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Rendic SP, Guengerich FP. Formation of potentially toxic metabolites of drugs in reactions catalyzed by human drug-metabolizing enzymes. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1581-1628. [PMID: 38520539 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03710-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Data are presented on the formation of potentially toxic metabolites of drugs that are substrates of human drug metabolizing enzymes. The tabular data lists the formation of potentially toxic/reactive products. The data were obtained from in vitro experiments and showed that the oxidative reactions predominate (with 96% of the total potential toxication reactions). Reductive reactions (e.g., reduction of nitro to amino group and reductive dehalogenation) participate to the extent of 4%. Of the enzymes, cytochrome P450 (P450, CYP) enzymes catalyzed 72% of the reactions, myeloperoxidase (MPO) 7%, flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) 3%, aldehyde oxidase (AOX) 4%, sulfotransferase (SULT) 5%, and a group of minor participating enzymes to the extent of 9%. Within the P450 Superfamily, P450 Subfamily 3A (P450 3A4 and 3A5) participates to the extent of 27% and the Subfamily 2C (P450 2C9 and P450 2C19) to the extent of 16%, together catalyzing 43% of the reactions, followed by P450 Subfamily 1A (P450 1A1 and P450 1A2) with 15%. The P450 2D6 enzyme participated in an extent of 8%, P450 2E1 in 10%, and P450 2B6 in 6% of the reactions. All other enzymes participate to the extent of 14%. The data show that, of the human enzymes analyzed, P450 enzymes were dominant in catalyzing potential toxication reactions of drugs and their metabolites, with the major role assigned to the P450 Subfamily 3A and significant participation of the P450 Subfamilies 2C and 1A, plus the 2D6, 2E1 and 2B6 enzymes contributing. Selected examples of drugs that are activated or proposed to form toxic species are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
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2
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Umemori Y, Handa K, Yoshimura S, Kageyama M, Iijima T. Development of a Novel In Silico Classification Model to Assess Reactive Metabolite Formation in the Cysteine Trapping Assay and Investigation of Important Substructures. Biomolecules 2024; 14:535. [PMID: 38785942 PMCID: PMC11117661 DOI: 10.3390/biom14050535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Predicting whether a compound can cause drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is difficult due to the complexity of drug mechanism. The cysteine trapping assay is a method for detecting reactive metabolites that bind to microsomes covalently. However, it is cumbersome to use 35S isotope-labeled cysteine for this assay. Therefore, we constructed an in silico classification model for predicting a positive/negative outcome in the cysteine trapping assay. We collected 475 compounds (436 in-house compounds and 39 publicly available drugs) based on experimental data performed in this study, and the composition of the results showed 248 positives and 227 negatives. Using a Message Passing Neural Network (MPNN) and Random Forest (RF) with extended connectivity fingerprint (ECFP) 4, we built machine learning models to predict the covalent binding risk of compounds. In the time-split dataset, AUC-ROC of MPNN and RF were 0.625 and 0.559 in the hold-out test, restrictively. This result suggests that the MPNN model has a higher predictivity than RF in the time-split dataset. Hence, we conclude that the in silico MPNN classification model for the cysteine trapping assay has a better predictive power. Furthermore, most of the substructures that contributed positively to the cysteine trapping assay were consistent with previous results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Koichi Handa
- DMPK Research Department, Teijin Institute for Bio-Medical Research, TEIJIN PHARMA LIMITED, 4-3-2 Asahigaoka, Hino-shi, Tokyo 191-8512, Japan; (Y.U.); (S.Y.); (M.K.); (T.I.)
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3
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Singh G, Kumar R, D S D, Chaudhary M, Kaur C, Khurrana N. Thiazolidinedione as a Promising Medicinal Scaffold for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev 2024; 20:e201023222411. [PMID: 37867272 DOI: 10.2174/0115733998254798231005095627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thiazolidinediones, also known as glitazones, are considered as biologically active scaffold and a well-established class of anti-diabetic agents for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Thiazolidinediones act by reducing insulin resistance through elevated peripheral glucose disposal and glucose production. These molecules activate peroxisome proliferated activated receptor (PPARγ), one of the sub-types of PPARs, and a diverse group of its hybrid have also shown numerous therapeutic activities along with antidiabetic activity. OBJECTIVE The objective of this review was to collect and summarize the research related to the medicinal potential, structure-activity relationship and safety aspects of thiazolidinedione analogues designed and investigated in type 2 diabetes during the last two decades. METHODS The mentioned objective was achieved by collecting and reviewing the research manuscripts, review articles, and patents from PubMed, Science Direct, Embase, google scholar and journals related to the topic from different publishers like Wiley, Springer, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Indian and International government patent sites etc. Results: The thiazolidinedione scaffold has been a focus of research in the design and synthesis of novel derivatives for the management of type 2 diabetes, specifically in the case of insulin resistance. The complications like fluid retention, idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity, weight gain and congestive heart failure in the case of trosiglitazone, and pioglitazone have restricted their use. The newer analogues have been synthesized by different research groups to attain better efficacy and less side effects. CONCLUSION Thus, the potential of thiazolidinediones in terms of their chemical evolution, action on nuclear receptors, aldose reductase and free fatty acid receptor 1 is well established. The newer TZD analogues with better safety profiles and tolerability will soon be available in the market for common use without further delay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurvinder Singh
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
| | - Desna D S
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
| | - Manish Chaudhary
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
| | - Charanjit Kaur
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
| | - Navneet Khurrana
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
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4
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Wang S, Ballard TE, Christopher LJ, Foti RS, Gu C, Khojasteh SC, Liu J, Ma S, Ma B, Obach RS, Schadt S, Zhang Z, Zhang D. The Importance of Tracking "Missing" Metabolites: How and Why? J Med Chem 2023; 66:15586-15612. [PMID: 37769129 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Technologies currently employed to find and identify drug metabolites in complex biological matrices generally yield results that offer a comprehensive picture of the drug metabolite profile. However, drug metabolites can be missed or are captured only late in the drug development process. This could be due to a variety of factors, such as metabolism that results in partial loss of the molecule, covalent bonding to macromolecules, the drug being metabolized in specific human tissues, or poor ionization in a mass spectrometer. These scenarios often draw a great deal of attention from chemistry, safety assessment, and pharmacology. This review will summarize scenarios of missing metabolites, why they are missing, and associated uncovering strategies from deeper investigations. Uncovering previously missed metabolites can have ramifications in drug development with toxicological and pharmacological consequences, and knowledge of these can help in the design of new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - T Eric Ballard
- Takeda Development Center Americas, Inc., 35 Landsdowne St, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Lisa J Christopher
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Pharmacometrics, Disposition & Bioanalysis, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Robert S Foti
- Preclinical Development, Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Chungang Gu
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - S Cyrus Khojasteh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Joyce Liu
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Shuguang Ma
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Pliant Therapeutics, 260 Littlefield Avenue, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Bin Ma
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - R Scott Obach
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Simone Schadt
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Grenzacher Strasse 124, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Zhoupeng Zhang
- DMPK Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, 35 Gatehouse Drive, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Donglu Zhang
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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5
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Jung YH, Kim JH. Feature-Based Molecular Networking Combined with Multivariate Analysis for the Characterization of Glutathione Adducts as a Smoking Gun of Bioactivation. Anal Chem 2023; 95:17450-17457. [PMID: 37976220 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c01094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Feature-based molecular networking (FBMN) is a powerful analytical tool for mass spectrometry (MS)-based untargeted metabolomics data analysis. FBMN plays an important role in drug metabolism studies, enabling the visualization of complex metabolomics data to achieve metabolite characterization. In this study, we propose a strategy for the characterization of glutathione (GSH) adducts formed via in vitro metabolic activation using FBMN assisted by multivariate analysis (MVA). Acetaminophen was used as a model substrate for method development, and the practical potential of the method was investigated by its application to 2-aminophenol (2-AP) and 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB). Two 2-AP GSH adducts and one DNCB GSH adduct were successfully characterized by forming networks with GSH even though the mass spectral information obtained for the parent compound was deficient. False positives were effectively filtered out by the variable influence on projection cutoff criteria obtained from orthogonal partial least-squares-discriminant analysis. The GSH adducts formed by enzymatic or nonenzymatic reactions were intuitively distinguished by the pie chart of FBMN results. In summary, our approach effectively characterizes GSH adducts, which serve as compelling evidence of bioactivation. It can be widely utilized to enhance risk assessment in the context of drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Heun Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Hyun Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
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6
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Claesson A, Parkes K. Non-innocuous Consequences of Metabolic Oxidation of Alkyls on Arenes. J Med Chem 2022; 65:11433-11453. [PMID: 36001003 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reactive metabolite (RM) formation is widely accepted as playing a pivotal role in causing adverse idiosyncratic drug reactions, with most attention paid to drug-induced liver injury. Mechanisms of RM formation are determined by the drug's properties in relation to human enzymes transforming the drug. This Perspective focuses on enzymatic oxidation of alkyl groups on aromatics leading to quinone methides and benzylic alcohol sulfates as RMs, a topic that has not received very much attention. Unlike previous overviews, we will include in our Perspective several fulvene-like methides such as 3-methyleneindole. We also speculate that a few older drugs may form non-reported methides of this class. In addition, we report a few guiding DFT calculations of changes in free energy on going from a benzylic alcohol to the corresponding methide. Particularly facile reactions of 2-aminothiazole-5-methanol and 4-aminobenzyl alcohol are noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alf Claesson
- Awametox AB, Lilldalsvägen 17 A, SE-14461 Rönninge, Sweden
| | - Kevin Parkes
- Consultant, 39 Cashio Lane, Letchworth Garden City, Hertfordshire SG6 1AY, U.K
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7
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Morita K, Mizuno T, Kusuhara H. Investigation of a Data Split Strategy Involving the Time Axis in Adverse Event Prediction Using Machine Learning. J Chem Inf Model 2022; 62:3982-3992. [PMID: 35971760 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.2c00765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Adverse events are a serious issue in drug development, and many prediction methods using machine learning have been developed. The random split cross-validation is the de facto standard for model building and evaluation in machine learning, but care should be taken in adverse event prediction because this approach does not strictly match the real-world situation. The time split, which uses the time axis, is considered suitable for real-world prediction. However, the differences in model performance obtained using the time and random splits are not clear due to the lack of comparable studies. To understand the differences, we compared the model performance between the time and random splits using nine types of compound information as input, eight adverse events as targets, and six machine learning algorithms. The random split showed higher area under the curve values than did the time split for six of eight targets. The chemical spaces of the training and test datasets of the time split were similar, suggesting that the concept of applicability domain is insufficient to explain the differences derived from the splitting. The area under the curve differences were smaller for the protein interaction than for the other datasets. Subsequent detailed analyses suggested the danger of confounding in the use of knowledge-based information in the time split. These findings indicate the importance of understanding the differences between the time and random splits in adverse event prediction and suggest that appropriate use of the splitting strategies and interpretation of results are necessary for the real-world prediction of adverse events. We provide the analysis code and datasets used in the present study at https://github.com/mizuno-group/AE_prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuhisa Morita
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Tadahaya Mizuno
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kusuhara
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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8
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Ali K, Mishra P, Kumar A, Reddy DN, Chowdhury S, Panda G. Reactivity vs. selectivity of quinone methides: synthesis of pharmaceutically important molecules, toxicity and biological applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:6160-6175. [PMID: 35522910 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc00838f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Quinone methides (QMs) are considered to be highly reactive intermediates because of their aromatization both in chemical and biological systems. Being highly accessible, quinone methides (QMs) have been widely exploited and their concurrent use has been manifested for the synthesis of tertiary and quaternary carbon centers of bioactives, drugs and drug-like molecules. In this feature article, the synthetic routes, structure-reactivity relationships and synthetic applications of quinone methides are discussed. Formation of the intermediates during bioactivation of different chemical entities and possible chemical manifestations leading to their toxicity in biological systems are also covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasim Ali
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India. .,Academy of Scientific & Industrial Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201 002, India
| | - Prajjval Mishra
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.
| | - Awnish Kumar
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.
| | - Damodara N Reddy
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India. .,Academy of Scientific & Industrial Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201 002, India
| | - Sushobhan Chowdhury
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.
| | - Gautam Panda
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Sector 10, Lucknow 226031, UP, India. .,Academy of Scientific & Industrial Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201 002, India
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9
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Tilekar K, Shelke O, Upadhyay N, Lavecchia A, Ramaa CS. Current status and future prospects of molecular hybrids with thiazolidinedione (TZD) scaffold in anticancer drug discovery. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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10
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Wei H, Li AP. Permeabilized cryopreserved human hepatocytes as an exogenous metabolic system in a novelmetabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA) for the evaluation of metabolic activation anddetoxification of drugs associated with drug induced liver injuries: Results with acetaminophen,amiodarone, cyclophosphamide, ketoconazole, nefazodone, and troglitazone. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 50:140-149. [PMID: 34750194 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We report here a novel in vitro experimental system, the metabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA), for the definition of the roles of hepatic drug metabolism in toxicity. MDCA employs permeabilized cofactor-supplemented cryopreserved human hepatocytes (MetMax{trade mark, serif} human hepatocytes, MMHH), as an exogenous metabolic activating system, and HEK-293 cells, a cell line devoid of drug metabolizing enzyme activity, as target cells for the quantification of drug toxicity. The assay was performed in the presence and absence of cofactors for key drug metabolism pathways known to play key roles in drug toxicity: NADPH/NAD+ for phase 1 oxidation, UDPGA for UGT mediated glucuronidation, PAPS for SULT mediated sulfation, and GSH for GST mediated GSH conjugation. Six drugs with clinically significant hepatoxicity, resulting in liver failure or a need for liver transplantation: acetaminophen, amiodarone, cyclophosphamide, ketoconazole, nefazodone and troglitazone were evaluated. All six drugs exhibited cytotoxicity enhancement by NADPH, suggesting metabolic activation via phase 1 oxidation. Attenuation of cytotoxicity by UDPGA was observed for acetaminophen, ketoconazole and troglitazone, by PAPS for acetaminophen, ketoconazole and troglitazone, and by GSH for all six drugs. Our results suggest that MDCA can be applied towards the elucidation of metabolic activation and detoxification pathways, providing information that can be applied in drug development to guide structure optimization to reduce toxicity and to aid the assessment of metabolism-based risk factors for drug toxicity. GSH detoxification represents an endpoint for the identification of drugs forming cytotoxic reactive metabolites, a key property of drugs with idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity. Significance Statement Application of the metabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA) for the elucidation of the roles of metabolic activation and detoxification pathways in drug toxicity may provide information to guide structure optimization in drug development to reduce hepatotoxic potential, and to aid the assessment of metabolism-based risk factors. GSH detoxification represents an endpoint for the identification of drugs forming cytotoxic reactive metabolites may be applied towards the evaluation of idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wei
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories, United States
| | - Albert P Li
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories Inc., United States
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11
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Long N, Le Gresley A, Wren SP. Thiazolidinediones: An In-Depth Study of Their Synthesis and Application to Medicinal Chemistry in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:1716-1735. [PMID: 33844475 PMCID: PMC8251912 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
2,4-Thiazolidinedione (TZD) is a privileged and highly utilised scaffold for the development of pharmaceutically active compounds. This sulfur-containing heterocycle is a versatile pharmacophore that confers a diverse range of pharmacological activities. TZD has been shown to exhibit biological action towards a vast range of targets interesting to medicinal chemists. In this review, we attempt to provide insight into both the historical conventional and the use of novel methodologies to synthesise the TZD core framework. Further to this, synthetic procedures utilised to substitute the TZD molecule at the activated methylene C5 and N3 position are reviewed. Finally, research into developing clinical agents, which act as modulators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPARγ), protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) and aldose reductase 2 (ALR2), are discussed. These are the three most targeted receptors for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Long
- Department of Chemical & Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of ScienceEngineering & ComputingKingston University LondonPenrhyn RoadSurreyKT1 2EEUK
| | - Adam Le Gresley
- Department of Chemical & Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of ScienceEngineering & ComputingKingston University LondonPenrhyn RoadSurreyKT1 2EEUK
| | - Stephen P. Wren
- Department of Chemical & Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of ScienceEngineering & ComputingKingston University LondonPenrhyn RoadSurreyKT1 2EEUK
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12
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Mirzaei MS, Ivanov MV, Taherpour AA, Mirzaei S. Mechanism-Based Inactivation of Cytochrome P450 Enzymes: Computational Insights. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:959-987. [PMID: 33769041 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mechanism-based inactivation (MBI) refers to the metabolic bioactivation of a xenobiotic by cytochrome P450s to a highly reactive intermediate which subsequently binds to the enzyme and leads to the quasi-irreversible or irreversible inhibition. Xenobiotics, mainly drugs with specific functional units, are the major sources of MBI. Two possible consequences of MBI by medicinal compounds are drug-drug interaction and severe toxicity that are observed and highlighted by clinical experiments. Today almost all of these latent functional groups (e.g., thiophene, furan, alkylamines, etc.) are known, and their features and mechanisms of action, owing to the vast experimental and theoretical studies, are determined. In the past decade, molecular modeling techniques, mostly density functional theory, have revealed the most feasible mechanism that a drug undergoes by P450 enzymes to generate a highly reactive intermediate. In this review, we provide a comprehensive and detailed picture of computational advances toward the elucidation of the activation mechanisms of various known groups with MBI activity. To this aim, we briefly describe the computational concepts to carry out and analyze the mechanistic investigations, and then, we summarize the studies on compounds with known inhibition activity including thiophene, furan, alkylamines, terminal acetylene, etc. This study can be reference literature for both theoretical and experimental (bio)chemists in several different fields including rational drug design, the process of toxicity prevention, and the discovery of novel inhibitors and catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saeed Mirzaei
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 67149-67346
| | - Maxim V Ivanov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Avat Arman Taherpour
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 67149-67346.,Medical Biology Research Centre, University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran 67149-67346
| | - Saber Mirzaei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
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Zhang X, Zhu B, Guo L, Bakaj I, Rankin M, Ho G, Kauffman J, Lee SP, Norquay L, Macielag MJ. Discovery of a Novel Series of Pyridone-Based EP3 Antagonists for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:451-458. [PMID: 33738072 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel series of pyridones were discovered as potent EP3 antagonists. Optimization guided by EP3 binding and functional assays as well as by eADME and PK profiling led to multiple compounds with good physical properties, excellent oral bioavailability, and a clean in vitro safety profile. Compound 13 was identified as a lead compound as evidenced by the reversal of sulprostone-induced suppression of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in INS 1E β-cells in vitro and in a rat ivGTT model in vivo. A glutathione adduction liability was eliminated by replacing the naphthalene of structure 13 with the indazole ring of structure 43.
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14
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Serras AS, Rodrigues JS, Cipriano M, Rodrigues AV, Oliveira NG, Miranda JP. A Critical Perspective on 3D Liver Models for Drug Metabolism and Toxicology Studies. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:626805. [PMID: 33732695 PMCID: PMC7957963 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.626805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The poor predictability of human liver toxicity is still causing high attrition rates of drug candidates in the pharmaceutical industry at the non-clinical, clinical, and post-marketing authorization stages. This is in part caused by animal models that fail to predict various human adverse drug reactions (ADRs), resulting in undetected hepatotoxicity at the non-clinical phase of drug development. In an effort to increase the prediction of human hepatotoxicity, different approaches to enhance the physiological relevance of hepatic in vitro systems are being pursued. Three-dimensional (3D) or microfluidic technologies allow to better recapitulate hepatocyte organization and cell-matrix contacts, to include additional cell types, to incorporate fluid flow and to create gradients of oxygen and nutrients, which have led to improved differentiated cell phenotype and functionality. This comprehensive review addresses the drug-induced hepatotoxicity mechanisms and the currently available 3D liver in vitro models, their characteristics, as well as their advantages and limitations for human hepatotoxicity assessment. In addition, since toxic responses are greatly dependent on the culture model, a comparative analysis of the toxicity studies performed using two-dimensional (2D) and 3D in vitro strategies with recognized hepatotoxic compounds, such as paracetamol, diclofenac, and troglitazone is performed, further highlighting the need for harmonization of the respective characterization methods. Finally, taking a step forward, we propose a roadmap for the assessment of drugs hepatotoxicity based on fully characterized fit-for-purpose in vitro models, taking advantage of the best of each model, which will ultimately contribute to more informed decision-making in the drug development and risk assessment fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana S. Serras
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana S. Rodrigues
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Madalena Cipriano
- Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Armanda V. Rodrigues
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nuno G. Oliveira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana P. Miranda
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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15
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Human Family 1-4 cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the metabolic activation of xenobiotic and physiological chemicals: an update. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:395-472. [PMID: 33459808 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02971-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This is an overview of the metabolic activation of drugs, natural products, physiological compounds, and general chemicals by the catalytic activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes belonging to Families 1-4. The data were collected from > 5152 references. The total number of data entries of reactions catalyzed by P450s Families 1-4 was 7696 of which 1121 (~ 15%) were defined as bioactivation reactions of different degrees. The data were divided into groups of General Chemicals, Drugs, Natural Products, and Physiological Compounds, presented in tabular form. The metabolism and bioactivation of selected examples of each group are discussed. In most of the cases, the metabolites are directly toxic chemicals reacting with cell macromolecules, but in some cases the metabolites formed are not direct toxicants but participate as substrates in succeeding metabolic reactions (e.g., conjugation reactions), the products of which are final toxicants. We identified a high level of activation for three groups of compounds (General Chemicals, Drugs, and Natural Products) yielding activated metabolites and the generally low participation of Physiological Compounds in bioactivation reactions. In the group of General Chemicals, P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 dominate in the formation of activated metabolites. Drugs are mostly activated by the enzyme P450 3A4, and Natural Products by P450s 1A2, 2E1, and 3A4. Physiological Compounds showed no clearly dominant enzyme, but the highest numbers of activations are attributed to P450 1A, 1B1, and 3A enzymes. The results thus show, perhaps not surprisingly, that Physiological Compounds are infrequent substrates in bioactivation reactions catalyzed by P450 enzyme Families 1-4, with the exception of estrogens and arachidonic acid. The results thus provide information on the enzymes that activate specific groups of chemicals to toxic metabolites.
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16
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Guengerich FP. A history of the roles of cytochrome P450 enzymes in the toxicity of drugs. Toxicol Res 2021; 37:1-23. [PMID: 32837681 PMCID: PMC7431904 DOI: 10.1007/s43188-020-00056-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The history of drug metabolism began in the 19th Century and developed slowly. In the mid-20th Century the relationship between drug metabolism and toxicity became appreciated, and the roles of cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes began to be defined in the 1960s. Today we understand much about the metabolism of drugs and many aspects of safety assessment in the context of a relatively small number of human P450s. P450s affect drug toxicity mainly by either reducing exposure to the parent molecule or, in some cases, by converting the drug into a toxic entity. Some of the factors involved are enzyme induction, enzyme inhibition (both reversible and irreversible), and pharmacogenetics. Issues related to drug toxicity include drug-drug interactions, drug-food interactions, and the roles of chemical moieties of drug candidates in drug discovery and development. The maturation of the field of P450 and drug toxicity has been facilitated by advances in analytical chemistry, computational capability, biochemistry and enzymology, and molecular and cell biology. Problems still arise with P450s and drug toxicity in drug discovery and development, and in the pharmaceutical industry the interaction of scientists in medicinal chemistry, drug metabolism, and safety assessment is critical for success.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 638B Robinson Research Building, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, TN 37232-0146 USA
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17
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Bandookwala M, Nemani KS, Chatterjee B, Sengupta P. Reactive Metabolites: Generation and Estimation with Electrochemistry Based Analytical Strategy as an Emerging Screening Tool. CURR ANAL CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1573411016666200131154202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Analytical scientists have constantly been in search for more efficient and
economical methods for drug simulation studies. Owing to great progress in this field, there are various
techniques available nowadays that mimic drug metabolism in the hepatic microenvironment.
The conventional in vitro and in vivo studies pose inherent methodological drawbacks due to which
alternative analytical approaches are devised for different drug metabolism experiments.
Methods:
Electrochemistry has gained attention due to its benefits over conventional metabolism
studies. Because of the protein binding nature of reactive metabolites, it is difficult to identify them
directly after formation, although the use of trapping agents aids in their successful identification.
Furthermore, various scientific reports confirmed the successful simulation of drug metabolism studies
by electrochemical cells. Electrochemical cells coupled with chromatography and mass spectrometry
made it easy for direct detection of reactive metabolites. In this review, an insight into the application
of electrochemical techniques for metabolism simulation studies has been provided. The sole
use of electrochemical cells, as well as their setups on coupling to liquid chromatography and mass
spectrometry has been discussed. The importance of metabolism prediction in early drug discovery
and development stages along with a brief overview of other conventional methods has also been
highlighted.
Conclusion:
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first article to review the electrochemistry
based strategy for the analysis of reactive metabolites. The outcome of this ‘first of its kind’ review
will significantly help the researchers in the application of electrochemistry based bioanalysis for metabolite
detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bandookwala
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) - Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Kavya Sri Nemani
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) - Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Bappaditya Chatterjee
- Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management (SPPSPTM), NMIMS University, Mumbai, India
| | - Pinaki Sengupta
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) - Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
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18
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Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a leading cause of attrition during the early and late stages of drug development and after a drug is marketed. DILI is generally classified as either intrinsic or idiosyncratic. Intrinsic DILI is dose dependent and predictable (e.g., acetaminophen toxicity). However, predicting the occurrence of idiosyncratic DILI, which has a very low incidence and is associated with severe liver damage, is difficult because of its complex nature and the poor understanding of its mechanism. Considering drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics, we established experimental animal models of DILI for 14 clinical drugs that cause idiosyncratic DILI in humans, which is characterized by the formation of reactive metabolites and the involvement of both innate and adaptive immunity. On the basis of the biomarker data obtained from the animal models, we developed a cell-based assay system that predicts the potential risks of drugs for inducing DILI. These findings increase our understanding of the mechanisms of DILI and may help predict and prevent idiosyncratic DILI due to certain drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Yokoi
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan;
| | - Shingo Oda
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan;
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19
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Jaladanki CK, Gahlawat A, Rathod G, Sandhu H, Jahan K, Bharatam PV. Mechanistic studies on the drug metabolism and toxicity originating from cytochromes P450. Drug Metab Rev 2020; 52:366-394. [DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2020.1765792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaitanya K. Jaladanki
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
| | - Anuj Gahlawat
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
| | - Gajanan Rathod
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
| | - Hardeep Sandhu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
| | - Kousar Jahan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
| | - Prasad V. Bharatam
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar, Punjab, India
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20
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Fromenty B. Inhibition of mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation in drug-induced hepatic steatosis. LIVER RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livres.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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21
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Abstract
Cumulative research over several decades has implicated the involvement of reactive metabolites in many idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions (IADRs). Consequently, "avoidance" strategies have been inserted into drug discovery paradigms, which include the exclusion of structural alerts and possible termination of reactive metabolite-positive compounds. Several noteworthy examples where reactive metabolite-related liabilities have been resolved through structure-metabolism studies are presented herein. Considerable progress has also been made in addressing the limitations of the avoidance strategy and further refining the process of managing reactive metabolite issues in drug development. These efforts primarily stemmed from the observation that numerous drugs, which contain structural alerts and/or form reactive metabolites, are devoid of ADRs. The Perspective also dwells into an analysis of the structural alert/reactive metabolite concept with a discussion of risk mitigation tactics to support the progression of reactive metabolite-positive drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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22
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Padilha EC, Wang J, Kerns E, Lee A, Huang W, Jiang JK, McKew J, Mutlib A, Peccinini RG, Yu PB, Sanderson P, Xu X. Application of in vitro Drug Metabolism Studies in Chemical Structure Optimization for the Treatment of Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP). Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:234. [PMID: 31068801 PMCID: PMC6491728 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently no approved treatment exists for fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) patients, and disease progression results in severe restriction of joint function and premature mortality. LDN-193189 has been demonstrated to be efficacious in a mouse FOP disease model after oral administration. To support species selection for drug safety evaluation and to guide structure optimization for back-up compounds, in vitro metabolism of LDN-193189 was investigated in liver microsome and cytosol fractions of mouse, rat, dog, rabbit, monkey and human. Metabolism studies included analysis of reactive intermediate formation using glutathione and potassium cyanide (KCN) and analysis of non-P450 mediated metabolites in cytosol fractions of various species. Metabolite profiles and metabolic soft spots of LDN-193189 were elucidated using LC/UV and mass spectral techniques. The in vitro metabolism of LDN-193189 was significantly dependent on aldehyde oxidase, with formation of the major NIH-Q55 metabolite. The piperazinyl moiety of LDN-193189 was liable to NADPH-dependent metabolism which generated reactive iminium intermediates, as confirmed through KCN trapping experiments, and aniline metabolites (M337 and M380), which brought up potential drug safety concerns. Subsequently, strategies were employed to avoid metabolic liabilities leading to the synthesis of Compounds 1, 2, and 3. This study demonstrated the importance of metabolite identification for the discovery of novel and safe drug candidates for the treatment of FOP and helped medicinal chemists steer away from potential metabolic liabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias C Padilha
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States.,Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Jianyao Wang
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research and Development, Spring House, PA, United States.,Frontage Laboratories, Inc., Department of Drug Metabolism, Exton, PA, United States
| | - Ed Kerns
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Arthur Lee
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Wenwei Huang
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Jian-Kang Jiang
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - John McKew
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Abdul Mutlib
- Frontage Laboratories, Inc., Department of Drug Metabolism, Exton, PA, United States
| | - Rosangela G Peccinini
- Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Paul B Yu
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Philip Sanderson
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Xin Xu
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
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23
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Hurrell T, Lilley KS, Cromarty AD. Proteomic responses of HepG2 cell monolayers and 3D spheroids to selected hepatotoxins. Toxicol Lett 2019; 300:40-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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24
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Segawa M, Sekine S, Sato T, Ito K. Increased susceptibility to troglitazone-induced mitochondrial permeability transition in type 2 diabetes mellitus model rat. J Toxicol Sci 2018; 43:339-351. [PMID: 29743445 DOI: 10.2131/jts.43.339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Troglitazone, a member of the thiazolidinedione class of antidiabetic drugs, was withdrawn from the market because it causes severe liver injury. One of the mechanisms for this adverse effect is thought to be mitochondrial toxicity. To investigate the characteristics of troglitazone-induced liver toxicity in more depth, the toxicological effects of troglitazone on hepatocytes and liver mitochondria were investigated using a rat model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Troglitazone was found to increase mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) in the liver mitochondria of diabetic rats to a greater extent than in control rats, whereas mitochondrial membrane potential and oxidative phosphorylation were not affected. To identify the factors associated with this increase in susceptibility to MPT in diabetic rats, we assessed the oxidative status of the liver mitochondria and found a decrease in mitochondrial glutathione content and an increase in phospholipid peroxidation. Moreover, incorporation of oxidized cardiolipin, a mitochondrion-specific phospholipid, was involved in the troglitazone-induced alteration in susceptibility to MPT. In conclusion, liver mitochondria display disease-associated mitochondrial lipid peroxidation in T2DM, which facilitates the higher susceptibility to troglitazone-induced MPT. Thus, greater susceptibility of liver mitochondria may be a host factor leading to troglitazone-induced hepatotoxicity in T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Segawa
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University.,Department of Investigative Toxicology, Nonclinical Research Center, Tokushima Research Institute, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd
| | - Shuichi Sekine
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
| | - Tomoyuki Sato
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
| | - Kousei Ito
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
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25
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Futuro DO, Ferreira PG, Nicoletti CD, Borba-Santos LP, Silva FCDA, Rozental S, Ferreira VF. The Antifungal Activity of Naphthoquinones: An Integrative Review. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2018; 90:1187-1214. [PMID: 29873671 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201820170815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Naphthoquinones are the most commonly occurring type of quinones in nature. They are a diverse family of secondary metabolites that occur naturally in plants, lichens and various microorganisms. This subgroup is constantly being expanded through the discovery of new natural products and by the synthesis of new compounds via innovative techniques. Interest in quinones and the search for new biological activities within the members of this class have intensified in recent years, as evidenced by the evaluation of the potential antimicrobial activities of quinones. Among fungi of medical interest, yeasts of the genus Candida are of extreme importance due to their high frequency of colonization and infection in humans. The objective of this review is to describe the development of naphthoquinones as antifungals for the treatment of Candida species and to note the most promising compounds. By using certain criteria for selection of publications, 68 reports involving both synthetic and natural naphthoquinones are discussed. The activities of a large number of substances were evaluated against Candida albicans as well as against 7 other species of the genus Candida. The results discussed in this review allowed the identification of 30 naphthoquinones with higher antifungal activities than those of the currently used drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora O Futuro
- Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Patricia G Ferreira
- PPGCAPS, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Caroline D Nicoletti
- PPGCAPS, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Luana P Borba-Santos
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernando C DA Silva
- Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sonia Rozental
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vitor Francisco Ferreira
- Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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26
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Claesson A, Minidis A. Systematic Approach to Organizing Structural Alerts for Reactive Metabolite Formation from Potential Drugs. Chem Res Toxicol 2018; 31:389-411. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alf Claesson
- Awametox AB, Lilldalsvägen 17 A, SE-14461 Rönninge, Sweden
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27
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Campos ML, Cerqueira LB, Silva BCU, Franchin TB, Galdino-Pitta MR, Pitta IR, Peccinini RG, Pontarolo R. New Pioglitazone Metabolites and Absence of Opened-Ring Metabolites in New N-Substituted Thiazolidinedione. Drug Metab Dispos 2018; 46:879-887. [PMID: 29618574 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.117.079012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus; however, several safety concerns remain regarding the available drugs in this class. Therefore, the search for new TZD candidates is ongoing; metabolism studies play a crucial step in the development of new candidates. Pioglitazone, one of the most commonly used TZDs, and GQ-11, a new N-substituted TZD, were investigated in terms of their metabolic activity in rat and human liver microsomes to assess their metabolic stability and investigate their metabolites. Methods for preparation of samples were based on liquid-liquid extraction and protein precipitation. Quantitation was performed using liquid chromatography (LC)-tandem mass spectrometry, and the metabolite investigation was performed using ultraperformance LC coupled to a hybrid quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometer. The predicted intrinsic clearance of GQ-11 was 70.3 and 46.1 ml/kg per minute for rats and humans, respectively. The predicted intrinsic clearance of pioglitazone was 24.1 and 15.9 ml/kg per minute for rats and humans, respectively. The pioglitazone metabolite investigation revealed two unpublished metabolites (M-D and M-A). M-A is a hydration product and may be related to the mechanism of ring opening and the toxicity of pioglitazone. The metabolites of GQ-11 are products of oxidation; no ring-opening metabolite was observed for GQ-11. In conclusion, under the same experimental conditions, a ring-opening metabolite was observed only for pioglitazone. The resistance of GQ-11 to the ring opening is probably related to N-substitution in the TZD ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Leandro Campos
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Letícia Bonancio Cerqueira
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Bruna Cristina Ulian Silva
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Taísa Busaranho Franchin
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Marina Rocha Galdino-Pitta
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Ivan Rocha Pitta
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Rosângela Gonçalves Peccinini
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
| | - Roberto Pontarolo
- Department of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (M.L.C., L.B.C., R.P.); Department of Natural Active Principles and Toxicology, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, São Paulo University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (B.C.U.S., T.B.F., R.G.P.); and Laboratory of Design and Drug Synthesis, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil (M.R.G.-P., I.R.P.)
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28
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Ware BR, McVay M, Sunada WY, Khetani SR. Exploring Chronic Drug Effects on Microengineered Human Liver Cultures Using Global Gene Expression Profiling. Toxicol Sci 2018; 157:387-398. [PMID: 28369597 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfx059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Global gene expression profiling is useful for elucidating a drug's mechanism of action on the liver; however, such profiling in rats is not very sensitive for predicting human drug-induced liver injury, while dedifferentiated monolayers of primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) do not permit chronic drug treatment. In contrast, micropatterned cocultures (MPCCs) containing PHH colonies and 3T3-J2 fibroblasts maintain a stable liver phenotype for 4-6 weeks. Here, we used MPCCs to test the hypothesis that global gene expression patterns in stable PHHs can be used to distinguish clinical hepatotoxic drugs from their non-liver-toxic analogs and understand the mechanism of action prior to the onset of overt hepatotoxicity. We found that MPCCs treated with the clinical hepatotoxic/non-liver-toxic pair, troglitazone/rosiglitazone, at each drug's reported and non-toxic Cmax (maximum concentration in human plasma) for 1, 7, and 14 days displayed a total of 12, 269, and 628 differentially expressed genes, respectively, relative to the vehicle-treated control. Troglitazone modulated >75% of transcripts across pathways such as fatty acid and drug metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and complement/coagulation cascades. Escalating rosiglitazone's dose to that of troglitazone's Cmax increased modulated transcripts relative to the lower dose; however, over half the identified transcripts were still exclusively modulated by troglitazone. Last, other hepatotoxins (nefazodone, ibufenac, and tolcapone) also induced a greater number of differentially expressed genes in MPCCs than their non-liver-toxic analogs (buspirone, ibuprofen, and entacapone) following 7 days of treatment. In conclusion, MPCCs allow evaluation of time- and dose-dependent gene expression patterns in PHHs treated chronically with analog drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenton R Ware
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | - Wendy Y Sunada
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Salman R Khetani
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Norman BH, Fisher MJ, Schiffler MA, Kuklish SL, Hughes NE, Czeskis BA, Cassidy KC, Abraham TL, Alberts JJ, Luffer-Atlas D. Identification and Mitigation of Reactive Metabolites of 2-Aminoimidazole-Containing Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase-1 Inhibitors Terminated Due to Clinical Drug-Induced Liver Injury. J Med Chem 2018; 61:2041-2051. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Xu J, Oda S, Yokoi T. Cell-based assay using glutathione-depleted HepaRG and HepG2 human liver cells for predicting drug-induced liver injury. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 48:286-301. [PMID: 29407385 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Immortalized liver cells have been used for evaluating the toxicity of compounds; however, excessive glutathione is considered to lessen cytotoxicity. In this study, we compared the effects of glutathione depletion on cytotoxicities of drugs using HepaRG and HepG2 cells, which express and lack drug-metabolizing enzymes, respectively, for predicting drug-induced liver injury (DILI) risks. These cells were pre-incubated with L-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine (BSO) and then exposed to 34 test compounds with various DILI risks for 24 h. ATP level exhibited the highest predictability of DILI among tested parameters. BSO treatment rendered cells susceptible to drug-induced cytotoxicity when evaluated by cell viability and caspase 3/7 activity with the sensitivity of cell viability from 50% in non-treated HepaRG cells to 71% in BSO-treated HepaRG cells. These results indicate that cytotoxicity assays using GSH-depleted HepaRG cells improve the predictability of DILI risks. However, HepaRG cells were not always superior to HepG2 cells when assessed by ATP level. The combination of HepG2 and HepaRG cells index produced the best prediction in the cases of caspase 3/7 acitivity and ATP level. In conclusions, the developed highly sensitive cell-based assay using GSH-reduced cells would be useful for predicting potential DILI risks at an early stage of drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieyu Xu
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Shingo Oda
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Yokoi
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan.
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31
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Birringer M, Siems K, Maxones A, Frank J, Lorkowski S. Natural 6-hydroxy-chromanols and -chromenols: structural diversity, biosynthetic pathways and health implications. RSC Adv 2018; 8:4803-4841. [PMID: 35539527 PMCID: PMC9078042 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra11819h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
We present the first comprehensive and systematic review on the structurally diverse toco-chromanols and -chromenols found in photosynthetic organisms, including marine organisms, and as metabolic intermediates in animals. The focus of this work is on the structural diversity of chromanols and chromenols that result from various side chain modifications. We describe more than 230 structures that derive from a 6-hydroxy-chromanol- and 6-hydroxy-chromenol core, respectively, and comprise di-, sesqui-, mono- and hemiterpenes. We assort the compounds into a structure-activity relationship with special emphasis on anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic activities of the congeners. This review covers the literature published from 1970 to 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Birringer
- Department of Nutritional, Food and Consumer Sciences, Fulda University of Applied Sciences Leipziger Straße 123 36037 Fulda Germany
| | - Karsten Siems
- AnalytiCon Discovery GmbH Hermannswerder Haus 17 14473 Potsdam Germany
| | - Alexander Maxones
- Department of Nutritional, Food and Consumer Sciences, Fulda University of Applied Sciences Leipziger Straße 123 36037 Fulda Germany
| | - Jan Frank
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Nutrition, University of Hohenheim Garbenstr. 28 70599 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Stefan Lorkowski
- Institute of Nutrition, Friedrich Schiller University Jena Dornburger Str. 25 07743 Jena Germany
- Competence Cluster for Nutrition and Cardiovascular Health (nutriCARD), Halle-Jena-Leipzig Germany
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32
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FUTURO DÉBORAO, FERREIRA PATRICIAG, NICOLETTI CAROLINED, BORBA-SANTOS LUANAP, SILVA FERNANDOCDA, ROZENTAL SONIA, FERREIRA VITORFRANCISCO. The Antifungal Activity of Naphthoquinones: An Integrative Review. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201820170815 pmid: 29873671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Whitby LR, Obach RS, Simon GM, Hayward MM, Cravatt BF. Quantitative Chemical Proteomic Profiling of the in Vivo Targets of Reactive Drug Metabolites. ACS Chem Biol 2017. [PMID: 28636309 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Idiosyncratic liver toxicity represents an important problem in drug research and pharmacotherapy. Reactive drug metabolites that modify proteins are thought to be a principal factor in drug-induced liver injury. Here, we describe a quantitative chemical proteomic method to identify the targets of reactive drug metabolites in vivo. Treating mice with clickable analogues of four representative hepatotoxic drugs, we demonstrate extensive covalent binding that is confined primarily to the liver. Each drug exhibited a distinct target profile that, in certain cases, showed strong enrichment for specific metabolic pathways (e.g., lipid/sterol pathways for troglitazone). Site-specific proteomics revealed that acetaminophen reacts with high stoichiometry with several conserved, functional (seleno)cysteine residues throughout the liver proteome. Our findings thus provide an advanced experimental framework to characterize the proteomic reactivity of drug metabolites in vivo, revealing target profiles that may help to explain mechanisms and identify risk factors for drug-induced liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landon R. Whitby
- The
Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, California 92307, United States
| | - R. Scott Obach
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Gabriel M. Simon
- Vividion Therapeutics, 3033 Science
Park Rd Suite D, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Matthew M. Hayward
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Benjamin F. Cravatt
- The
Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, California 92307, United States
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Hosseini A, Salman M, Zhou Z, Drackley JK, Trevisi E, Loor JJ. Level of dietary energy and 2,4-thiazolidinedione alter molecular and systemic biomarkers of inflammation and liver function in Holstein cows. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2017; 8:64. [PMID: 28781774 PMCID: PMC5537929 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-017-0196-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of overfeeding a moderate energy diet and a 2,4-thiazolidinedione (TZD) injection on blood and hepatic tissue biomarkers of lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation as it relates to insulin sensitivity. Results Fourteen dry non-pregnant cows were fed a control (CON) diet to meet 100% of NRC requirements for 3 wk, after which half of the cows were assigned to a moderate-energy diet (OVE) and half of the cows continued on CON for 6 wk. All cows received an intravenous injection of 4 mg TZD/kg of body weight (BW) daily from 2 wk after initiation of dietary treatments and for 2 additional week. Compared with CON cows and before TZD treatment, the OVE cows had lower concentration of total protein, urea and albumin over time. The concentration of cholesterol and tocopherol was greater after 2 wk of TZD regardless of diet. Before and after TZD, the OVE cows had greater concentrations of AST/GOT, while concentrations of paraoxonase, total protein, globulin, myeloperoxidase, and haptoglobin were lower compared with CON cows. Regardless of diet, TZD administration increased the concentration of ceruloplasmin, ROMt, cholesterol, tocopherol, total protein, globulin, myeloperoxidase and beta-carotene. In contrast, the concentration of haptoglobin decreased at the end of TZD injection regardless of diet. Prior to TZD injection, the mRNA expression of PC, ANGPTL4, FGF21, INSR, ACOX1, and PPARD in liver of OVE cows was lower compared with CON cows. In contrast, the expression of HMGCS2 was greater in OVE compared with CON cows. After 1 wk of TZD administration the expression of IRS1 decreased regardless of diet; whereas, expression of INSR increased after 2 wk of TZD injection. Cows fed OVE had lower overall expression of TNF, INSR, PC, ACOX1, FGF21, and PPARD but greater HMGCS2 expression. These differences were most evident before and after 1 wk of TZD injection, and by 2 wk of TZD differences in expression for most genes disappeared. Conclusions Based on molecular and blood data, administration of TZD enhanced some aspects of insulin sensitivity while causing contradictory results in terms of inflammation and oxidative stress. The bovine liver is TZD-responsive and level of dietary energy can modify the effects of TZD. Because insulin sensitizers have been proposed as useful tools to manage dairy cows during the transition period, further studies are required to investigate the potential hepatotoxicity effect of TZD (or similar compounds) in dairy cattle. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40104-017-0196-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshin Hosseini
- Department of Animal Sciences and Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, 1207 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
| | - Mustafa Salman
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, University of Ondokuz Mayıs, 55139 Samsun, Turkey
| | - Zheng Zhou
- Department of Animal Sciences and Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, 1207 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
| | - James K Drackley
- Department of Animal Sciences and Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, 1207 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
| | - Erminio Trevisi
- Istituto di Zootecnica, Facoltà di Scienze Agrarie Alimentari ed Ambientali, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - Juan J Loor
- Department of Animal Sciences and Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, 1207 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801 USA
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Kim E, Nam H. Prediction models for drug-induced hepatotoxicity by using weighted molecular fingerprints. BMC Bioinformatics 2017; 18:227. [PMID: 28617228 PMCID: PMC5471939 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-017-1638-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a critical issue in drug development because DILI causes failures in clinical trials and the withdrawal of approved drugs from the market. There have been many attempts to predict the risk of DILI based on in vivo and in silico identification of hepatotoxic compounds. In the current study, we propose the in silico prediction model predicting DILI using weighted molecular fingerprints. Results In this study, we used 881 bits of molecular fingerprint and used as features describing presence or absence of each substructure of compounds. Then, the Bayesian probability of each substructure was calculated and labeled (positive or negative for DILI), and a weighted fingerprint was determined from the ratio of DILI-positive to DILI-negative probability values. Using weighted fingerprint features, the prediction models were trained and evaluated with the Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithms. The constructed models yielded accuracies of 73.8% and 72.6%, AUCs of 0.791 and 0.768 in cross-validation. In independent tests, models achieved accuracies of 60.1% and 61.1% for RF and SVM, respectively. The results validated that weighted features helped increase overall performance of prediction models. The constructed models were further applied to the prediction of natural compounds in herbs to identify DILI potential, and 13,996 unique herbal compounds were predicted as DILI-positive with the SVM model. Conclusions The prediction models with weighted features increased the performance compared to non-weighted models. Moreover, we predicted the DILI potential of herbs with the best performed model, and the prediction results suggest that many herbal compounds could have potential to be DILI. We can thus infer that taking natural products without detailed references about the relevant pathways may be dangerous. Considering the frequency of use of compounds in natural herbs and their increased application in drug development, DILI labeling would be very important. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-017-1638-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunyoung Kim
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Hojung Nam
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea.
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Luczak E, Wieczfinska J, Sokolowska M, Pniewska E, Luczynska D, Pawliczak R. Troglitazone, a PPAR-γ agonist, decreases LTC 4 concentration in mononuclear cells in patients with asthma. Pharmacol Rep 2017; 69:1315-1321. [PMID: 29128815 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asthma is an inflammatory disorder with multiple mediators involved in the inflammatory response. Despite several attempts, no new anti-inflammatory drugs have been registered for asthma treatment for several years. However, thiazolidinediones, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists, have demonstrated some anti-inflammatory properties in various experimental settings. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of troglitazone on LTC4 and 15-HETE concentrations. It also evaluates TNF-induced eotaxin synthesis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 14 patients with mild asthma and 13 healthy controls. METHODS PBMCs were isolated from the whole blood of the asthmatics and healthy subjects and pretreated with 0.1, 1 or 10μM of Troglitazone. The cells were then exposed to 10-6M calcium jonophore or 10ng/ml TNF. The production and release of LTC4, 15-HETE and eotaxin were then assessed. RESULTS Troglitazone caused a dose-dependent inhibition in LTC4 synthesis in both asthmatics and healthy subjects. Troglitazone did not influence 15-HETE or eotaxin production in either asthmatic patients or in healthy individuals. CONCLUSION Due to its inhibition of LTC4 synthesis, troglitazone therapy is an interesting potential therapeutic approach in asthma and other LTC4 related inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Luczak
- Department of Immunopathology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | | | - Milena Sokolowska
- Department of Immunopathology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland; Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Ewa Pniewska
- Department of Immunopathology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Daria Luczynska
- Department of Immunopathology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Rafał Pawliczak
- Department of Immunopathology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland.
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Ogimura E, Nakagawa T, Deguchi J, Sekine S, Ito K, Bando K. Troglitazone Inhibits Bile Acid Amidation: A Possible Risk Factor for Liver Injury. Toxicol Sci 2017; 158:347-355. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfx091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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38
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Dixit VA, Deshpande S. Advances in Computational Prediction of Regioselective and Isoform-Specific Drug Metabolism Catalyzed by CYP450s. ChemistrySelect 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201601051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav A. Dixit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; School of Pharmacy and Technology Management (SPTM), Shri Vile Parle Kelavani Mandal's (SVKM's) Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Mukesh Patel Technology Park, Babulde, Bank of Tapi River; Mumbai-Agra Road Shirpur, Dist. Dhule−425405 India
| | - Shirish Deshpande
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; School of Pharmacy and Technology Management (SPTM), Shri Vile Parle Kelavani Mandal's (SVKM's) Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Mukesh Patel Technology Park, Babulde, Bank of Tapi River; Mumbai-Agra Road Shirpur, Dist. Dhule−425405 India
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Woodhead JL, Watkins PB, Howell BA, Siler SQ, Shoda LKM. The role of quantitative systems pharmacology modeling in the prediction and explanation of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2016; 32:40-45. [PMID: 28129975 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (iDILI) is a serious concern in drug development. The rarity and multifactorial nature of iDILI makes it difficult to predict and explain. Recently, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) allele associations have provided strong support for a role of an adaptive immune response in the pathogenesis of many iDILI cases; however, it is likely that an adaptive immune attack requires several preceding events. Quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP), an in silico modeling technique that leverages known physiology and the results of in vitro experiments in order to make predictions about how drugs affect biological processes, is proposed as a potentially useful tool for predicting and explaining critical events that likely precede immune-mediated iDILI, as well as the immune attack itself. DILIsym, a QSP platform for drug-induced liver injury, has demonstrated success in predicting the presence of delayed hepatocellular stress events that likely precede the iDILI cascade, and has successfully predicted hepatocellular stress likely underlying iDILI attributed to troglitazone and tolvaptan. The incorporation of a model of the adaptive immune system into DILIsym would represent and important advance. In summary, QSP methods can play a key role in the future prediction and understanding of both immune-mediated and non-immune-mediated iDILI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Woodhead
- DILIsym Services, Inc., 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Paul B Watkins
- Institute for Drug Safety Sciences, UNC-Eshelman School of Pharmacy, 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Brett A Howell
- DILIsym Services, Inc., 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Scott Q Siler
- DILIsym Services, Inc., 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Lisl K M Shoda
- DILIsym Services, Inc., 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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40
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Gan J, Ma S, Zhang D. Non-cytochrome P450-mediated bioactivation and its toxicological relevance. Drug Metab Rev 2016; 48:473-501. [DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2016.1225756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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41
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Lee DW, Oh WY, Yi SH, Ku B, Lee MY, Cho YH, Yang M. Estimation of bisphenol A—Human toxicity by 3D cell culture arrays, high throughput alternatives to animal tests. Toxicol Lett 2016; 259:87-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.07.711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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42
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Rana P, Will Y, Nadanaciva S, Jones LH. Development of a cell viability assay to assess drug metabolite structure-toxicity relationships. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:4003-6. [PMID: 27397500 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.06.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Many adverse drug reactions are caused by the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent activation of drugs into reactive metabolites. In order to reduce attrition due to metabolism-induced toxicity and to improve the safety of drug candidates, we developed a simple cell viability assay by combining a bioactivation system (human CYP3A4, CYP2D6 and CYP2C9) with Hep3B cells. We screened a series of drugs to explore structural motifs that may be responsible for CYP450-dependent activation caused by reactive metabolite formation, which highlighted specific liabilities regarding certain phenols and anilines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payal Rana
- Drug Safety Research & Development, Pfizer, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Yvonne Will
- Drug Safety Research & Development, Pfizer, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Sashi Nadanaciva
- Compound Safety Prediction, Pfizer, Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Lyn H Jones
- Medicine Design, Pfizer, 610 Main St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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Abstract
Overt hepatotoxicity due to drug administration is a real and present issue in drug development and regulatory circles. Preclinical drug development is intended to identify potential risks and target tissues prior to introduction of new molecular entities into the human population. The standard regimen is testing at various multiples of the intended human therapeutic dose in at least 2 species of animals, one rodent (rats or mice), one non-rodent (dogs, nonhuman primates, minipigs, and rabbits, as examples) for at least two weeks of repeated dosing. Experience has shown that this regimen “works” most of the time. However, preclinical models are not infallible and are not always predictive. Whether the lack of predictivity is due to individual human genetic sensitivities, immunologically mediated phenomena, disease mediation or idiosyncratic reactions, the animal models are limited in detecting these characteristics and other low incidence phenomena. While it is uncommon for drug developers to continue development with products that elicit overt hepatic toxicity early in the animal testing, some products have made it through the approval process and then shown significant adverse effects. Some of the drugs (acetaminophen, isoniazid, trovafloxacin, troglitazone, bromfenac, clarithromycin, telithromycin) that have shown this propensity will be discussed in detail from early preclinical development to marketing and, in some instances, to limitations to usage or removal from the U.S. marketplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry S Peters
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland 20857, USA.
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44
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Abstract
Animal experiments cannot predict the probability of idiosyncratic drug toxicity; consequently, an important goal of the pharmaceutical industry is to develop a new methodology for preventing this form of drug reaction. Although the mechanism remains unclear, immune reactions are likely involved in the toxic processes underlying idiosyncratic drug toxicity: the drug is first activated into a chemically reactive metabolite that binds covalently to proteins and then acts as an immunogen. Therefore, screening tests to detect chemically reactive metabolites are conducted early during drug development and typically involve trapping with glutathione. More quantitative methods are then used in a later stage of drug development and frequently employ (14)Cor (3)H-labeled compounds. It has recently been demonstrated that a zone classification system can be used to separate risky drugs from likely safe drugs: by plotting the amount of each protein-bound reactive metabolite in vitro against the dose levels in vivo, the risk associated with each drug candidate can be assessed. A mechanism for idiosyncratic drug-induced hepatotoxicity was proposed by analogy to virus-induced hepatitis, in which cytotoxic T lymphocytes play an important role. This mechanism suggests that polymorphism in human leukocyte antigens is involved in idiosyncrasy, and a strong correlation with a specific genotype of human leukocyte antigens has been found in many cases of idiosyncratic drug toxicity. Therefore, gene biomarkers hold promise for reducing the clinical risk and prolonging the life cycle of otherwise useful drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiko Ikeda
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Yokohama College of Pharmacy
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Nassar AEF, Wisnewski AV, King I. Biotransformation and Rearrangement of Laromustine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 44:1349-63. [PMID: 27278961 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.116.069823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the recent research into the biotransformations and rearrangement of the sulfonylhydrazine-alkylating agent laromustine. Incubation of [(14)C]laromustine with rat, dog, monkey, and human liver microsomes produced eight radioactive components (C-1 to C-8). There was little difference in the metabolite profile among the species examined, partly because NADPH was not required for the formation of most components, which instead involved decomposition and/or hydrolysis. The exception was C-7, a hydroxylated metabolite, largely formed by CYP2B6 and CYP3A4/5. Liquid chromatography-multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)) studies determined that collision-induced dissociation, and not biotransformation or enzyme catalysis, produced the unique mass spectral rearrangement. Accurate mass measurements performed with a Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer (FTICR-MS) significantly aided determination of the elemental compositions of the fragments and in the case of laromustine revealed the possibility of rearrangement. Further, collision-induced dissociation produced the loss of nitrogen (N2) and methylsulfonyl and methyl isocyanate moieties. The rearrangement, metabolite/decomposition products, and conjugation reactions were analyzed utilizing hydrogen-deuterium exchange, exact mass, (13)C-labeled laromustine, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and LC-MS(n) experiments to assist with the assignments of these fragments and possible mechanistic rearrangement. Such techniques produced valuable insights into these functions: 1) Cytochrome P450 is involved in C-7 formation but plays little or no role in the conversion of [(14)C]laromustine to C-1 through C-6 and C-8; 2) the relative abundance of individual degradation/metabolite products was not species-dependent; and 3) laromustine produces several reactive intermediates that may produce the toxicities seen in the clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa-Eldin F Nassar
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N., A.V.W.); Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N.); Metastagen, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware (I.K.)
| | - Adam V Wisnewski
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N., A.V.W.); Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N.); Metastagen, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware (I.K.)
| | - Ivan King
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N., A.V.W.); Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (A.-E.F.N.); Metastagen, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware (I.K.)
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Kajanus J, Jacobson I, Åstrand A, Olsson RI, Gran U, Björe A, Fjellström O, Davidsson Ö, Emtenäs H, Dahlén A, Löfberg B, Yuan ZQ, Sundell J, Cassel J, Gyll J, Iliefski T, Högberg Å, Lindhardt E, Malmberg J. Isoindolinone compounds active as Kv1.5 blockers identified using a multicomponent reaction approach. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:2023-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.02.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Montagut-Romans A, Boulven M, Lemaire M, Popowycz F. 3-Methylene-2,4-chromandione in situ trapping: introducing molecular diversity on 4-hydroxycoumarin. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra22440c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Methylene-2,4-chromandione trapped in a solid-state stable Mannich adduct, is released in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Montagut-Romans
- Equipe Chimie Organique et Bioorganique
- Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA Lyon)
- F-69621 Villeurbanne Cedex
- France
| | - Manon Boulven
- Equipe Chimie Organique et Bioorganique
- Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA Lyon)
- F-69621 Villeurbanne Cedex
- France
| | - Marc Lemaire
- Equipe Chimie Organique et Bioorganique
- Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA Lyon)
- F-69621 Villeurbanne Cedex
- France
| | - Florence Popowycz
- Equipe Chimie Organique et Bioorganique
- Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA Lyon)
- F-69621 Villeurbanne Cedex
- France
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Tang SQ, Lee YYI, Packiaraj DS, Ho HK, Chai CLL. Systematic Evaluation of the Metabolism and Toxicity of Thiazolidinone and Imidazolidinone Heterocycles. Chem Res Toxicol 2015; 28:2019-33. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5b00247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shi Qing Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Yong Yang Irvin Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - David Sheela Packiaraj
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Han Kiat Ho
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Christina Li Lin Chai
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty
of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
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Cytotoxicity of thiazolidinedione-, oxazolidinedione- and pyrrolidinedione-ring containing compounds in HepG2 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:1887-96. [PMID: 26193171 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Liver damage occurred in some patients who took troglitazone (TGZ) for type II diabetes. The 2,4-thiazolidinedione (TZD) ring in TGZ's structure has been implicated in its hepatotoxicity. To further examine the potential role of a TZD ring in toxicity we used HepG2 cells to evaluate two series of compounds containing different cyclic imides. N-phenyl analogues comprised 3-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione (DCPT); 3-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-2,4-oxazolidinedione (DCPO) and N-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)succinimide (NDPS). Benzylic compounds, which closely resemble TGZ, included 5-(3,5-dichlorophenylmethyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione (DCPMT); 5-(4-methoxyphenylmethyl)-2,4-thiazolidinedione (MPMT); 5-(4-methoxyphenylmethylene)-2,4-thiazolidinedione (MPMT-I); 5-(4-methoxyphenylmethyl)-2,4-oxazolidinedione (MPMO); 3-(4-methoxyphenylmethyl)succinimide (MPMS) and 3-(4-methoxyphenylmethylene)succinimide (MPMS-I). Cytotoxicity was assessed using the MTS assay after incubating the compounds (0-250μM) with HepG2 cells for 24h. Only certain TZD derivatives (TGZ, DCPT, DCPMT and MPMT-I) markedly decreased cell viability, whereas MPMT had low toxicity. In contrast, analogues without a TZD ring (DCPO, NDPS, MPMO, MPMS and MPMS-I) were not cytotoxic. These findings suggest that a TZD ring may be an important determinant of toxicity, although different structural features, chemical stability, cellular uptake or metabolism, etc., may also be involved. A simple clustering approach, using chemical fingerprints, assigned each compound to one of three classes (each containing one active compound and close homologues), and provided a framework for rationalizing the activity in terms of structure.
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Zhang FL, He X, Zhai YR, He LN, Zhang SC, Wang LL, Yang AH, An LJ. Mechanism-based inhibition of CYPs and RMs-induced hepatoxicity by rutaecarpine. Xenobiotica 2015; 45:978-89. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1038742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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