Metabolism of deethylatrazine, deisopropylatrazine, and hydroxyatrazine by the soluble fraction (105000 g) from goose liver homogenates

Subchronic exposure to atrazine induces biochemical and histopathological changes in the gills of a Neotropical freshwater fish, Prochilodus lineatus

The impact of acute (48 h) and subchronic (14 days) exposures to environmentally realistic atrazine concentrations (2, 10 and 25 μg L(-1)) were evaluated on the gills of Prochilodus lineatus by assessing the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST), the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and lipid peroxide (LPO) as well as the histopathological damage. Acute and subchronic exposure to atrazine at 2 or 25 μg L(-1) did not change the activities of GST, SOD, CAT or GPx or the concentrations of GSH and LPO; however, subchronic exposure to 10 μg L(-1) increased the activity of GST, SOD and CAT and the LPO level. Histopathological indexes indicated normal gill function with scattered epithelial changes after acute and chronic exposure to 2 or 10 μg L(-1) of atrazine; however, fish chronically exposed to 25 μg L(-1) of atrazine, although had scattered lesions, the severity of lesions resulted in slightly to moderately gill damage. Acute exposure to atrazine decreased the type 3 MCs (containing acid mucosubstances with sulfate esters) in fish exposed to 2 or 10 μg L(-1) and increased the type 4 MCs (containing all types of mucosubstances) in fish exposed to 25 μg L(-1). Chronic exposure to atrazine reduced the type 3 MCs in fish exposed to 10 or 25 μg L(-1). The gills showed a low sensitivity to atrazine after acute exposure. However, the persistence of atrazine in water (subchronic exposure) promoted an increase of LPO levels in the gills and increased the frequency and severity of histopathological changes. The decreased density of type 3 MCs in fish exposed to atrazine suggests a mechanism to wash toxic substances away from the gill surface.

Toxicokinetics of atrazine in embryos of the zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamine-s-triazine) is a widely used selective herbicide. Due to its persistence, it is present in many surface waters, contaminating nontarget organisms such as fish. Teratogeny of atrazine was examined during the first 48 h of zebrafish development (embryo test) and correlated to effects on the microsomal and soluble glutathione S-transferases (m-/sGST; EC 2.5.1.18). Atrazine at 4 mg/L disturbed the normal development to long pec stage, at concentrations between 10 and 20 mg/L it caused retardations in organogenesis, a slowdown of movements, and functional disturbances of heart and circulatory system. m- and sGST activities were affected by atrazine in all investigated developmental stages. Atrazine elevated the mGST activity dose dependently up to a concentration of 5 mg/L, and the sGST up to 1 mg/L. Higher atrazine concentrations caused a decrease of GST activity, especially of the sGST of the younger stages, 32 cells and 75% epiboly. This might indicate that the detoxication system itself is affected, which then gives rise to morphological abnormalities during fish development. In vitro tests were performed to purify and characterize GST-formed atrazine metabolites by the use of ESI--HPLC--MS. mGST showed higher conversion rates compared to sGST.