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Li K, Hernández-Castro JA, Morton K, Veres T. Facile Fabrication of Flexible Polymeric Membranes with Micro and Nano Apertures over Large Areas. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14194228. [PMID: 36236176 PMCID: PMC9572266 DOI: 10.3390/polym14194228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Freestanding, flexible and open through-hole polymeric micro- and nanostructured membranes were successfully fabricated over large areas (>16 cm2) via solvent removal of sacrificial scaffolds filled with polymer resin by spontaneous capillary flow. Most of the polymeric membranes were obtained through a rapid UV curing processes via cationic or free radical UV polymerisation. Free standing microstructured membranes were fabricated across a range of curable polymer materials, including: EBECRYL3708 (radical UV polymerisation), CUVR1534 (cationic UV polymerisation) UV lacquer, fluorinated perfluoropolyether urethane methacrylate UV resin (MD700), optical adhesive UV resin with high refractive index (NOA84) and medical adhesive UV resin (1161-M). The present method was also extended to make a thermal set polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membranes. The pore sizes for the as-fabricated membranes ranged from 100 µm down to 200 nm and membrane thickness could be varied from 100 µm down to 10 µm. Aspect ratios as high as 16.7 were achieved for the 100 µm thick membranes for pore diameters of approximately 6 µm. Wide-area and uniform, open through-hole 30 µm thick membranes with 15 µm pore size were fabricated over 44 × 44 mm2 areas. As an application example, arrays of Au nanodots and Pd nanodots, as small as 130 nm, were deposited on Si substrates using a nanoaperture polymer through-hole membrane as a stencil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kebin Li
- National Research Council of Canada, 75, de Mortagne, Boucherville, QC J4B 6Y4, Canada
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (T.V.)
| | | | - Keith Morton
- National Research Council of Canada, 75, de Mortagne, Boucherville, QC J4B 6Y4, Canada
| | - Teodor Veres
- National Research Council of Canada, 75, de Mortagne, Boucherville, QC J4B 6Y4, Canada
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (T.V.)
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2
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Chaudhuri U, Singh N, Mahendiran R, Adeyeye AO. Tuning spin wave modes in yttrium iron garnet films with stray fields. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:12022-12029. [PMID: 35943068 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr00618a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The nanopatterning of Yttrium Iron Garnets (YIGs) has proven to be a non-trivial problem even with advances in modern lithography techniques due to non-compatibility with a conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor platform. In an attempt to circumvent this problem, we demonstrate a simple and reliable method to indirectly pattern YIG films on a Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG) substrate. We fabricated exchange-coupled arrays of Py dots onto the underlying YIG films using nanostencil lithography. The stray fields generated from the Py dots were used to transfer patterned magnetic information to the underlying YIG films. The static and dynamic properties of the fabricated hybrid YIG/Py dot structure and reference YIG film were characterized using the focused magneto-optic Kerr effect and by broadband ferromagnetic resonance spectroscopy. For the reference YIG film, as expected, a single field-dependent resonance mode with a narrow linewidth was observed in contrast to the splitting into three distinct resonance modes for the YIG/Py dot structure as predicted by micromagnetic simulations. We have thus shown that it is possible to utilize stray field effects from easily patternable magnetic materials for the development of future YIG-based magnonic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ushnish Chaudhuri
- Physics Department, National University of Singapore, 117551, Singapore.
| | - Navab Singh
- A*STAR Institute of Microelectronics, 2, Fusionopolis Way, 138634, Singapore
| | - R Mahendiran
- Physics Department, National University of Singapore, 117551, Singapore.
| | - Adekunle O Adeyeye
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Rd, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
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3
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Xu C, Liu H, Yang S. Drawing at the Nanoscale through Macroscopic Movement. SMALL METHODS 2022; 6:e2200293. [PMID: 35478330 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202200293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nanopatterns are important for applications in various nanodevice fields. Existing nanopatterning techniques mainly directly manufacture the nanopatterns through various lithographic methods, which usually are laborious, time-consuming, and need expensive equipment. Here, an extremely simple drawing at the nanoscale (DAN) concept to indirectly fabricate rational nanopatterns through controlling the macroscopic movement of the substrate , is demonstrated. The structure of the nanopatterns is completely determined by and can be shrunk by millions of times from the moving track of the substrate. Multiple surface nanopatterns of different materials with accurately tailorable relative positions can be simply stacked together by moving the substrate by macroscopic distances during different DAN processes. In combination with sophisticated lithographic methods, the DAN method is anticipated to enable substantial advances in nanofabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Xu
- Institute for Composites Science Innovation, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Institute for Composites Science Innovation, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Shikuan Yang
- Institute for Composites Science Innovation, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- Department of Medical Oncology, The first affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310003, China
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
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4
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Sojo Gordillo JM, Gadea Diez G, Pacios Pujadó M, Salleras M, Estrada-Wiese D, Dolcet M, Fonseca L, Morata A, Tarancón A. Thermal conductivity of individual Si and SiGe epitaxially integrated NWs by scanning thermal microscopy. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:7252-7265. [PMID: 33889903 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr00344e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Semiconductor nanowires have demonstrated fascinating properties with application in a wide range of fields including energy and information technologies. In particular, increasing attention has been focused on Si and SiGe nanowires for application in thermoelectric generation after recent successful implementation in miniaturized devices. Despite this interest, an appropriate evaluation of thermal conductivity in such nanostructures still poses a great challenge, especially if the characterization of the device-integrated nanowire is desired. In this work, a spatially resolved technique based on scanning thermal microscopy has been demonstrated for the assessment of the thermal conductivity of Si and SiGe nanowires integrated in thermoelectrical microgenerators. Thermal conductivity values of 15.8 ± 0.8 W m-1 K-1 and 4.2 ± 0.3 W m-1 K-1 were measured for Si and SiGe nanowires, respectively, epitaxially grown on silicon microstructures. Moreover, the range of applicability according to the sample thermal conductance and associated errors are discussed to establish the potential of the novel technique. The results presented here show the remarkable utility of scanning thermal microscopy for the challenging thermal characterization of integrated nanostructures and the development of multiple devices such as thermoelectric generators or photovoltaic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Manuel Sojo Gordillo
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de Les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain.
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5
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3D-microfabrication by two-photon polymerization of an integrated sacrificial stencil mask. MICRO AND NANO ENGINEERING 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mne.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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6
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Enrico A, Dubois V, Niklaus F, Stemme G. Scalable Manufacturing of Single Nanowire Devices Using Crack-Defined Shadow Mask Lithography. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:8217-8226. [PMID: 30698940 PMCID: PMC6426283 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b19410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Single nanowires (NWs) have a broad range of applications in nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, and nanophotonics, but, to date, no technique can produce single sub-20 nm wide NWs with electrical connections in a scalable fashion. In this work, we combine conventional optical and crack lithographies to generate single NW devices with controllable and predictable dimensions and placement and with individual electrical contacts to the NWs. We demonstrate NWs made of gold, platinum, palladium, tungsten, tin, and metal oxides. We have used conventional i-line stepper lithography with a nominal resolution of 365 nm to define crack lithography structures in a shadow mask for large-scale manufacturing of sub-20 nm wide NWs, which is a 20-fold improvement over the resolution that is possible with the utilized stepper lithography. Overall, the proposed method represents an effective approach to generate single NW devices with useful applications in electrochemistry, photonics, and gas- and biosensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Enrico
- Department of Micro and Nanosystems, School of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal
Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Frank Niklaus
- Department of Micro and Nanosystems, School of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal
Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Göran Stemme
- Department of Micro and Nanosystems, School of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal
Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
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7
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Seol C, Jang S, Kim J, Jun TS, Kim SM. Fabrication and design of mechanically stable and free-standing polymeric membrane with two-level apertures. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:9522-9527. [PMID: 30462134 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm01968a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we report the fabrication process and the investigation of mechanically stable, flexible and free-standing polymeric membranes with two-level apertures. By using overlapped oxygen inhibition layers (OILs) with variation in diameters of the micro-sized supporting layer, we successfully fabricated the mechanically stable and free-standing polymeric membrane with micro/nano two-level apertures. The nano aperture membrane was stably sustained on the micro aperture membrane with a diameter of 50 μm and 100 μm, but was torn off in the case of 300 μm and 500 μm sized supporting layers. To analyze the results, we propose a simple model to set the criteria of the geometrical features which are mechanically stable during the demolding process. It is worth noting that an appropriate material modulus, length, and thickness of the membrane are required for designing and achieving the robust free-standing hierarchical polymeric membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changwook Seol
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon, Republic of Korea.
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8
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Top-down fabrication of shape-controlled, monodisperse nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018; 132:169-187. [PMID: 30009884 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles for biomedical applications are generally formed by bottom-up approaches such as self-assembly, emulsification and precipitation. But these methods usually have critical limitations in fabrication of nanoparticles with controllable morphologies and monodispersed size. Compared with bottom-up methods, top-down nanofabrication techniques offer advantages of high fidelity and high controllability. This review focuses on top-down nanofabrication techniques for engineering particles along with their biomedical applications. We present several commonly used top-down nanofabrication techniques that have the potential to fabricate nanoparticles, including photolithography, interference lithography, electron beam lithography, mold-based lithography (nanoimprint lithography and soft lithography), nanostencil lithography, and nanosphere lithography. Varieties of current and emerging applications are also covered: (i) targeting, (ii) drug and gene delivery, (iii) imaging, and (iv) therapy. Finally, a future perspective of the nanoparticles fabricated by the top-down techniques in biomedicine is also addressed.
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9
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Pfitzner E, Seki H, Schlesinger R, Ataka K, Heberle J. Disc Antenna Enhanced Infrared Spectroscopy: From Self-Assembled Monolayers to Membrane Proteins. ACS Sens 2018; 3:984-991. [PMID: 29741356 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Plasmonic surfaces have emerged as a powerful platform for biomolecular sensing applications and can be designed to optimize the plasmonic resonance for probing molecular vibrations at utmost sensitivity. Here, we present a facile procedure to generate metallic microdisc antenna arrays that are employed in surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) spectroscopy of biomolecules. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grids are used as shadow mask deployed during physical vapor deposition of gold. The resulting disc-shaped antennas exhibit enhancement factors of the vibrational bands of 4 × 104 giving rise to a detection limit <1 femtomol (10-15 mol) of molecules. Surface-bound monolayers of 4-mercaptobenzoic acid show polyelectrolyte behavior when titrated with cations in the aqueous medium. Conformational rigidity of the self-assembled monolayer is validated by density functional theory calculations. The membrane protein sensory rhodopsin II is tethered to the disc antenna arrays and is fully functional as inferred from the light-induced SEIRA difference spectra. As an advance to previous studies, the accessible frequency range is improved and extended into the fingerprint region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Pfitzner
- Experimental Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimalle 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hirofumi Seki
- Experimental Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimalle 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Toray Research Center Inc., 3-3-7 Sonoyama, Otsu, Shiga 520-8567, Japan
| | - Ramona Schlesinger
- Genetic Biophysics, Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimalle 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kenichi Ataka
- Experimental Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimalle 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim Heberle
- Experimental Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimalle 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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10
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Du K, Ding J, Liu Y, Wathuthanthri I, Choi CH. Stencil Lithography for Scalable Micro- and Nanomanufacturing. MICROMACHINES 2017. [PMCID: PMC6189734 DOI: 10.3390/mi8040131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we review the current development of stencil lithography for scalable micro- and nanomanufacturing as a resistless and reusable patterning technique. We first introduce the motivation and advantages of stencil lithography for large-area micro- and nanopatterning. Then we review the progress of using rigid membranes such as SiNx and Si as stencil masks as well as stacking layers. We also review the current use of flexible membranes including a compliant SiNx membrane with springs, polyimide film, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layer, and photoresist-based membranes as stencil lithography masks to address problems such as blurring and non-planar surface patterning. Moreover, we discuss the dynamic stencil lithography technique, which significantly improves the patterning throughput and speed by moving the stencil over the target substrate during deposition. Lastly, we discuss the future advancement of stencil lithography for a resistless, reusable, scalable, and programmable nanolithography method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Du
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (K.D.); (J.D.); (Y.L.); (I.W.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Junjun Ding
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (K.D.); (J.D.); (Y.L.); (I.W.)
| | - Yuyang Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (K.D.); (J.D.); (Y.L.); (I.W.)
| | - Ishan Wathuthanthri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (K.D.); (J.D.); (Y.L.); (I.W.)
- Northrop Grumman Mission Systems, Advanced Technology Labs, Linthicum, MD 21090, USA
| | - Chang-Hwan Choi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; (K.D.); (J.D.); (Y.L.); (I.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-201-216-5579
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11
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Brunbauer FM, Bertagnolli E, Majer J, Lugstein A. Electrical transport properties of single-crystal Al nanowires. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:385704. [PMID: 27533003 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/38/385704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Single-crystal Al nanowires (NWs) were fabricated by thermally induced substitution of vapor-liquid-solid grown Ge NWs by Al. The resistivity of the crystalline Al (c-Al) NWs was determined to be ρ = (131 ± 27) × 10(-9) Ω m, i.e. approximately five times higher than for bulk Al, but they withstand remarkably high current densities of up to 1.78 × 10(12) A m(-2) before they ultimately melt due to Joule heating. The maximum current density before failure correlates with the NW diameter, with thinner NWs tolerating significantly higher current densities due to efficient heat dissipation and the reduced lattice heating in structures smaller than the electron-phonon scattering length. The outstanding current-carrying capacity of the c-Al NWs clearly exceeds those of common conductors and surpasses requirements for metallization of future high-performance devices. The linear temperature coefficient of the resistance of c-Al NWs appeared to be lower than for bulk Al and a transition to a superconducting state in c-Al NWs was observed at a temperature of 1.46 K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian M Brunbauer
- Institute for Solid State Electronics, Technische Universität Wien, Floragasse 7, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
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12
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Klemme DJ, Johnson TW, Mohr DA, Oh SH. Self-aligned grating couplers on template-stripped metal pyramids via nanostencil lithography. APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 2016; 108:213106. [PMID: 27375296 PMCID: PMC4884184 DOI: 10.1063/1.4951673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We combine nanostencil lithography and template stripping to create self-aligned patterns about the apex of ultrasmooth metal pyramids with high throughput. Three-dimensional patterns such as spiral and asymmetric linear gratings, which can couple incident light into a hot spot at the tip, are presented as examples of this fabrication method. Computer simulations demonstrate that spiral and linear diffraction grating patterns are both effective at coupling light to the tip. The self-aligned stencil lithography technique can be useful for integrating plasmonic couplers with sharp metallic tips for applications such as near-field optical spectroscopy, tip-based optical trapping, plasmonic sensing, and heat-assisted magnetic recording.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Klemme
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
| | - Timothy W Johnson
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
| | - Daniel A Mohr
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
| | - Sang-Hyun Oh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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13
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Derkus B. Applying the miniaturization technologies for biosensor design. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 79:901-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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14
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Yesilkoy F, Flauraud V, Rüegg M, Kim BJ, Brugger J. 3D nanostructures fabricated by advanced stencil lithography. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:4945-4950. [PMID: 26884085 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr08444j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This letter reports on a novel fabrication method for 3D metal nanostructures using high-throughput nanostencil lithography. Aperture clogging, which occurs on the stencil membranes during physical vapor deposition, is leveraged to create complex topographies on the nanoscale. The precision of the 3D nanofabrication method is studied in terms of geometric parameters and material types. The versatility of the technique is demonstrated by various symmetric and chiral patterns made of Al and Au.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Yesilkoy
- EPFL STI IMT LMIS1, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. and The University of Tokyo IIS CIRMM, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
| | - V Flauraud
- EPFL STI IMT LMIS1, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - M Rüegg
- EPFL STI IMT LMIS1, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - B J Kim
- The University of Tokyo IIS CIRMM, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
| | - J Brugger
- EPFL STI IMT LMIS1, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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15
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Abazari AM, Safavi SM, Rezazadeh G, Villanueva LG. Modelling the Size Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Micro/Nano Structures. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2015; 15:28543-62. [PMID: 26569256 PMCID: PMC4701295 DOI: 10.3390/s151128543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Experiments on micro- and nano-mechanical systems (M/NEMS) have shown that their behavior under bending loads departs in many cases from the classical predictions using Euler-Bernoulli theory and Hooke's law. This anomalous response has usually been seen as a dependence of the material properties on the size of the structure, in particular thickness. A theoretical model that allows for quantitative understanding and prediction of this size effect is important for the design of M/NEMS. In this paper, we summarize and analyze the five theories that can be found in the literature: Grain Boundary Theory (GBT), Surface Stress Theory (SST), Residual Stress Theory (RST), Couple Stress Theory (CST) and Surface Elasticity Theory (SET). By comparing these theories with experimental data we propose a simplified model combination of CST and SET that properly fits all considered cases, therefore delivering a simple (two parameters) model that can be used to predict the mechanical properties at the nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Musa Abazari
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
- Advanced NEMS Group, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland.
| | - Seyed Mohsen Safavi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - Ghader Rezazadeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia 57561-51818, Iran.
| | - Luis Guillermo Villanueva
- Advanced NEMS Group, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland.
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16
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Wang A, Jiang L, Li X, Liu Y, Dong X, Qu L, Duan X, Lu Y. Mask-Free Patterning of High-Conductivity Metal Nanowires in Open Air by Spatially Modulated Femtosecond Laser Pulses. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2015; 27:6238-43. [PMID: 26376094 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201503289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A novel high-resolution nanowire fabrication method is developed by thin-film patterning using a spatially modulated femtosecond laser pulse. Deep subwavelength (≈1/13 of the laser wavelength) and high conductivity (≈1/4 of the bulk gold) nanowires are fabricated in the open air without using masks, which offers a single-step arbitrary direct patterning approach for electronics, plasmonics, and optoelectronics nanodevices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andong Wang
- Laser Micro/Nano-Fabrication Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Lan Jiang
- Laser Micro/Nano-Fabrication Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xiaowei Li
- Laser Micro/Nano-Fabrication Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Laser Micro/Nano-Fabrication Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xianzi Dong
- Laboratory of Organic Nanophotonics and Key Laboratory of Photochemical Convention and Functional Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Liangti Qu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xuanming Duan
- Laboratory of Organic Nanophotonics and Key Laboratory of Photochemical Convention and Functional Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Yongfeng Lu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0511, USA
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17
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Jeong HH, Mark AG, Lee TC, Son K, Chen W, Alarcón-Correa M, Kim I, Schütz G, Fischer P. Selectable Nanopattern Arrays for Nanolithographic Imprint and Etch-Mask Applications. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2015; 2:1500016. [PMID: 27980957 PMCID: PMC5115431 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201500016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A parallel nanolithographic patterning method is presented that can be used to obtain arrays of multifunctional nanoparticles. These patterns can simply be converted into a variety of secondary nanopatterns that are useful for nanolithographic imprint, plasmonic, and etch-mask applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon-Ho Jeong
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 3 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Andrew G Mark
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 3 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Tung-Chun Lee
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart Germany; Institute for Materials Discovery University College London Kathleen Lonsdale Building Gower Place London WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Kwanghyo Son
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 3 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Wenwen Chen
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart Germany; Department of Biophysical Chemistry University of Heidelberg INF 25369120 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Mariana Alarcón-Correa
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart Germany; Institute for Physical Chemistry University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 5570569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Insook Kim
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart Germany; Institute for Physical Chemistry University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 5570569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Gisela Schütz
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 3 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Peer Fischer
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Heisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart Germany; Institute for Physical Chemistry University of Stuttgart Pfaffenwaldring 5570569 Stuttgart Germany
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18
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Grüter RR, Dielacher B, Hirt L, Vörös J, Zambelli T. Patterning gold nanoparticles in liquid environment with high ionic strength for local fabrication of up to 100 μm long metallic interconnections. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 26:175301. [PMID: 25837553 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/17/175301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Metallic interconnections were fabricated in situ using the FluidFM as scanning probe lithography tool. In contrast to other SPL tools, the closed fluidic circuit of the FluidFM enables a pressure-controlled deposition of metallic nanoparticles in liquid environment. Taking advantage of the salt concentration of the liquid environment (i.e. the ionic strength) to tailor the resulting particle density in the deposited layer, a protocol was established for direct patterning of conductive interconnecting structures. The FluidFM microchannel was filled with an aqueous solution of negatively charged gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to be delivered onto a glass surface coated with a polycation favoring electrostatic adhesion. The deposited structures were analyzed both topographically and electrically to optimize the external parameters such as contact time, salt concentration of the liquid environment and size of the AuNPs. Using this optimized protocol we succeeded in the local fabrication of conductive metallic wires between two prefabricated macroelectrodes in liquid environment. In a subsequent step, the conductivity of the deposited structure was improved by gold annealing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Grüter
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092, Switzerland
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19
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Nanofabrication on unconventional substrates using transferred hard masks. Sci Rep 2015; 5:7802. [PMID: 25588550 PMCID: PMC4295112 DOI: 10.1038/srep07802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A major challenge in nanofabrication is to pattern unconventional substrates that cannot be processed for a variety of reasons, such as incompatibility with spin coating, electron beam lithography, optical lithography, or wet chemical steps. Here, we present a versatile nanofabrication method based on re-usable silicon membrane hard masks, patterned using standard lithography and mature silicon processing technology. These masks, transferred precisely onto targeted regions, can be in the millimetre scale. They allow for fabrication on a wide range of substrates, including rough, soft, and non-conductive materials, enabling feature linewidths down to 10 nm. Plasma etching, lift-off, and ion implantation are realized without the need for scanning electron/ion beam processing, UV exposure, or wet etching on target substrates.
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20
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Liu W, Hierold C, Haluska M. Electrical contacts to individual SWCNTs: A review. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 5:2202-15. [PMID: 25551048 PMCID: PMC4273271 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.5.229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Owing to their superior electrical characteristics, nanometer dimensions and definable lengths, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are considered as one of the most promising materials for various types of nanodevices. Additionally, they can be used as either passive or active elements. To be integrated into circuitry or devices, they are typically connected with metal leads to provide electrical contacts. The properties and quality of these electrical contacts are important for the function and performance of SWCNT-based devices. Since carbon nanotubes are quasi-one-dimensional structures, contacts to them are different from those for bulk semiconductors. Additionally, some techniques used in Si-based technology are not compatible with SWCNT-based device fabrication, such as the contact area cleaning technique. In this review, an overview of the investigations of metal-SWCNT contacts is presented, including the principle of charge carrier injection through the metal-SWCNT contacts and experimental achievements. The methods for characterizing the electrical contacts are discussed as well. The parameters which influence the contact properties are summarized, mainly focusing on the contact geometry, metal type and the cleanliness of the SWCNT surface affected by the fabrication processes. Moreover, the challenges for widespread application of CNFETs are additionally discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Micro and Nanosystems, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christofer Hierold
- Micro and Nanosystems, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Miroslav Haluska
- Micro and Nanosystems, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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21
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Azimi S, Song J, Li CJ, Mathew S, Breese MBH, Venkatesan T. Nanoscale lithography of LaAlO₃/SrTiO₃ wires using silicon stencil masks. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 25:445301. [PMID: 25302579 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/25/44/445301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a process to fabricate low-stress, fully crystalline silicon nanostencils, based on ion irradiation and the electrochemical anodization of p-type silicon. These nanostencils can be patterned with arbitrary feature shapes with openings hundreds of micrometers wide connected to long channels of less than 100 nm in width. These nanostencils have been used to deposit (2.5 μm- to 150 nm-wide) lines of LaAlO3 (LAO) on a SrTiO3 (STO) substrate, forming a confined electron layer at the interface arising from oxygen vacancies on the STO surface. Electrical characterization of the transport properties of the resulting LAO/STO nanowires exhibited a large electric field effect through back-gating using the STO as the dielectric, demonstrating electron confinement. Stencil lithography incorporating multiple feature sizes in a single mask shows great potential for future development of oxide electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Azimi
- Centre for Ion Beam Applications (CIBA), Department of Physics, National University of Singapore, Singapore 11754222. Singapore Synchrotron Light Source (SSLS), National University of Singapore, 5 Research Link, Singapore 117603
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22
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Steurer W, Gross L, Schlittler RR, Meyer G. A variable-temperature nanostencil compatible with a low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope/atomic force microscope. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2014; 85:023706. [PMID: 24593370 DOI: 10.1063/1.4864296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We describe a nanostencil lithography tool capable of operating at variable temperatures down to 30 K. The setup is compatible with a combined low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope/atomic force microscope located within the same ultra-high-vacuum apparatus. The lateral movement capability of the mask allows the patterning of complex structures. To demonstrate operational functionality of the tool and estimate temperature drift and blurring, we fabricated LiF and NaCl nanostructures on Cu(111) at 77 K.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leo Gross
- IBM Research-Zurich, 8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
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23
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Cho H, Kim J, Park H, Won Bang J, Seop Hyun M, Bae Y, Ha L, Yoon Kim D, Min Kang S, Jung Park T, Seo S, Choi M, Suh KY. Replication of flexible polymer membranes with geometry-controllable nano-apertures via a hierarchical mould-based dewetting. Nat Commun 2014; 5:3137. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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24
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Huang X, Chen Y, Chiu CY, Zhang H, Xu Y, Duan X, Huang Y. A versatile strategy to the selective synthesis of Cu nanocrystals and the in situ conversion to CuRu nanotubes. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:6284-6290. [PMID: 23740179 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr01290e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Compared with Ag, Au, Pt and Pd, the synthesis of Cu nanocrystals that exhibit well-defined structures and surface properties has achieved limited success. Herein, we report an etching and protecting strategy to prepare Cu nanostructures with controllable shapes, crystalline nature and surface properties. In the developed strategy, the selective use of different additives is critical to the successful synthesis of the Cu nanocrystals: while NH4Cl (or hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC)) functions as an etchant by a Cl(-)-O2 pair that can selectively remove twinned nuclei and induce the formation of single nanocrystals with a cubic morphology, the addition of RuCl3 (or FeCl3, FeCl2) can protect the multiply twinned seeds from being etched, and leads to the formation of 5-fold twined nanowires. The controlling strategy reported herein is highlighted by its simplicity and versatility. By further increasing the reaction temperature and prolonging the reaction time, bimetallic CuRu nanotubes can be readily prepared. The applications of these well-defined nanostructures and the developed strategy in controlling other metals are currently under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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25
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Choi J, Koh K, Kim J. Scalable and number-controlled synthesis of carbon nanotubes by nanostencil lithography. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2013; 8:281. [PMID: 23759063 PMCID: PMC3683346 DOI: 10.1186/1556-276x-8-281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Controlled synthesis and integration of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) remain important areas of study to develop practical carbon-based nanodevices. A method of controlling the number of CNTs synthesized depending on the size of the catalyst was characterized using nanostencil lithography, and the critical dimension for the nanoaperture produced on a stencil mask used for growing individual CNTs was studied. The stencil mask was fabricated as a nanoaperture array down to 40 nm in diameter on a low-stress silicon nitride membrane. An iron catalyst used to synthesize CNTs was deposited through submicron patterns in the stencil mask onto a silicon substrate, and the profile of the patterned iron catalyst was analyzed using atomic force microscopy. The feasibility toward a scalable, number-, and location-controlled synthesis of CNTs was experimentally demonstrated based on the diameter and geometry of the apertures in the stencil mask.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungwook Choi
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Kisik Koh
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongbaeg Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
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26
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Alves ADC, Newnham J, van Donkelaar JA, Rubanov S, McCallum JC, Jamieson DN. Controlled deterministic implantation by nanostencil lithography at the limit of ion-aperture straggling. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 24:145304. [PMID: 23508018 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/14/145304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Solid state electronic devices fabricated in silicon employ many ion implantation steps in their fabrication. In nanoscale devices deterministic implants of dopant atoms with high spatial precision will be needed to overcome problems with statistical variations in device characteristics and to open new functionalities based on controlled quantum states of single atoms. However, to deterministically place a dopant atom with the required precision is a significant technological challenge. Here we address this challenge with a strategy based on stepped nanostencil lithography for the construction of arrays of single implanted atoms. We address the limit on spatial precision imposed by ion straggling in the nanostencil-fabricated with the readily available focused ion beam milling technique followed by Pt deposition. Two nanostencils have been fabricated; a 60 nm wide aperture in a 3 μm thick Si cantilever and a 30 nm wide aperture in a 200 nm thick Si3N4 membrane. The 30 nm wide aperture demonstrates the fabricating process for sub-50 nm apertures while the 60 nm aperture was characterized with 500 keV He(+) ion forward scattering to measure the effect of ion straggling in the collimator and deduce a model for its internal structure using the GEANT4 ion transport code. This model is then applied to simulate collimation of a 14 keV P(+) ion beam in a 200 nm thick Si3N4 membrane nanostencil suitable for the implantation of donors in silicon. We simulate collimating apertures with widths in the range of 10-50 nm because we expect the onset of J-coupling in a device with 30 nm donor spacing. We find that straggling in the nanostencil produces mis-located implanted ions with a probability between 0.001 and 0.08 depending on the internal collimator profile and the alignment with the beam direction. This result is favourable for the rapid prototyping of a proof-of-principle device containing multiple deterministically implanted dopants.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D C Alves
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology, School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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27
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Huang M, Galarreta BC, Artar A, Adato R, Aksu S, Altug H. Reusable nanostencils for creating multiple biofunctional molecular nanopatterns on polymer substrate. NANO LETTERS 2012; 12:4817-4822. [PMID: 22839211 DOI: 10.1021/nl302266u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate a novel method for high throughput patterning of bioprobes with nanoscale features on biocompatible polymer substrate. Our technique, based on nanostencil lithography, employs high resolution and robust masks integrated with array of reservoirs. We show that the smallest pattern size can reach down to 100 nm. We also show that different types of biomolecules can be patterned on the same substrate simultaneously. Furthermore, the stencil can be reused multiple times to generate a series of identical patterns at low cost. Finally, we demonstrate that biomolecules can be covalently patterned on the surface while retaining their biofunctionalities. By offering the flexibility on the nanopattern design and enabling the reusability of the stencil, our approach significantly simplifies the bionanopatterning process and therefore could have profound implications in diverse biological and medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Huang
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
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28
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Martinez-Duarte R. Microfabrication technologies in dielectrophoresis applications--a review. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:3110-32. [PMID: 22941778 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Revised: 06/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
DEP is an established technique for particle manipulation. Although first demonstrated in the 1950s, it was not until the development of miniaturization techniques in the 1990s that DEP became a popular research field. The 1990s saw an explosion of DEP publications using microfabricated metal electrode arrays to sort a wide variety of cells. The concurrent development of microfluidics enabled devices for flow management and better understanding of the interaction between hydrodynamic and electrokinetic forces. Starting in the 2000s, alternative techniques have arisen to overcome common problems in metal-electrode DEP, such as electrode fouling, and to increase the throughput of the system. Insulator-based DEP and light-induced DEP are the most significant examples. Most recently, new 3D techniques such as carbon-electrode DEP, contactless DEP, and the use of doped PDMS have further simplified the fabrication process. The constant desire of the community to develop practical solutions has led to devices which are more user friendly, less expensive, and are capable of higher throughput. The state-of-the-art of fabricating DEP devices is critically reviewed in this work. The focus is on how different fabrication techniques can boost the development of practical DEP devices to be used in different settings such as clinical cell sorting and infection diagnosis, industrial food safety, and enrichment of particle populations for drug development.
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29
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Vazquez-Mena O, Sannomiya T, Tosun M, Villanueva LG, Savu V, Voros J, Brugger J. High-resolution resistless nanopatterning on polymer and flexible substrates for plasmonic biosensing using stencil masks. ACS NANO 2012; 6:5474-5481. [PMID: 22594808 DOI: 10.1021/nn301358n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The development of nanoscale lithographic methods on polymer materials is a key requirement to improve the spatial resolution and performance of flexible devices. Here, we report the fabrication of metallic nanostructures down to 20 and 50 nm in size on polymer materials such as polyimide, parylene, SU-8, and PDMS substrates without any resist processing using stencil lithography. Metallic nanodot array analysis of their localized surface plasmon spectra is included. We demonstrate plasmon resonance detection of biotin and streptavidin using a PDMS flexible film with gold nanodots. We also demonstrate the fabrication of metallic nanowires on polyimide substrates with their electrical characteristics showing an ohmic behavior. These results demonstrate high-resolution nanopatterning and device nanofabrication capability of stencil lithography on polymer and flexible substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Vazquez-Mena
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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30
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Lindquist NC, Nagpal P, McPeak KM, Norris DJ, Oh SH. Engineering metallic nanostructures for plasmonics and nanophotonics. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2012; 75:036501. [PMID: 22790420 PMCID: PMC3396886 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/75/3/036501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Metallic nanostructures now play an important role in many applications. In particular, for the emerging fields of plasmonics and nanophotonics, the ability to engineer metals on nanometric scales allows the development of new devices and the study of exciting physics. This review focuses on top-down nanofabrication techniques for engineering metallic nanostructures, along with computational and experimental characterization techniques. A variety of current and emerging applications are also covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C Lindquist
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A
- Physics Department, Bethel University, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A
| | | | - Kevin M McPeak
- Optical Materials Engineering Laboratory, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - David J Norris
- Optical Materials Engineering Laboratory, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Sang-Hyun Oh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A
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31
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Sidler K, Villanueva LG, Vazquez-Mena O, Savu V, Brugger J. Compliant membranes improve resolution in full-wafer micro/nanostencil lithography. NANOSCALE 2012; 4:773-778. [PMID: 22170588 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr11609j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This work reports on a considerable resolution improvement of micro/nanostencil lithography when applied on full-wafer scale by using compliant membranes to reduce gap-induced pattern blurring. Silicon nitride (SiN) membranes are mechanically decoupled from a rigid silicon (Si) frame by means of four compliant, protruding cantilevers. When pressing the stencil into contact with a surface to be patterned, the membranes thus adapt to the surface independently and reduce the gap between the membrane and the substrate even over large, uneven surfaces. Finite element modeling (FEM) simulations show that compliant membranes can deflect vertically 40 μm which is a typical maximal non-planarity observed in standard Si wafers, due to polishing. Microapertures in the stencil membrane are defined by UV lithography and nanoapertures, down to 200 nm in diameter, using focused ion beam (FIB). A thin aluminium (Al) layer is deposited through both compliant and non-compliant membranes on a Si wafer, for comparison. The blurring in the case of compliant membranes is up to 95% reduced on full-wafer scale compared to standard (non-compliant) membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Sidler
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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32
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Lutz R, Pataky K, Gadhari N, Marelli M, Brugger J, Chiquet M. Nano-stenciled RGD-gold patterns that inhibit focal contact maturation induce lamellipodia formation in fibroblasts. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25459. [PMID: 21980465 PMCID: PMC3181263 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cultured fibroblasts adhere to extracellular substrates by means of cell-matrix adhesions that are assembled in a hierarchical way, thereby gaining in protein complexity and size. Here we asked how restricting the size of cell-matrix adhesions affects cell morphology and behavior. Using a nanostencil technique, culture substrates were patterned with gold squares of a width and spacing between 250 nm and 2 µm. The gold was functionalized with RGD peptide as ligand for cellular integrins, and mouse embryo fibroblasts were plated. Limiting the length of cell-matrix adhesions to 500 nm or less disturbed the maturation of vinculin-positive focal complexes into focal contacts and fibrillar adhesions, as indicated by poor recruitment of α5-integrin. We found that on sub-micrometer patterns, fibroblasts spread extensively, but did not polarize. Instead, they formed excessive numbers of lamellipodia and a fine actin meshwork without stress fibers. Moreover, these cells showed aberrant fibronectin fibrillogenesis, and their speed of directed migration was reduced significantly compared to fibroblasts on 2 µm square patterns. Interference with RhoA/ROCK signaling eliminated the pattern-dependent differences in cell morphology. Our results indicate that manipulating the maturation of cell-matrix adhesions by nanopatterned surfaces allows to influence morphology, actin dynamics, migration and ECM assembly of adhering fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Lutz
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kristopher Pataky
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Neha Gadhari
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mattia Marelli
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Juergen Brugger
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Chiquet
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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33
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Singh LT, Nanda KK. General theories for the electrical transport properties of carbon nanotubes. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2011; 22:315705. [PMID: 21730758 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/22/31/315705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We have shown that the general theories of metals and semiconductors can be employed to understand the diameter and voltage dependency of current through metallic and semiconducting carbon nanotubes, respectively. The current through a semiconducting multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) is associated with the energy gap that is different for different shells. The contribution of the outermost shell is larger as compared to the inner shells. The general theories can also explain the diameter dependency of maximum current through nanotubes. We have also compared the current carrying ability of a MWCNT and an array of the same diameter of single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and found that MWCNTs are better suited and deserve further investigation for possible applications as interconnects.
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Affiliation(s)
- L T Singh
- Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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34
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Son Y, Yeo J, Moon H, Lim TW, Hong S, Nam KH, Yoo S, Grigoropoulos CP, Yang DY, Ko SH. Nanoscale electronics: digital fabrication by direct femtosecond laser processing of metal nanoparticles. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2011; 23:3176-3181. [PMID: 21618292 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201100717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Son
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
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35
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Grévin B, Fakir M, Hayton J, Brun M, Demadrille R, Faure-Vincent J. Qplus AFM driven nanostencil. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2011; 82:063706. [PMID: 21721701 DOI: 10.1063/1.3600898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We describe the development of a novel setup, in which large stencils with suspended silicon nitride membranes are combined with atomic force microscopy (AFM) regulation by using tuning forks. This system offers the possibility to perform separate AFM and nanostencil operations, as well as combined modes when using stencil chips with integrated tips. The flexibility and performances are demonstrated through a series of examples, including wide AFM scans in closed loop mode, probe positioning repeatability of a few tens of nanometer, simultaneous evaporation of large (several hundred of micron square) and nanoscopic metals and fullerene patterns in static, multistep, and dynamic modes. This approach paves the way for further developments, as it fully combines the advantages of conventional stenciling with the ones of an AFM driven shadow mask.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Grévin
- CEA-INAC-UMR 5819-SPrAM (CEA-CNRS-UJF), 17 Rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble Cedex 9, France.
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36
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Vazquez-Mena O, Sannomiya T, Villanueva LG, Voros J, Brugger J. Metallic nanodot arrays by stencil lithography for plasmonic biosensing applications. ACS NANO 2011; 5:844-53. [PMID: 21192666 DOI: 10.1021/nn1019253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of gold nanodots by stencil lithography and its application for optical biosensing based on localized surface plasmon resonance are presented. Arrays of 50-200 nm wide nanodots with different spacing of 50-300 nm are fabricated without any resist, etching, or lift-off process. The dimensions and morphology of the nanodots were characterized by scanning electron and atomic force microscopy. The fabricated nanodots showed localized surface plasmon resonance in their extinction spectra in the visible range. The resonance wavelength depends on the periodicity and dimensions of the nanodots. Bulk refractive index measurements and model biosensing of streptavidin were successfully performed based on the plasmon resonance shift induced by local refractive index change when biomolecules are adsorbed on the nanodots. These results demonstrate the potential of stencil lithography for the realization of plasmon-based biosensing devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Vazquez-Mena
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Dickey MD, Russell KJ, Lipomi DJ, Narayanamurti V, Whitesides GM. Transistors formed from a single lithography step using information encoded in topography. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2010; 6:2050-2057. [PMID: 20715073 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201000554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes a strategy for the fabrication of functional electronic components (transistors, capacitors, resistors, conductors, and logic gates but not, at present, inductors) that combines a single layer of lithography with angle-dependent physical vapor deposition; this approach is named topographically encoded microlithography (abbreviated as TEMIL). This strategy extends the simple concept of 'shadow evaporation' to reduce the number and complexity of the steps required to produce isolated devices and arrays of devices, and eliminates the need for registration (the sequential stacking of patterns with correct alignment) entirely. The defining advantage of this strategy is that it extracts information from the 3D topography of features in photoresist, and combines this information with the 3D information from the angle-dependent deposition (the angle and orientation used for deposition from a collimated source of material), to create 'shadowed' and 'illuminated' regions on the underlying substrate. It also takes advantage of the ability of replica molding techniques to produce 3D topography in polymeric resists. A single layer of patterned resist can thus direct the fabrication of a nearly unlimited number of possible shapes, composed of layers of any materials that can be deposited by vapor deposition. The sequential deposition of various shapes (by changing orientation and material source) makes it possible to fabricate complex structures-including interconnected transistors-using a single layer of topography. The complexity of structures that can be fabricated using simple lithographic features distinguishes this procedure from other techniques based on shadow evaporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Dickey
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Aksu S, Yanik AA, Adato R, Artar A, Huang M, Altug H. High-throughput nanofabrication of infrared plasmonic nanoantenna arrays for vibrational nanospectroscopy. NANO LETTERS 2010; 10:2511-8. [PMID: 20560536 DOI: 10.1021/nl101042a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The introduction of high-throughput and high-resolution nanofabrication techniques operating at low cost and low complexity is essential for the advancement of nanoplasmonic and nanophotonic fields. In this paper, we demonstrate a novel fabrication approach based on nanostencil lithography for high-throughput fabrication of engineered infrared plasmonic nanorod antenna arrays. The technique relying on deposition of materials through a shadow mask enables plasmonic substrates supporting spectrally sharp collective resonances. We show that reflectance spectra of these antenna arrays are comparable to that of arrays fabricated by electron beam lithography. We also show that nanostencils can be reused multiple times to fabricate a series of infrared nanoantenna arrays with identical optical responses. Finally, we demonstrate fabrication of plasmonic nanostructures in a variety of shapes with a single metal deposition step on different substrates, including nonconducting ones. Our approach, by enabling the reusability of the stencil and offering flexibility on the substrate choice and nanopattern design, could facilitate the transition of plasmonic technologies to the real-world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serap Aksu
- Materials Science and Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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Liao HY, Lo KJ, Chang CC. Dewetting of copper nanolayers on silica in oxygen: towards preparation of copper meso/nanowires by self-organization. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2009; 20:465607. [PMID: 19847038 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/46/465607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The present study has examined the thermal behavior of copper on silicon oxide to clarify the diffusion of copper on dielectrics in an oxygen environment. Films of copper-deposited silicon oxide were prepared on silicon wafers and then annealed in oxygen. Self-organization of copper occurred to form line structures of multiple strips in a specific oxygen pressure range. The line orientation of the produced structures was related to the line defects formed from termination of stacking faults and dislocations at the wafer surface. The line density was determined by the oxygen pressure used. The results underline a possibility of synthesizing copper meso/nanowires on dielectrics via self-organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Yang Liao
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, Republic of China
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41
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Vazquez-Mena O, Villanueva LG, Savu V, Sidler K, Langlet P, Brugger J. Analysis of the blurring in stencil lithography. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2009; 20:415303. [PMID: 19762941 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/41/415303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative analysis of blurring and its dependence on the stencil-substrate gap and the deposition parameters in stencil lithography, a high resolution shadow mask technique, is presented. The blurring is manifested in two ways: first, the structure directly deposited on the substrate is larger than the stencil aperture due to geometrical factors, and second, a halo of material is formed surrounding the deposited structure, presumably due to surface diffusion. The blurring is studied as a function of the gap using dedicated stencils that allow a controlled variation of the gap. Our results show a linear relationship between the gap and the blurring of the directly deposited structure. In our configuration, with a material source of approximately 5 mm and a source-substrate distance of 1 m, we find that a gap size of approximately 10 microm enlarges the directly deposited structures by approximately 50 nm. The measured halo varies from 0.2 to 3 microm in width depending on the gap, the stencil aperture size and other deposition parameters. We also show that the blurring can be reduced by decreasing the nominal deposition thickness, the deposition rate and the substrate temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Vazquez-Mena
- Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Hu Y, To AC, Yun M. The controlled growth of single metallic and conducting polymer nanowires via gate-assisted electrochemical deposition. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2009; 20:285605. [PMID: 19550021 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/28/285605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of nanowires with well-controlled lengths and diameters is the basis of the application of one-dimensional nanostructures in more sophisticated electronic and biomolecular device systems. A wide variety of materials, including metals and conducting polymers, have been utilized in nanowire arrays as building blocks for chemical or biomolecular sensors. Thus far, the cheapest and most effective way of nanowire synthesis is electrochemical deposition. In this work, we investigate a new method of electrochemical deposition using two-dimensional electric fields instead of the conventional one-directional electric field between working electrodes. Reproducible fabrication of metallic (palladium) and conducting polymer (polypyrrole) single nanowires with diameters down to 30-50 nm is achieved by application of a vertical gate electric field in addition to the lateral one between the two working electrodes. Diameters and lengths of the nanowires can be easily controlled by varying the dimensions of the nanochannels in which the nanowires are grown. A good ohmic contact between the nanowire and gold electrodes is also obtained, indicating the feasibility of electronic devices based on the single nanowires synthesized via this method. In conjunction with experimental findings of nanowire growth mechanism under two-dimensional electric field, molecular dynamic simulations are employed to further understand the deposition process. This improved electrochemical deposition is applicable for controlled and simple fabrication of a wide range of metallic and conducting polymeric nanowires with small diameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Hu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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Huang X, Zheng N. One-Pot, High-Yield Synthesis of 5-Fold Twinned Pd Nanowires and Nanorods. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:4602-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ja9009343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Nanfeng Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces and Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
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