Three-Layer Micelles of an ABC Block Copolymer: NMR, SANS, and LS Study of a Poly(2−ethylhexyl acrylate)-block-poly(methyl methacrylate)-block-poly(acrylic acid) Copolymer in D2O

Modern Trends in Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly

Polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) is a powerful and versatile technique for producing colloidal dispersions of block copolymer particles with desired morphologies. Currently, PISA can be carried out in various media, over a wide range of temperatures, and using different mechanisms. This method enables the production of biodegradable objects and particles with various functionalities and stimuli sensitivity. Consequently, PISA offers a broad spectrum of potential commercial applications. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the current state of rational synthesis of block copolymer particles with diverse morphologies using various PISA techniques and mechanisms. The discussion begins with an examination of the main thermodynamic, kinetic, and structural aspects of block copolymer micellization, followed by an exploration of the key principles of PISA in the formation of gradient and block copolymers. The review also delves into the main mechanisms of PISA implementation and the principles governing particle morphology. Finally, the potential future developments in PISA are considered.

Current paradigms in employing self-assembled structures: Drug delivery implications with improved therapeutic potential

Recent efforts have focused on developing improved drug delivery systems with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and minimal side effects. Micelles, self-assembled from amphiphilic block copolymers in aqueous solutions, have gained considerable attention for drug delivery. However, there is a need to further enhance their efficiency. These micelles offer benefits like biodegradability, biocompatibility, sustained drug release, and improved patient compliance. Yet, researchers must address stability issues and reduce toxicity. Nanoscale self-assembled structures have shown promise as efficient drug carriers, offering an alternative to conventional methods. Fine-tuning at the monomeric and molecular levels, along with structural modifications, is crucial for optimal drug release profiles. Various strategies, such as entrapping hydrophobic drugs and using polyethylene oxide diblock copolymer micelles to resist protein adsorption and cellular adhesion, protect the hydrophobic core from degradation. The polyethylene oxide corona also provides stealth properties, prolonging blood circulation for extended drug administration. Amphiphilic copolymers are attractive for drug delivery due to their adjustable properties, allowing control over micelle size and morphology. Emerging tools promise complex and multifunctional platforms. This article summarizes about the challenges as far as the use of micelles is concerned, including optimizing performance, rigorous pre-clinical and clinical research, and suggests further improvement for drug delivery efficacy.

Three-dimensional printing of MRI-visible phantoms and MR image-guided therapy simulation

PURPOSE

To demonstrate the use of anatomic MRI-visible three-dimensional (3D)-printed phantoms and to assess process accuracy and material MR signal properties.

METHODS

A cervical spine model was generated from computed tomography (CT) data and 3D-printed using an MR signal-generating material. Printed phantom accuracy and signal characteristics were assessed using 120 kVp CT and 3 Tesla (T) MR imaging. The MR relaxation rates and diffusion coefficient of the fabricated phantom were measured and ¹ H spectra were acquired to provide insight into the nature of the proton signal. Finally, T₂ -weighted imaging was performed during cryoablation of the model.

RESULTS

The printed model produced a CT signal of 102 ± 8 Hounsfield unit, and an MR signal roughly 1/3^rd that of saline in short echo time/short repetition time GRE MRI (456 ± 36 versus 1526 ± 121 arbitrary signal units). Compared with the model designed from the in vivo CT scan, the printed model differed by 0.13 ± 0.11 mm in CT, and 0.62 ± 0.28 mm in MR. The printed material had T₂ ∼32 ms, T2*∼7 ms, T₁ ∼193 ms, and a very small diffusion coefficient less than olive oil. MRI monitoring of the cryoablation demonstrated iceball formation similar to an in vivo procedure.

CONCLUSION

Current 3D printing technology can be used to print anatomically accurate phantoms that can be imaged by both CT and MRI. Such models can be used to simulate MRI-guided interventions such as cryosurgeries. Future development of the proposed technique can potentially lead to printed models that depict different tissues and anatomical structures with different MR signal characteristics. Magn Reson Med 77:613-622, 2017. © 2016 International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

Solvent-responsive self-assembly of amphiphilic invertible polymers determined with SANS

Amphiphilic invertible polymers (AIPs) are a new class of macromolecules that self-assemble into micellar structures and rapidly change structure in response to changes in solvent polarity. Using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) data, we obtained a quantitative description of the invertible micellar assemblies (IMAs). The detailed composition and size of the assemblies (including the effect of temperature) were measured in aqueous and toluene polymer solutions. The results show that the invertible macromolecules self-assemble into cylindrical core-shell micellar structures. The composition of the IMAs in aqueous and toluene solutions was used to reveal the inversion mechanism by changing the polarity of the medium. Our experiments demonstrate that AIP unimers self-assemble into IMAs in aqueous solution, predominantly through interactions between the hydrophobic moieties of macromolecules. The hydrophobic effect (or solvophobic interaction) is the major driving force for self-assembly. When the polarity of the environment is changed from polar to nonpolar, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid fragments of AIP macromolecules tend to replace each other in the core and the shell of the IMAs. However, neither the interior nor the exterior of the IMAs consists of fragments of a single component of the macromolecule. In aqueous solution, with the temperature increasing from 15 to 35 °C, the IMAs' mixed core from aliphatic dicarboxylic acid and PEG moieties and PEG-based shell change the structure. As a result of the progressive dehydration of the macromolecules, the hydration level (water content) in the micellar core decreases at 25 °C, followed by dehydrated PEG fragments entering the interior of the IMAs when the temperature increases to 35 °C.

NMR Studies of Thermo-responsive Behavior of an Amphiphilic Poly(asparagine) Derivative in Water

The thermo-responsive behavior of a unique biocompatible polymer, poly(N-substituted α/β-asparagine) derivative (PAD), has been studied with several NMR methods. The 1H and 13C solution NMR measurements of the PAD in DMSO-d6 were used to investigate the isolated polymer and perform spectral assignments. By systematic addition of D2O we have tracked structural changes due to aggregation and observed contraction of hydrophilic side chains. Solution and cross polarization / magic angle spinning (CP/MAS) 13C NMR approaches were implemented to investigate the aggregates of the PAD aqueous solution during the liquid to gel transition as the temperature was increased. At temperatures near 20 °C, all of the peaks from the PAD were observed in the 13C CP/MAS and 13C solution NMR spectra, indicating the presence of polymer chain nodes. Increasing the temperature to 40 °C resulted in a partial disentanglement of the nodes due to thermal agitation and further heating resulted in little to no additional structural changes. Deuterium T1-T2 and T2-T2 two-dimensional relaxation spectroscopies using an inverse Laplace transform, were also implemented to monitor the water-PAD interaction during the phase transition. At temperatures near 20 °C the dynamical characteristics of water were manifested into one peak in the deuterium T1-T2 map. Increasing the temperature to 40 °C resulted in several distinguishable reservoirs of water with different dynamical characteristics. The observation of several reservoirs of water at the temperature of gel formation at 40 °C is consistent with a physical picture of a gel involving a network of interconnected polymer chains trapping a fluid. Further increase in temperature to 70 °C resulted in two non-exchanging water reservoirs probed by deuterium T2-T2 measurements.

Acrylic AB and ABA block copolymers based on poly(2-ethylhexyl acrylate) (PEHA) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) via ATRP

Acrylic block copolymers have several advantages over conventional styrenic block copolymers, because of the presence of a saturated backbone and polar pendant groups. This investigation reports the preparation and characterization of di- and triblock copolymers (AB and ABA types) of 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). A series of block copolymers, PEHA-block-PMMA(AB diblock) and PMMA-block-PEHA-block-PMMA(ABA triblock) were prepared via ATRP at 90 °C using CuBr as catalyst in combination with N,N,N',N″,N″-pentamethyl diethylenetriamine (PMDETA) as ligand and acetone as additive. The chemical structure of the macroinitiators and molar composition of block copolymers were characterized by (1)H NMR analysis, and molecular weights of the polymers were analyzed by GPC analysis. DSC analysis showed two glass transition temperatures (T(g)), indicating formation of two domains, which was corroborated by AFM analysis. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analysis of AB and ABA block copolymers showed scattering behavior inside the measuring limits indicating nanophase separation. However, SAXS pattern of AB diblock copolymers indicated general phase separation only, whereas for ABA triblock copolymer an ordered or mixed morphology could be deduced, which is assumed to be the reason for the better mechanical properties achieved with ABA block copolymers than with the AB analogues.

Triggered disassembly of hierarchically assembled onion-like micelles into the pristine core-shell micelles via a small change in pH

The size and surface property of nanomaterial-based delivery systems administered intravenously play important roles in their cell uptake and in vivo distribution. Both of them should be capable of self-evolution in order to achieve efficient targeting performance. A facile strategy was proposed to manipulate both the size and surface property of polymeric micelles. It was found that the hierarchical assembly between trimethylated chitosan-g-poly(ε-caprolactone) (TMC-PCL) micelles and carboxyethyl chitosan-g-poly(ethylene glycol) (CEC-PEG) could produce onion-like micelles with enlarged size and PEGylated surface. The onion-like micelles could withstand the ionic strength of plasma and competitive exchange with BSA, and abruptly disassemble into the pristine TMC-PCL micelles via a small change in pH. By varying the degree of carboxyethylation, the disassembly pH could be modulated to the range of the tumoral microclimate pH. In contrast with TMC-PCL micelles, which displayed high cytotoxicity and endocytic ability towards C6 glioma cells, the onion-like micelles were cell-friendly and internalized by the cells at a very low level. Doxorubicin was used as a model chemotherapeutic agent and incorporated within TMC-PCL micelles. Dox release from both TMC-PCL micelles and the onion-like micelles was very slow under normal physiological conditions and displayed excellent pH sensitivity. Cell viability of Dox-loaded micelles was also investigated.

Structural evolution of multicompartment micelles self-assembled from linear ABC triblock copolymer in selective solvents

Using dissipative particle dynamics simulation, structural evolution from concentric multicompartment micelles to raspberry-like multicompartment micelles self-assembled from linear ABC triblock copolymers in selective solvents was investigated. The structural transformation from concentric micelles to raspberry-like micelles can be controlled by changing either the length of B blocks or the solubility of B block. It was found that the structures with B bumps on C surface (B-bump-C) are formed at shorter B block length and the structures with C bumps on B surface (C-bump-B) are formed at relative lower solubility of B blocks. The formation of B-bump-C is entropy-driven, while the formation of C-bump-B is enthalpy-dominated. Furthermore, when the length of C blocks is much lower than that of B blocks, an inner-penetrating vesicle was discovered. The results gained through the simulations provide an insight into the mechanism behind the formation of raspberry-like micelles.

Mixed micelles of poly(styrene-b-3-(methacryloylamino)propyltrimethylammonium chloride-b-ethylene oxide) and anionic amphiphiles in aqueous solutions

The micelles of poly(styrene-b-3-(methacryloylamino)propyltrimethylammonium chloride-b-ethylene oxide) (PS-b-PMAPTAC-b-PEO) have been successfully prepared in aqueous solutions. The micelles have a PS core, cationic PMAPTAC shell, and PEO corona. Due to the short PS chain (degree of polymerization = 8), the formation of micelles is difficult at a low concentration, and the micelles are detected only at concentrations higher than 1 g L–1. The addition of anionic amphiphiles, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA), induces the formation of mixed micelles at a low concentration level of the polymer (~0.005 g L–1). This can be ascribed to insolubilization of the cationic PMAPTAC block due to charge neutralization by the anionic amphiphiles. The binding of SDS or PMAA to the PMAPTAC block is confirmed by zeta-potential measurements. The mixed micelles are characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and fluorescence measurements. Based on DLS measurements, it is revealed that the hydrodynamic diameter of the mixed micelles falls in the range of 120–130 nm. SEM measurements provided clear pictures of mixed micelles with a spherical morphology. The kinetics of exchange of organic dyes between the micelle particles was investigated by fluorescence techniques. The result indicates that the exchange of the dyes between the micelle particles takes places within a time scale of seconds.

Bioconjugation of biotin to the interfaces of polymeric micelles via in situ click chemistry

Azido-containing amphiphilic triblock copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(azidoethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PEG-b-PAzEMA-b-PMMA) was prepared by postpolymerization functionalization of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PEG-b-PHEMA-b-PMMA). In aqueous media, PEG-b-PAzEMA-b-PMMA self-assembled into spherical micelles with the azide groups at the hydrophobic/hydrophilic interface due to the molecular architecture. Biotin was conjugated to the micelles by in situ click chemistry between azide groups and alkynated biotin, resulting in the formation of a functional interface between the hydrophilic shell and the hydrophobic core. The bioavailability of biotin to avidin was demonstrated by an avidin/4'-hydroxyazobenzene-2-carboxylic acid (avidin/HABA) assay, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering investigations.

Physicochemical properties of micelles of poly(styrene-b-[3-(methacryloylamino)propyl]trimethylammonium chloride-b-ethylene oxide) in aqueous solutions

Polymeric micelles from a new triblock copolymer, polystyrene-block-poly[(3-(methacryloylamino)propyl)trimethylammonium chloride]-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (PS-b-PMAPTAC-b-PEO), were prepared in aqueous solutions and characterized by various techniques including dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and fluorescence spectroscopy. The micelle consists of a PS core, PMAPTAC shell, and PEO corona. It was revealed by SEM and DLS measurements that the micelles have a spherical structure with a hydrodynamic diameter about 75 nm. The addition of tungstate to the micellar solution caused a morphological change in the micelles from extended to shrunken spheres, which can be attributed to the fact that electrostatic repulsion among the cationic PMAPTAC blocks is canceled by the negative charge of the bound tungstate ions. Effective incorporation of tungstate ions into the micelles were confirmed by TEM and zeta-potential measurements.

On the transition between a heterogeneous and homogeneous corona in mixed polymeric micelles

Two-dimensional NMR and small-angle neutron scattering experiments were performed on comicelles of poly(N-methyl-2-vinyl pyridinium iodide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide), P2MVP-b-PEO, and poly(acrylic acid)-block-poly(acryl amide), PAA-b-PAAm, in aqueous solutions to study whether a transition between a heterogeneous (Janus-type) and homogeneous corona can be observed upon a variation of parameters that are anticipated to affect the miscibility of the PEO and PAAm coronal blocks. Investigated were the effect of a salt-induced decrease in micellar aggregation number, P agg for 1<or=[NaNO3]<or=279 mM, a temperature increase for 25<or=T<or=80 degrees C, a variation of the fraction of EO monomers in the corona, fEO, at a fixed corona block length, N corona, for 0<or=fEO<or=1, a decrease in the PEO block length, N PEO, at a fixed PAAm block length, NPAAm, for 200<or=NPEO<or=450, and finally, upon a decrease in corona block length at NPAAm=NPEO for 100<or=N corona<or=400. These parameters should affect the mixing/demixing transition via their effect on the PEO/PAAm interfacial area (e.g., as in the case of f EO and P agg) or the relevant Flory-Huggins interaction parameters (e.g., as in the case of temperature). None of the above parameters was shown to yield a transition toward a homogeneous corona wherein the polymer chains are randomly mixed; i.e., the segregation of PAAm and PEO chains within the micellar corona of comicelles of PAA-b-PAAm and P2MVP-b-PEO appears to be rather robust.

Cationic Amphiphilic Model Networks Based on Symmetrical ABCBA Pentablock Terpolymers: Synthesis, Characterization, and Modeling

Eight isomeric networks based on equimolar terpolymers were synthesized using group transfer polymerization (GTP) and were characterized in terms of their swelling properties. Two hydrophilic monomers, the nonionic methoxy hexa(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (HEGMA) and the ionizable 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA), and a hydrophobic (nonionic) monomer, methyl methacrylate (MMA), were employed for the syntheses. 1,4-Bis(methoxytrimethylsiloxymethylene)cyclohexane (MTSMC) was used as the bifunctional GTP initiator, while ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) served as the cross-linker. Seven of the networks were model networks, six of which were based on the symmetrical pentablock terpolymers ABCBA, ACBCA, BACAB, BCACB, CBABC, and CABAC, whereas the seventh model network was based on the statistical terpolymer. The eighth network was a randomly cross-linked network based on the statistical terpolymer, prepared by the simultaneous quaterpolymerization of the three monomers and the cross-linker. The molecular weights and molecular weight distributions of the linear pentablock terpolymer precursors, as well as those of their homopolymer and ABA triblock copolymer precursors, were characterized by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) in tetrahydrofuran. The sol fraction of each network was measured and found to be relatively low. The aqueous degrees of swelling of all networks were found to increase at acidic pH due to the ionization of the DMAEMA tertiary amine units. The acidic degrees of swelling of the pentablock terpolymer networks were lower than those of their statistical counterparts due to microphase separation in the former type of networks, also confirmed by thermodynamic calculations and small-angle neutron scattering experiments.

Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic ABC Star Triblock Copolymers and Their Blends with AB Diblock Copolymers in Solution: Self-Consistent Field Theory Simulations

The self-assembled morphologies of amphiphilic ABC star triblock copolymers consisting of hydrophilic A blocks and hydrophobic B and C blocks and the blends with their counterpart linear AB diblock copolymers in solution are investigated by 2D real-space implementation of self-consistent field theory (SCFT) simulation. The star triblock copolymers self-assemble in solution to form various micellar structures from hamburger, to segmented wormlike, to toroidal segmented micelles, and finally to vesicles with simultaneously increasing hydrophobic lengths of blocks B and C. When the length of hydrophobic blocks B and C is asymmetric, specific bead-on-string worm micelles are found. Particularly, when the star ABC triblock copolymer is in a strong segregation regime and both B and C blocks are strongly hydrophobic, quite long segmented wormlike micelles are obtained, which had not been found in previously investigated diblock and linear ABC triblock copolymers solution. Additionally, raspberry micelles with beads dispersed on the core also occur in the strong segregation regime of bulk star ABC triblock copolymers. Furthermore, the aggregate morphology of ABC star triblock copolymers is strongly influenced by the addition of linear AB diblock copolymers. The most significant feature is that the long segmented worms will become shorter, to form hamburger micelles with the addition of AB diblock copolymers. These simulations are in good agreement with the experimental findings by Lodge's group.

Aggregation of water-soluble block copolymers in aqueous solutions: recent trends

This review summarizes recent literature and some of our own results on aggregation behavior on water-soluble block copolymers belonging to three different classes viz. hydrophilic-hydrophobic (AB, ABA and BAB) block copolymers, double hydrophilic block copolymers (DHBCs) and ABC triblock copolymers. In the case of amphiphilic copolymers, special attention has been focussed on aggregation of poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock copolymers (Pluronics) and their aggregation in aqueous solutions at different temperatures as well as in the presence of various additives. Recent studies based on modern techniques viz. scattering (static and dynamic light scattering and small angle neutron scattering), spectral methods, e.g., fluorescence (static and time resolved), nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies, thermal methods e.g., differential scanning calorimetry and isothermal titration calorimetry, cryotransmission electron microscopy, ultrasonic absorption along with general physical properties like surface tension, viscosity and dye solubilization are summarized. For the DHBCs where one of the blocks is usually a polyion, complex formation by adding oppositely charged ions induces the formation of nanoaggregates. Characterization of such nanoaggregates of polyion complexes of DHBCs and their potential use for incorporation of ionic solutes in the micellar core are reviewed. The formation and characteristics of core-shell-corona micelles of ABC triblock copolymers and their applications as vehicles for controlled drug release are also discussed.

Aggregate Morphologies of Amphiphilic ABC Triblock Copolymer in Dilute Solution Using Self-Consistent Field Theory

The complex microstructures of amphiphilic ABC linear triblock copolymers in which one of the end blocks is relatively short and hydrophilic, and the other two blocks B and C are hydrophobic in a dilute solution, have been investigated by the real-space implementation of self-consistent field theory (SCFT) in two dimensions (2D). In contrast to diblock copolymers in solution, the aggregation of triblock copolymers are more complicated due to the presence of the second hydrophobic blocks and, hence, big ranges of parameter space controlling the morphology. By tailoring the hydrophobic degree and its difference between the blocks B and C, the various shapes of vesicles, circlelike and linelike micelles possibly corresponding to spherelike, and rodlike micelles in 3D, and especially, peanutlike micelles not found in diblock copolymers are observed. The transition from vesicles to circlelike micelles occurs with increasing the hydrophobicity of the blocks B and C, while the transition from circlelike micelles to linelike micelles or from the mixture of micelles and vesicles to the long linelike micelles takes place when the repulsive interaction of the end hydrophobic block C is stronger than that of the middle hydrophobic block B. Furthermore, it is favorable for dispersion of the block copolymer in the solvent into aggregates when the repulsion of the solvent to the end hydrophobic block is larger than that of the solvent to the middle hydrophobic block. Especially when the bulk block copolymers are in a weak segregation regime, the competition between the microphase separation and macrophase separation exists and the large compound micelle-like aggregates are found due to the macrophase separation with increasing the hydrophobic degree of blocks B and C, which is absent in diblock copolymer solution. The simulation results successfully reproduce the existing experimental ones.