic orbital method at M06-2X/6-31+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(2d,p) levels of theory for all viable conformers. Characterization of the novel unforeseen compounds (4) and (5) were not possible by employing only the experimental NMR data; however, a more conclusive structural identification was performed by comparing the experimental and theoretical (1) H and (13) C chemical shifts by mean absolute error and DP4 probability analyses. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Chemical composition of Rosmarinus and Lavandula essential oils and their insecticidal effects on Orgyia trigotephras (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae)

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate toxic activities of essential oils obtained from Rosmarinus officinalis and Lavandula stoechas against the fourth larval instars of Orgyia trigotephras.

METHODS

A total of 1 200 larvae were divided into three groups I II III. Group I was to investigate the effect of extracted essential oils from these aromatic plants as gastric disturbance. Bacillus thuringiensis and ethanol were used as control group. Group II was used as contact action and Group III was used as fumigant action. Decis and ethanol were used as control group. During the three experiments, the effect of essential oils on larvae was assessed.

RESULTS

The chemical composition of essential oils from two medicinal plants was determined and, their insecticidal effects on the fourth larval state of Orgyia trigotephras were assessed. The two simples presented an insecticidal activity, nevertheless Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil was less efficient compared to Lavandula stoechas one are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between the chemical composition and the biological activities is confirmed by the present findings. Therefore the potential uses of these essential oils as bioinsecticides can be considered as an alternative to the use of synthetic products.

Angelica sinensis (Umbelliferae) with proven repellent properties against Aedes aegypti, the primary dengue fever vector in Thailand

Botanical resources with great diversity in medicinal and aromatic plants are a rich and reliable source for finding insect repellents of plant origin, which are widely popular among today's consumers. Although some herbal-based repellents have been proven comparable to or even better than synthetics, commercially available natural repellents generally tend to be expensive, with short-lived effectiveness. This critical flaw leads to ongoing research for new and effective repellents, which provide longer protection against vector and nuisance-biting insects, while remaining safe, user friendly, and reasonably priced. This study aimed to evaluate the repellent activity of plant-derived products against the primary dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, by following the human bait technique of World Health Organization guidelines. Preliminary laboratory screening tests for repellency of 33 plant species clearly demonstrated Angelica sinensis as the most effective repellent from each kind of extracted product, with its essential oil and ethanolic extract having median complete protection times of 7.0 h (6.0-7.5) and 2.5 h (2.0-2.5), respectively. Due to its low yield (0.02 %), pungent smell, and little cause of irritation, A. sinensis essential oil did not qualify as a candidate for further repellent assessment. However, subsequent extractions of A. sinensis with different organic solvents of increasing polarity provided four extractants with varying degrees of repellency against A. aegypti. The hexane extract of A. sinensis provided excellent repellency, with a median complete protection time of 7.5 h (6.5-8.5), which was longer than that of ethanol (2.5, 2.0-2.5 h), acetone (1.75, 0.5-2.5 h), and methanol extracts (0.5, 0-1.0 h). By being the most effective product, A. sinensis hexane extract gave significant protection comparable to that of its essential oil and the standard synthetic repellent, N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET: 6.25, 5.0-6.5 h). Qualitative gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated the presence of phthalides and phthalates, including 3-N-butylphthalide, butylidenephthalide, ligustilide, and di-iso-octyl phthalate, as the principal constituents in A. sinensis products. The success of A. sinensis products, particularly that of hexane extract, has proved their potential as bioactive candidates in the next step for developing and producing alternative natural repellents with commercial aspirations.

[Analysis of volatile oils of Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. from different geographical origins by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry]

The volatile oils of 23 Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. samples from 4 different regions were analyzed by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC x GC/TOF MS). The group-type separation of 4 terpenoids and phthalides was well accomplished based on a DB-Petro x DB-17 column system. With the MS library search, 215 compounds were tentatively identified based on the NIST database and the 43 compounds of them were confirmed by using the retention index or comparing with the standard compounds in a typical sample from Xindu City. Twenty three samples were apparently classified into 4 groups by partial least square-discriminant analysis. A brief list of 20 differential compounds is presented, including cnidilide, 3-n-butylphthalide and butylidene phthalide. DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), stable free radical scavenging assay was adopted to differentiate the antioxidative potency of these samples, which was expressed as EC50. Based on the orthogonal partial least square model the biochemical discrimination of samples was achieved with ligustilide, senkyunolide A and neocnidilide as important differential compounds according to geographical origins. All the results indicated that phthalides exert a great influence on the chemical and biochemical classifications of Rhizoma Chuanxiong, and the samples from Pengzhou City have the highest contents of phthalides.

Brominated aliphatic hydrocarbons and sterols from the sponge Xestospongia testudinaria with their bioactivities

Four brominated aliphatic hydrocarbons (1-4), including a novel brominated ene-tetrahydrofuran named as mutafuran H (1), and five sterols (5-9) were isolated from the South China Sea sponge Xestospongia testudinaria. The structure of 1 was determined on the basis of NMR ((1)H, (13)C NMR, HSQC, HMBC, (1)H-(1)H COSY, and NOESY), MS, and optical rotation analysis. Known compounds were identified by comparison of their NMR data with those reported in the literature. Compounds 1-4, and 6-9 were evaluated for their toxicity against Artemia salina larvae, and anti-acetylcholinesterase activity.

Adulticidal activity of phthalides identified in Cnidium officinale rhizome to B- and Q-biotypes of Bemisia tabaci

The residual contact toxicity of three benzofuranoids (Z)-butylidenephthalide (1), (3S)-butylphthalide (2), and (Z)-ligustilide (3) identified in the rhizome of Cnidium officinale (Apiaceae) to B- and Q-biotype females of Bemisia tabaci was evaluated using a leaf-dip bioassay. Results were compared with those of eight conventional insecticides. Based on 24 h LC(50) values, (Z)-butylidenephthalide (254 ppm) and (Z)-ligustilide (268 ppm) were more toxic than (3S)-butylphthalide (339 ppm) against B-biotype females, whereas (Z)-ligustilide (254 ppm) and (3S)-butylphthalide (338 ppm) were more toxic than (Z)-butylidenephthalide (586 ppm) against Q-biotype females. Thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, and acetamiprid differ significantly in toxicity between the B- and Q-biotype females (LC(50), 1.7 to 11.6 vs 364.5 to >3000 ppm). This original finding indicates that the phthalides and the neonicotinoids do not share a common mode of action or elicit cross-resistance. Structure-activity relationship indicates that the presence of conjugation rather than aromaticity appeared to play an important role for phthalide toxicities to the B-biotype females. Global efforts to reduce the level of highly toxic synthetic insecticides in the agricultural environment justify further studies on C. officinale rhizome-derived materials as potential insecticides for the control of B. tabaci populations.

Insecticidal effect and chemical composition of the volatile oil from Bergenia ligulata

The chemical composition of the volatile oil from roots of Bergenia ligulalta was analyzed by GC-MS. A total of 97 compounds were identified. (+)-(6S)-Parasorbic acid (1) (47.45%), isovaleric acid (6.25%), 1,8-cineole (4.24%), (Z)-asarone (3.50%), and terpinen-4-ol (2.96%) were the most prominent constituents. (+)-(6S)-Parasorbic acid (1) was isolated and characterized by spectroscopic data. This is the first report of the existence of (+)-(6S)-parasorbic acid in the saxifrage family. The volatile oil and the isolated compound were tested against Drosophila melanogaster . The results obtained showed that the volatile oil from roots could be considered as natural insecticidal effect agents.

Free radical scavenging activities of Cnidium officinale Makino and Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. methanolic extracts

BACKGROUND

Antioxidants from natural resources possess multifaceted and importance of the activities provides substantial scope in neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this study was to assess and compare the free radical scavenging activities of Cnidium officinale and Ligusticum chuanxiong, which are closely related species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The scavenging activities of plant materials were evaluated using Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), superoxide radical (O(2)·(-)), hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), hydroxyl (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·) and metal chelation. In addition, the cell viability and nitric oxide release were assayed using Neuro-2a (N2a) cells.

RESULTS

The methanolic extracts of C. officinale and L. chuanxiong showed scavenging activities of free radicals with an additional antioxidant capacity. Moreover, the efficacy on the cell viability and nitric oxide release in cell culture model has been established.

CONCLUSION

Results of the present study suggests that the extracts of C. officinale and L. chuanxiong have comparatively similar free radical scavenging activities in vitro and may have important health effects.

Chemical composition of Eucalyptus spp. essential oils and their insecticidal effects on Lutzomyia longipalpis

The chemical composition of essential oils from three species of plants belonging to the Eucalyptus genus was determined and, their insecticidal effects on egg, larva and adult phases of Lutzomyia longipalpis were assessed. The insects were collected in the municipality of Sobral in the State of Ceará, Brazil. Five treatments with different concentrations were performed along with two negative controls, distilled water and Tween 80 (3%), and a positive control, cypermethrin (0.196mg/ml). The tests were carried out in plastic pots internally coated with sterile plaster and filled with a substrate made of rabbit feces and crushed cassava leaves. The eggs, larvae and adults were sprayed with the oils. The hatched larvae were counted for 10 consecutive days and observed until pupation. Insect mortality was observed after 24, 48 and 72h. E. staigeriana oil was the most effective on all three phases of the insect, followed by E. citriodora and E. globulus oils, respectively. The major constituents of the oils were Z-citral and alpha-citral (E. staigeriana), citronellal (E. citriodora) and 1,8-cineole (E. globulus). The Eucalyptus essential oils constitute alternative natural products for the control of L. longipalpis since the median effective concentration (EC(50)) values revealed relevant action as compared with other natural products, some of their chemical constituents are already known for their insecticidal activity and these oils are produced in commercial scale in Brazil.

Bioactivity-guided fractionation and GC/MS fingerprinting of Angelica sinensis and Angelica archangelica root components for antifungal and mosquito deterrent activity

Bioassay-guided fractionation of the chloroform extract from the roots of Angelica sinensis led to isolation and characterization of (Z)-ligustilide using direct-bioautography with Colletotrichum species. The structure of (Z)-ligustilide was confirmed by (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy and GC/MS. (Z)-Ligustilide deterred the biting of two mosquito species more effectively than DEET. Three different A. sinensis accessions and one Angelica archangelica root oil were evauated by GC and GC/MS, and the dominant component in A. sinensis was 61-69% (Z)-ligustilide. Two other prominent compounds in A. sinensis oils were 5.7-9.8% (E)-3-butylidene phthalide and 1.5-2.3% (Z)-3-butylidene phthalide. The main constituents that comprised A. archangelica oil were monoterpene hydrocarbons such as 24.5% alpha-pinene, 13.8% delta-3-carene, 10.1% beta-phellandrene, 8.8% p-cymene, 8.4% limonene, and 6.3% sabinene. Phthalides and monoterpene hydrocarbons were determined to be good systematic markers or chemical fingerprints for A. sinensis and A. archangelica root oils. Chemical fingerprinting by GC/MS of A. sinensis also confirmed the misidentification of one A. archangelica sample sold in the Chinese market.

Combinatorial anti-Trichophyton effects of Ligusticum chuanxiong essential oil components with antibiotics

The antifungal activities of ligustilide and butylidene phthalide, which are major oil components comprising the essential oil of Ligusticum chuanxiong, in combination with antifungal drugs were evaluated. Checkerboard microtiter and microdilution tests were used to measure combined effects against Trichophyton species, T. erinacei, T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. schoenleinii, T. tonsurans and T. soudanense. Susceptibility of these Trichophyton species to L. chuanxiong essential oil differed distinctly. The fractional inhibitory concentrations (FICIs) against Trichophyton species ranged between 0.27 and 0.56 for ketoconazole combined with ligustilde or butylidene phthalide, indicating synergism or additive effects between the antibiotic and essential oil compounds. Testing by itraconazole instead of ketoconazole, similar combination effects were observed with FICIs from 0.31 to 0.63 against the tested strains of T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. schoenleinii, and T. soudanense. Thus, data reported here showed that Trichophyton susceptibility to ketoconazole and itraconazole could be notably improved by ligustilde and butylidene phthalide.

The structural diversity of phthalides from the Apiaceae

Phthalides, and their corresponding dihydro and tetrahydro analogues, are components of several genera of the plant family Apiaceae. These taxa have been reported as exhibiting a wide range of bioactivities against experimental models of several illnesses and physiological conditions, including microbial and viral infections, stroke, tuberculosis, and vasoconstriction. Many of these genera are purported to possess medicinal values, and of these several are considered to be traditional herbal medicines. This review provides an overview of the methods of investigation, the structural diversity, and the bioactivity of phthalides, dihydrophthalides, tetrahydrophthalides, and dimers from plants in the Apiaceae.

Herbal medicine Gamgungtang down-regulates autoimmunity through induction of TH2 cytokine production by lymphocytes in experimental thyroiditis model

The crude herbal formulation, Gamgungtang (GGT), has been shown to protect animals against a wide range of spontaneously developing or induced autoimmune diseases. We have previously reported that GGT shows marked down-regulation of several experimental autoimmune diseases. Although very effective at preventing thyroid infiltrates in mice immunized with mouse deglycosylated thyroglobulin and complete Freund's adjuvant and in spontaneous models of thyroiditis, it completely failed to modify experimental autoimmune thyroiditis (EAT) induced in mice immunized with mouse thyroglobulin and lipopolysaccharide. In this study, in an effort to elucidate the mechanisms by which GGT suppresses EAT, and autoimmunity in general, we investigated the in vivo effects of this drug on the Th1/Th2 lymphocyte balance, which is important for the induction or inhibition of autoreactivity. Naive SJL/J mice were treated orally for 5 days with GGT (80 mg/(kg day)). Spleen cells were obtained at various time points during the treatment period and were stimulated in vitro with concanavalin A. Interleukins IL-4, IL-10 and IL-12, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) cytokine production was evaluated at the protein levels of the cytokines in the medium and mRNA expressions. A significant upregulation of IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-beta was observed following treatment with GGT, which peaked at day 5 (IL-10) or day 10 (IL-4). On the other hand, IL-12 and IFN-gamma production were either unchanged or decreased. It seems therefore that GGT induces in vivo a shift towards Th2 lymphocytes which may be one of the mechanisms of down-regulation of the autoimmune reactivity in EAT. Our observations indicate that down-regulation of TH1 cytokines (especially IL-12) and enhancement of Th2 cytokine production may play an important role in the control of T-cell-mediated autoimmunity. These data may contribute to the design of new immunomodulating treatments for a group of autoimmune diseases.

Antibacterial activity of components fromLomatium californicum

The isolation, characterization and bioactivity testing of compounds from Lomatium californicum (Nutt.) are described. Ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of the roots of L. californicum were subjected to vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC), flash column chromatography (FCC) and separation by normal- and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Six compounds were isolated successfully and characterized by 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experimentation. The bioactivity of the known compounds (+)-falcarindiol, coniferyl ferulate, ferulic acid and (Z)-ligustilide were confirmed against the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. The known compounds senkyunolide I and trans-neocnidilide were also isolated but in too small a quantity for similar testing.

Comparison of Larvicidal, Adulticidal and Acaricidal Activity of Two Geometrical Butylidenephthalide Isomers

Insecticidal and acaricidal activities of two geometrical isomers, (E)- and (Z)-butylidenephthalide isolated from Angelica acutiloba, against larvae and adults of fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and house dust mites (Dermatophagoides farinae and Tyrophagus putrescentiae) were investigated and compared with that of positive controls. (E)- and (Z)-Butylidenephthalide exhibited 50% lethal concentration (LC50) values of 2.07 and 0.94 micromol/ml of diet concentration against larvae of D. melanogaster, respectively. This indicated that two isomers of butylidenephthalide have geometrical stereoselectivity for larvicidal effect. Even though both (E)- and (Z)-butylidenephthalide also showed potent adulticidal and acaricidal activity against adults of D. melanogaster and two mites, there was no significant difference between two isomers. Insecticidal activity of both (E)- and (Z)-butylidenephthalide toward adults of C. felis was not detected even at the maximum concentration of 200 microg/cm2.