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Fan M, Zou L, Tian K, Chen G, Cheng K, Li Y. Chemistry, bioactivity, biosynthesis, and total synthesis of stemmadenine alkaloids. Nat Prod Rep 2023; 40:1022-1044. [PMID: 36728407 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00052k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to July 2022Stemmadenine alkaloids are a restrictive sub-group of monoterpene indole alkaloids, represented by two congeners: stemmadenine and vallesamine. Their skeleton is defined by the cleavage of the C-3-C-7 bond of the Strychnos group's pentacyclic scaffold in monoterpene indole alkaloids. The parent alkaloid stemmadenine acts as a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of several major monoterpene indole alkaloid families, including regular Strychnos alkaloids, Aspidosperma alkaloids, and Iboga alkaloids. In this review, a complete coverage of the stemmadenine alkaloids, from the early reports till the present day at 2022, are presented, and their diverse biological activities are briefly described. Moreover, the biosynthetic proposal for stemmadenine and the proposed biogenetic conversion of stemmadenine-type alkaloids into vallesamine-type congeners are discussed in detail. Moreover, the successful synthetic strategies to access the strained stemmadenine scaffolds are fully reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Fan
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Liangbang Zou
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Kaidi Tian
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Guoqing Chen
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Kai Cheng
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yong Li
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Alternative Technologies for Fine Chemicals Process, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People's Republic of China.
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Bronchodilator Secondary Metabolites from Rhazya stricta Decne Aerial Parts. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9120412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant kingdom comprises medicinally useful plants that have provided many new drugs used to treat various diseases. In our search for bronchodilator secondary metabolites from plants growing in Saudi Arabia, the total extract of Rhazya stricta showed activity against carbamylcholine- (CCh) induced bronchoconstriction in guinea pig tracheal muscles used as an ex vivo model. The fractions obtained from liquid–liquid extraction process were tested for bronchodilator effects. The most active ethyl acetate fraction (RS-E) and aqueous fraction (RS-H) were subjected to biologically guided phytochemical study using different stationary phases and chromatographic techniques to isolate the pure secondary metabolites. Five known compounds were isolated from the active fractions. Three alkaloids namely; (-)-quebrachamine (1), (+)-eburenine (2), (+)-stemmadenine (3) as well as the two iridoid glycosides loganic acid (4) and loganine (5) were identified by various spectroscopic methods. Among the isolated compounds 1 and 5 were the only active as bronchodilators in the plant. It is worth to mention that iridoid glycosides are isolated for the first time from R. stricta.
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Identification of Potent Bioassay Guided Terpenoid and Glycoside Root Fractions of Astragalus candolleanus against Clinically Significant Bacterial Strains. Int J Microbiol 2022; 2022:4584799. [PMID: 35528313 PMCID: PMC9072053 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4584799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance represents one of the biggest challenges, and there is an urgent need for plant-based antimicrobial agents that enable managing this crisis effectively. In this work, we aimed to investigate the antibacterial activity of Astragalus candolleanus (A. candolleanus) hydromethanolic root extract against Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Kocuria rhizophila) strains by the cup-plate method. The root was powdered and extracted with 70% methanol by cold maceration for 5 days. Preliminary phytochemical screening was performed with different solvents in the order of increasing polarity. Pure compounds were isolated by column chromatography and were characterized through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Targeted predictions of the isolated compounds were also studied using Swiss Target prediction software and prediction of activity spectra for substances. The extract showed a broad zone of inhibition against pathogenic bacteria. Four pure compounds were isolated, of which a novel terpenoid compound has been identified as stemmadenine along with scillirosidin, cephalotaxine, and myxoxanthophyll. The structures of the isolated phytoconstituents were elucidated by spectral analysis. The four pure components isolated from the roots of A. candolleanus are suggested to be effective against tested pathogens. Overall results of drug design suggest that myxoxanthophyll is a promising bioactive compound endowed with antibacterial activity.
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Ring-closing metathesis in the synthesis of fused indole structures. ADVANCES IN HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aihch.2022.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Albeshri A, Baeshen NA, Bouback TA, Aljaddawi AA. A Review of Rhazya stricta Decne Phytochemistry, Bioactivities, Pharmacological Activities, Toxicity, and Folkloric Medicinal Uses. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:plants10112508. [PMID: 34834871 PMCID: PMC8619226 DOI: 10.3390/plants10112508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The local medicinal plant Rhazya stricta Decne is reviewed for its folkloric medicinal, phytochemical, pharmacological, biological, and toxicological features. R. stricta has been used widely in different cultures for various medical disorders. The phytochemical studies performed on the R. stricta extract revealed many alkaloidal and fatty acid compounds. Moreover, several flavonoid and terpenoid compounds were also detected. Pharmacological activates of R. stricta extracts are approved to possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antihypertensive activities. Additionally, R. stricta extract was found to hold biological activates such as larvicidal and phytoremediation activates R. stricta extract was found to be toxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic. R. stricta contains novel phytochemical compounds that have not been investigated pharmacologically. Further research is needed through in vitro and in vivo experiments to pave the road for these compounds for medical, veterinary, and ecological uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulaziz Albeshri
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.B.); (T.A.B.); (A.A.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nabih A. Baeshen
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.B.); (T.A.B.); (A.A.A.)
| | - Thamer A. Bouback
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.B.); (T.A.B.); (A.A.A.)
- Princess Dr. Najla Bint Saud Al-Saud Center for Excellence Research in Biotechnology, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah A. Aljaddawi
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.B.); (T.A.B.); (A.A.A.)
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Orsenigo S, Abeli T, Al-Rammahi HM, Azzaro D, Cambria S, D’Agostino M, Mohammad MK, Tavilla G, Fenu G. Global and Regional IUCN Red List Assessments: 11. ITALIAN BOTANIST 2021. [DOI: 10.3897/italianbotanist.11.68678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this contribution, the conservation status assessment of three vascular plants according to IUCN categories and criteria is presented. It includes the global assessment of Limonium parvifolium Tineo and Viscaria alpina (L.) G.Don, and the regional assessment of Rhazya stricta Decne. (Iraq).
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Aderibigbe BA, Green IR, Mabank T, Janse van Rensburg M, Morgans GL, Fernandes MA, Michael JP, van Otterlo WA. Observations concerning the synthesis of heteroatom-containing 9-membered benzo-fused rings by ring-closing metathesis. Tetrahedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Alagrafi FS, Alawad AO, Abutaha NM, Nasr FA, Alhazzaa OA, Alharbi SN, Alkhrayef MN, Hammad M, Alhamdan ZA, Alenazi AD, Wadaan MA. In vitro induction of human embryonal carcinoma differentiation by a crude extract of Rhazya stricta. Altern Ther Health Med 2017; 17:342. [PMID: 28662725 PMCID: PMC5492883 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-017-1852-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhazya stricta Decne. is a medicinal plant that is widespread in Saudi Arabia and desert areas of the Arabian Peninsula. Its extract contains alkaloids, tannins, and flavonoids that are involved in different biological activities. The study aim was to evaluate the effects of Rhazya stricta plant extracts on the proliferation and differentiation of NTERA-2 (NT2) pluripotent embryonal carcinoma cells. METHODS Soxhlet extraction was carried out using different solvents to extract stems, leaves and fruit parts of this plant. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by an MTS cell viability assay. The ability of the plant extract to induce cell differentiation was examined phenotypically using an inverted light microscope. The expression of pluripotency markers was investigated by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunocytochemistry. Phytochemical screening of chloroform stem extracts was carried out and a chromatographic fingerprint was generated using gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS). RESULTS Chloroform stem extract induced differentiation of NT2 cells at 5 μg/ml, and the differentiated cells exhibited neurite formation. Following induction of differentiation, there was significant down-regulation of the pluripotency marker genes Oct4 and Sox2. In addition, the surface antigen pluripotency marker, TRA-1-60, was strongly down-regulated. Phytochemical analysis of the extract showed the presence of alkaloids and saponins. The chromatogram revealed the presence of fifteen compounds with different retention times. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate for the first time that chloroform stem extract of R. stricta can induce neuronal differentiation of stem cells at an early stage and may contain potential therapeutic agent that can be used in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Biotechnology of the medicinal plant Rhazya stricta: a little investigated member of the Apocynaceae family. Biotechnol Lett 2017; 39:829-840. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-017-2320-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Benayad S, Ahamada K, Lewin G, Evanno L, Poupon E. Preakuammicine: A Long-Awaited Missing Link in the Biosynthesis of Monoterpene Indole Alkaloids. European J Org Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201600102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Cai XH, Li Y, Liu YP, Li XN, Bao MF, Luo XD. Alkaloids from Melodinus yunnanensis. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2012; 83:116-24. [PMID: 22818523 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Ten monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, namely meloyine, 19S-methoxytubotaiwine N₄-oxide, 16,19-epoxy-Δ¹⁴-vincanol, 14β-hydroxymeloyunine, meloyunine, Δ¹⁴-vincamenine N₄-oxide, 16β,21β-epoxy-vincadine, 14β,15β-20S-quebrachamine, 3-oxo-voaphylline, 2α,7α-dihydroxy-dihydrovoaphylline, and 32 known alkaloids were isolated from leaves and twigs of Melodinus yunnanensis. Their structures were elucidated based on 1- and 2-D NMR, FTIR, UV, and MS spectroscopic data. Meloyine I showed weak cytotoxic activity against four human cancer cell lines: MCF-7 breast cancer, SMMC-7721 hepatocellular carcinoma, HL-60 myeloid leukemia, and A-549 lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Hai Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, China.
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Bashir A, Abdalla AA, Wasfi IA, Hassan ES, Amiri MH, Crabb TA. Flavonoids of Limonium axillare. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/13880209409083017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A.K Bashir
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Centre, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, B.O. Box 17777, UAE
| | - A. A. Abdalla
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Centre, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, B.O. Box 17777, UAE
| | - I. A. Wasfi
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Centre, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, B.O. Box 17777, UAE
| | - E. S. Hassan
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Centre, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, B.O. Box 17777, UAE
| | - M. H. Amiri
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Centre, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, B.O. Box 17777, UAE
| | - T. A. Crabb
- Dept. of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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Gilani SA, Kikuchi A, Shinwari ZK, Khattak ZI, Watanabe KN. Phytochemical, pharmacological and ethnobotanical studies of Rhazya stricta Decne. Phytother Res 2007; 21:301-7. [PMID: 17186492 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Rhazya stricta Decne. is an important medicinal species that is rich in alkaloids containing anticancer alkaloids also. This paper reviews phytochemical, pharmacological and ethnobotanical studies of R. stricta. Phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of the species have been thoroughly explored. Over 100 alkaloids have been isolated from R. stricta, but the pharmacological activities are known for only a few of these compounds. Very few ethnobotanical studies of R. stricta have been done, and there is a particular need for such studies in various regions of South Asia and in Middle Eastern countries where the species grows. These ethnobotanical studies should investigate herbal recipes of R. stricta and their use for curing diseases. The genetic diversity, chemotaxonomy and allelopathy of R. stricta have not yet been explored, and these studies are recommended, with the ultimate goal of benefiting local communities in regions where R. stricta grows. This should be achieved by sharing knowledge and through the manufacture of herbal drugs from R. stricta's active chemical constituents, while protecting intellectual property rights and following the World Health Organization's guidelines for safety and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Abdullah Gilani
- Gene Research Center, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan.
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Abstract
Flavonoids are ubiquitous in photosynthesising cells and are commonly found in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, stems, flowers, tea, wine, propolis and honey. For centuries, preparations containing these compounds as the principal physiologically active constituents have been used to treat human diseases. Increasingly, this class of natural products is becoming the subject of anti-infective research, and many groups have isolated and identified the structures of flavonoids possessing antifungal, antiviral and antibacterial activity. Moreover, several groups have demonstrated synergy between active flavonoids as well as between flavonoids and existing chemotherapeutics. Reports of activity in the field of antibacterial flavonoid research are widely conflicting, probably owing to inter- and intra-assay variation in susceptibility testing. However, several high-quality investigations have examined the relationship between flavonoid structure and antibacterial activity and these are in close agreement. In addition, numerous research groups have sought to elucidate the antibacterial mechanisms of action of selected flavonoids. The activity of quercetin, for example, has been at least partially attributed to inhibition of DNA gyrase. It has also been proposed that sophoraflavone G and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate inhibit cytoplasmic membrane function, and that licochalcones A and C inhibit energy metabolism. Other flavonoids whose mechanisms of action have been investigated include robinetin, myricetin, apigenin, rutin, galangin, 2,4,2'-trihydroxy-5'-methylchalcone and lonchocarpol A. These compounds represent novel leads, and future studies may allow the development of a pharmacologically acceptable antimicrobial agent or class of agents.
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Stöckigt J, Sheludk Y, Unger M, Gerasimenko I, Warzecha H, Stöckigt D. High-performance liquid chromatographic, capillary electrophoretic and capillary electrophoretic-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometric analysis of selected alkaloid groups. J Chromatogr A 2002; 967:85-113. [PMID: 12219932 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)00037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Systems for efficient separation of selected alkaloid groups by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrophoresis coupled with electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (CE-ESI-MS) are described. The optimized HPLC system was applied for the separation of 23 standard indole alkaloids as well as for qualitative and quantitative analyses of crude alkaloid extracts of Rauvolfia serpentina X Rhazya stricta hybrid cell cultures. The developed conditions for CE analysis proved to be efficient for separation of mixtures of standard indole and beta-carboline alkaloids. The described buffer system is also applicable in the combination of CE with electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry. This analytical technique allowed the separation and identification of components of standard indole alkaloid mixture as well as crude extracts of R. serpentina roots, R. serpentina cell suspension cultures and cortex of Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco. The influence of buffer composition and analyte structures on separation is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Stöckigt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany.
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Abstract
Phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of the medicinal plant Rhazya stricta Decne. are reviewed. Several types of alkaloids and a few flavonoids have been isolated and their structures and stereochemistry characterized. However, in most cases the biological activity of these compounds has not been studied. Most of the pharmacological activity of the plant resides in its alkaloidal fractions which cause depression of the central nervous system and hypotension. Extracts of R. stricta appear to have low toxicity, although its use in pregnant women may be inadvisable.
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Affiliation(s)
- B H Ali
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Buraydah, Al Gaseem, Saudi Arabia
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Bosch J, Bonjoch J, Amat M. The Strychnos Alkaloids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s1099-4831(08)60030-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
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Chapter 2 Biosynthesis in Rauwolfia serpentina Modern Aspects of an Old Medicinal Plant. THE ALKALOIDS: CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-9598(08)60154-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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A. KI, F. LO, S. E, Y. GY, J. S. Alkaloids Isolated from Somatic Hybrid Cell Cultures of the Species CombinationRauwolfia serpentinaxrhazya stricta. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1080/10575639508044076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Alkaloids formed by somatic hybrids ofRauwolfia serpentina + Rhazya stricta. Pharm Chem J 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02219314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Wasfi IA, Bashir AK, Amiri MH, Abdalla AA. The effect of Rhazya stricta on glucose homeostasis in normal and streptozotocin diabetic rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 1994; 43:141-7. [PMID: 7967654 DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(94)90011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The effect of R. stricta water extract on glucose homeostasis was studied in normal and streptozotocin diabetic rats. R. stricta had no effect on fasting glucose levels in normal and diabetic rats up to 7 h after its oral administration. In normal and diabetic rats R. stricta did not produce any significant effect on an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Chronic administration of R. stricta in drinking water for 37 days did not produce any effect on the parameters of glucose homeostasis studied (plasma glucose, body weight, feed and fluid intake and plasma fructosamine) in the normal or diabetic phase of the experiment. The LD50 of R. stricta in mice was 2.36 g/kg body weight of the lyophilised extract and a daily administration of R. stricta to rats for 5 days did not produce any signs of organ damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- I A Wasfi
- Desert and Marine Environment Research Center, University of United Arab Emirates, Al-Ain
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Chapter 1 Allelochemical Properties or the Raison D'être of Alkaloids. THE ALKALOIDS. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1993; 43. [PMCID: PMC7148816 DOI: 10.1016/s0099-9598(08)60134-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This chapter provides evidence that alkaloids are not waste products or functionless molecules as formerly assumed, but rather defense compounds employed by plants for survival against herbivores and against microorganisms and competing plants. These molecules were developed during evolution through natural selection in that they fit many important molecular targets, often receptors, of cells, which are seen in molecules that mimic endogenous neurotransmitters. The chapter discusses that microorganisms and herbivores rely on plants as a food source. Since both have survived, there must be mechanisms of adaptations toward the defensive chemistry of plants. Many herbivores have evolved strategies to avoid the extremely toxic plants and prefer the less toxic ones. Many herbivores have potent mechanisms to detoxify xenobiotics, which allow the exploitation of at least the less toxic plants. In insects, many specialists evolved that are adapted to the defense chemicals of their host plant, in that they accumulate these compounds and exploit them for their own defense. Alkaloids function as defense molecules against insect predators in the examples studied, and this is further support for the hypothesis that the same compound also serves for chemical defense in the host plant. It needs more experimental data to understand fully the intricate interconnections between plants, their alkaloids, and herbivores, microorganisms, and other plants.
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