Glycosyl dithiocarbamates: β-selective couplings without auxiliary groups

Cascade Synthesis in Water: Michael Addition/Hemiketalization/Retro-Claisen Fragmentation Catalyzed by CatAnionic Vesicular Nanoreactor from Dithiocarbamate

N,N-didodecylammonium N,N-didodecyldithiocarbamate (AmDTC-C12C12) underwent self-assembly to form a CatAnionic vesicular nanoreactor in water. AmDTC-C12C12 can be readily prepared by condensation between N,N-didodecylamine and carbon disulfide. Previously, the cascade Michael addition/hemiketalization/retro-Claisen fragmentation was reported, but it required petroleum-based organic solvents as reaction media. Herein, the application of AmDTC-C12C12 in aqueous cascade synthesis is investigated. Initially, we explored the catalytic activity of AmDTC-C12C12 (10 mol %) in the synthesis of 4H-chromene through a double-cascade Michael addition/hemiketalization. The reaction occurred in water at room temperature using 2-hydroxy-trans-β-nitrostyrene as Michael acceptor and acetylacetone as Michael donor, yielding 2-chromanol intermediates. Subsequent acidic dehydration of 2-chromanols produced 4H-chromenes with moderate yields (34-60 %) and phenyl acetates of γ-nitro ketone as co-products (13-31 %), deriving from retro-Claisen fragmentation. Surprisingly, using Michael donors with aromatic moieties on the 1,3-dicarbonyls resulted in spontaneous triple-cascade Michael addition/hemiketalization/retro-Claisen fragmentation in water without the need for acidic dehydration. The γ-nitro ketones were obtained as sole products, with no detection of 4H-chromenes, in moderate to high yields (24-84 %) for symmetrical 1,3-dicarbonyl containing two aromatic groups. Unsymmetrical 1,3-dicarbonyl bearing aromatic/aliphatic or aromatic/aromatic groups afforded γ-nitro ketones in favorable yields (73-97 %).

Highly Reactive Glycosylation with 1-O-(Methylthio)thiocarbonyl Glycosyl Donors under Acidic to Neutral Reaction Conditions

In this study, we have successfully developed a glycosylation method using 1-O-(methylthio)thiocarbonyl-glycoses as donors. Such xanthate donors are easily accessible and shelf-stable. The glycosylation reaction could be promoted by cations (acidic to neutral conditions) under mild conditions, exhibiting a reactivity intermediate between that with glycosyl trichloroacetimidate as the donor and that with thioglycoside as the donor. This methodology tolerates both "armed" and "disarmed" glycosyl donors, as well as various sugar acceptors, and affords the corresponding glycosides in good to excellent yields. Based on the relative higher reactivity of such xanthate donors than thioglycoside donors under the same glycosylation conditions, a trisaccharide was further synthesized in a one-pot glycosylation strategy.

Complement receptor 3-dependent engagement by Candida glabrata β-glucan modulates dendritic cells to induce regulatory T-cell expansion

Candida glabrata is an important pathogen causing invasive infection associated with a high mortality rate. One mechanism that causes the failure of Candida eradication is an increase in regulatory T cells (Treg), which play a major role in immune suppression and promoting Candida pathogenicity. To date, how C. glabrata induces a Treg response remains unclear. Dendritic cells (DCs) recognition of fungi provides the fundamental signal determining the fate of the T-cell response. This study investigated the interplay between C. glabrata and DCs and its effect on Treg induction. We found that C. glabrata β-glucan was a major component that interacted with DCs and consequently mediated the Treg response. Blocking the binding of C. glabrata β-glucan to dectin-1 and complement receptor 3 (CR3) showed that CR3 activation in DCs was crucial for the induction of Treg. Furthermore, a ligand-receptor binding assay showed the preferential binding of C. glabrata β-glucan to CR3. Our data suggest that C. glabrata β-glucan potentially mediates the Treg response, probably through CR3-dependent activation in DCs. This study contributes new insights into immune modulation by C. glabrata that may lead to a better design of novel immunotherapeutic strategies for invasive C. glabrata infection.

Glycosylation of n-pentenyl glycosides using bromodiethylsulfonium salt as an activator: interception of the glycosyl intermediate by chloride ion transfer

Utilization of n-pentenyl glycosides (NPGs) in modern carbohydrate synthesis may be hindered by their sluggish activation, which results from reversible halogenation and cyclization processes. Bromodiethylsulfonium bromopentachloroantimonate (BDSB) has been previously shown to be a powerful brominating agent for the cation-π polyene cyclization of less reactive and electron-poor polyenes. This study demonstrates the activation of NPGs using BDSB as a powerful brominating agent. BDSB effectively activates the terminal olefins of NPGs and the reaction proceeds through 5-exo-tet cyclization, offering a rapid and mild approach for glycosylation with a wide range of glycosyl donors, including n-pentenyl mannoside, n-pentenyl galactoside, and n-pentenyl glucoside. The success of this approach derives from the chloride ion transfer from the nonnucleophilic SbCl5Br anion to the glycosyl intermediate, which disrupts the equilibrium and produces a glycosyl chloride intermediate that is smoothly converted to 22 coupling products, with yields ranging from moderate to excellent (49-100%). The β-selective glycosylation is accomplished when employing NPGs equipped with a neighboring participating group. The practicality of the BDSB-activated glycosylation is demonstrated by a gram-scale synthesis. This study showcases BDSB as a potent activator for NPG glycosylation through the interception of a glycosyl intermediate that diminishes the equilibration during halogenation and 5-exo-tet cyclization.

Cooperatively Catalyzed Activation of Thioglycosides That Bypasses Intermediacy of Glycosyl Halides

Reported herein is the development of a novel method for activating thioglycosides without a glycosyl halide intermediate. This has been achieved through the use of a silver salt coupled with an acid additive and molecular iodine. The enhanced stereocontrol was achieved via the H-bond mediated aglycone delivery (HAD) method, and the extended trisaccharide synthesis was achieved via iteration of deprotection and glycosylation steps.

Unprecedented neighboring group participation of C2 N-imidoxy functionalities for 1,2-trans-selective glycosylation

Stereoselective glycosylation reactions are important in carbohydrate chemistry. The most used method for 1,2-trans(β)-selective glycosylation involves the neighboring group participation (NGP) of the 2-O-acyl protecting group; nevertheless, an alternative stereoselective method independent of classical NGP would contribute to carbohydrate chemistry, despite being challenging to achieve. Herein, a β-selective glycosylation reaction employing unprecedented NGP of the C2 N-succinimidoxy and phthalimidoxy functionalities is reported. The C2 functionalities provided the glycosylated products in high yields with β-selectivity. The participation of the functionalities from the α face of the glycosyl oxocarbenium ions gives stable six-membered intermediates and is supported by density functional theory calculations. The applicability of the phthalimidoxy functionality for hydroxyl protection is also demonstrated. This work expands the scope of functionalities tolerated in carbohydrate chemistry to include O-N moieties.

Transition-Metal-Mediated Glycosylation with Thioglycosides

Thioglycosides are among the most common glycosyl donors that find broad application in the synthesis of glycans and glycoconjugates. However, the requirement for toxic and/or large access of activators needed for common glycosylations with thioglycosides remains a notable drawback. Due to the increased awareness of the chemical waste impact on the environment, synthetic studies have been driven by the goal of finding non-toxic reagents. The main focus of this review is to highlight recent methods for thioglycoside activation that rely on transition metal catalysis.

Glycan Assembly Strategy: From Concept to Application

Glycans have been hot topics in recent years due to their exhibition of numerous biological activities. However, the heterogeneity of their natural source and the complexity of their chemical synthesis impede the progress in their biological research. Thus, the development of glycan assembly strategies to acquire plenty of structurally well-defined glycans is an important issue in carbohydrate chemistry. In this review, the latest advances in glycan assembly strategies from concepts to their applications in carbohydrate synthesis, including chemical and enzymatic/chemo-enzymatic approaches, as well as solution-phase and solid-phase/tag-assisted synthesis, are summarized. Furthermore, the automated glycan assembly techniques are also outlined.

Surfactant-mediated thioglycosylation of 1-hydroxy sugars in water

Thioglycosides are an important class of sugars, since they can be used as non-ionic biosurfactants, biomimetic glycosides, and building blocks for carbohydrate synthesis. Previously, Brønsted- or Lewis-acid-catalyzed dehydrative glycosylations between a 1-hydroxy sugar and a thiol have been reported to yield open-chain dithioacetal sugars as the major products instead of the desired thioglycosides. These dithioacetal sugars are by-products derived from the endocyclic bond cleavage of the thioglycosides. Herein, we report dehydrative glycosylation in water mediated by a Brønsted acid-surfactant combined catalyst (BASC). Glycosylations between 1-hydroxy furanosyl/pyranosyl sugars and primary, secondary, and tertiary aliphatic/aromatic thiols in the presence of dodecyl benzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) provided the thioglycoside products in moderate to good yields. Microwave irradiation led to improvements in the yields and a shortening of the reaction time. Remarkably, open-chain dithioacetal sugars were not detected in the DBSA-mediated glycosylations in water. This method is a simple, convenient, and rapid approach to produce a library of thioglycosides without the requirement of anhydrous conditions. Moreover, this work also provides an excellent example of complementary reactivity profiles of glycosylation in organic solvents and water.

Interaction Between Dendritic Cells and Candida krusei β-Glucan Partially Depends on Dectin-1 and It Promotes High IL-10 Production by T Cells

Host-Candida interaction has been broadly studied during Candida albicans infection, with a progressive shift in focus toward non-albicans Candida species. C. krusei is an emerging multidrug resistant pathogen causing rising morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, understanding the interplay between the host immune system and C. krusei is critically important. Candia cell wall β-glucans play significant roles in the induction of host protective immune responses. However, it remains unclear how C. krusei β-glucan impacts dendritic cell (DC) responses. In this study, we investigated DC maturation and function in response to β-glucans isolated from the cell walls of C. albicans, C. tropicalis, and C. krusei. These three distinct Candida β-glucans had differential effects on expression of the DC marker, CD11c, and on DC maturation. Furthermore, bone-marrow derived DCs (BMDCs) showed enhanced cytokine responses characterized by substantial interleukin (IL)-10 production following C. krusei β-glucan stimulation. BMDCs stimulated with C. krusei β-glucan augmented IL-10 production by T cells in tandem with increased IL-10 production by BMDCs. Inhibition of dectin-1 ligation demonstrated that the interactions between dectin-1 on DCs and cell wall β-glucans varied depending on the Candida species. The effects of C. krusei β-glucan were partially dependent on dectin-1, and this dependence, in part, led to distinct DC responses. Our study provides new insights into immune regulation by C. krusei cell wall components. These data may be of use in the development of new clinical approaches for treatment of patients with C. krusei infection.

Aryldithiocarbamates as thiol alternatives in Cu-catalyzed C(aryl)-S coupling reactions using aryldiazonium tetrafluoroborate salts

An efficient method for the synthesis of unsymmetrical diaryl sulfides has been developed by the C-S cross coupling of aryldithiocarbamates and aryldiazonium salts in the presence of CuI-2,2'-bipyridine and Zn. Aryldithiocarbamate compounds have been used here as thiol substitutes. The protocol shows wide substrate scope and good yields of the products.

Matching Glycosyl Donor Reactivity to Sulfonate Leaving Group Ability Permits SN2 Glycosylations

Here we demonstrate that highly β-selective glycosylation reactions can be achieved when the electronics of a sulfonyl chloride activator and the reactivity of a glycosyl donor hemiacetal are matched. While these reactions are compatible with the acid- and base-sensitive protecting groups that are commonly used in oligosaccharide synthesis, these protecting groups are not relied upon to control selectivity. Instead, β-selectivity arises from the stereoinversion of an α-glycosyl arylsulfonate in an S_N2-like mechanism. Our mechanistic proposal is supported by NMR studies, kinetic isotope effect (KIE) measurements, and DFT calculations.

Stereo- and regioselective glycosylation with protection-less sugar derivatives: an alluring strategy to access glycans and natural products

This review delivers insights for dedicated chemists into the development of efficient methods in accessing carbohydrates at a lower cost.

Stereoselective oxidative glycosylation of anomeric nucleophiles with alcohols and carboxylic acids

Oligosaccharides, one of the most abundant biopolymers, are involved in numerous biological processes. Although many efforts have been put in preparative carbohydrate chemistry, achieving optimal anomeric and regioselectivities remains challenging. Herein we describe an oxidative glycosylation method between anomeric stannanes and oxygen nucleophiles resulting in the formation of a C−O bond with consistently high anomeric control for glycosyl donors bearing a free C2-hydroxyl group. These reactions are promoted by hypervalent iodine reagents with catalytic or stoichiometric amounts of Cu or Zn salts. The generality of this transformation is demonstrated in 42 examples. Mechanistic studies indicate that the oxidative glycosylation is initiated by the hydroxyl-guided delivery of the hypervalent iodine and tosylate into the anomeric position, and results in excellent 1,2-trans selectivity. The unique mechanistic paradigm, high selectivities, and mild reaction conditions make this method suitable for the synthesis of oligosaccharides and for integration with other methodologies such as automated synthesis.

Glycosylation of partially protected sugars is usually limited by suboptimal regio- and stereo-selectivities. Here, the authors show a general oxidative glycosylation between anomeric stannanes with a nonprotected hydroxyl group and oxygen nucleophiles, additionally providing mechanistic insights into the origin of selectivity.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2013-2014

This review is the eighth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2014. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly- saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:353-491, 2018.

A minimalist approach to stereoselective glycosylation with unprotected donors

Mechanistic study of carbohydrate interactions in biological systems calls for the chemical synthesis of these complex structures. Owing to the specific stereo-configuration at each anomeric linkage and diversity in branching, significant breakthroughs in recent years have focused on either stereoselective glycosylation methods or facile assembly of glycan chains. Here, we introduce the unification approach that offers both stereoselective glycosidic bond formation and removal of protection/deprotection steps required for further elongation. Using dialkylboryl triflate as an in situ masking reagent, a wide array of glycosyl donors carrying one to three unprotected hydroxyl groups reacts with various glycosyl acceptors to furnish the desired products with good control over regioselectivity and stereoselectivity. This approach demonstrates the feasibility of straightforward access to important structural scaffolds for complex glycoconjugate synthesis.

Chemical O-Glycosylations: An Overview

The development of glycobiology relies on the sources of particular oligosaccharides in their purest forms. As the isolation of the oligosaccharide structures from natural sources is not a reliable option for providing samples with homogeneity, chemical means become pertinent. The growing demand for diverse oligosaccharide structures has prompted the advancement of chemical strategies to stitch sugar molecules with precise stereo- and regioselectivity through the formation of glycosidic bonds. This Review will focus on the key developments towards chemical O-glycosylations in the current century. Synthesis of novel glycosyl donors and acceptors and their unique activation for successful glycosylation are discussed. This Review concludes with a summary of recent developments and comments on future prospects.

PRACTICAL SYNTHESIS OF AROMATIC DITHIOCARBAMATES

Oxidation-sensitive N,N-diaryl dithiocarbamates (DTCs) are synthesized in good yields by the generation of metal amide salts from N-benzoyl precursors, followed by addition of CS₂. para-Substituted diphenylamines are prepared by electrophilic aromatic substitution of diphenylbenzamide and saponification. Deacylation of electron-rich species such as bis(p-dimethylaminophenyl)benzamide is challenging because of the oxidative sensitivity of the anionic intermediate but could be achieved in good yield by using n-BuLi to generate a hemiaminal adduct, prior to acidification. The N,N-diaryl DTCs are stable as alkali salts and can be used to produce densely packed monolayers on gold surfaces.

A convenient and efficient synthesis of glycals by zinc nanoparticles

A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of pyranoid glycals utilizing the reductive elimination of glycopyranosyl bromides by zinc nanoparticles in an acetate buffer is described. A variety of pyranoid glycal derivatives were obtained, especially for the synthesis of 6-deoxy-4,6-O-benzylidene and disaccharide glycals with good yields.