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Blanco J, Moroño Á, Arévalo F, Correa J, Lamas JP. Yessotoxins in Mollusks of the Galician Coast from 2014 to 2022: Variability, Biotransformation, and Resistance to Alkaline Hydrolysis. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:661. [PMID: 37999524 PMCID: PMC10674579 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of yessotoxins (YTXs) was analyzed in 10,757 samples of Galician bivalves from 2014 to 2022. Only YTX and 45-OH YTX were found. YTX was detected in 31% of the samples, while 45-OH YTX was found in 11.6% of them. Among the samples containing YTX, 45-OH YTX was detected in 37.3% of cases. The maximum recorded levels were 1.4 and 0.16 mg of YTX-equivalentsg-1, for YTX and 45-OH YTX, respectively, which are well below the regulatory limit of the European Union. The YTX and 45-OH YTX toxicities in the raw extracts and extracts subjected to alkaline hydrolysis were strongly and linearly related. Due to the lack of homo-YTX in Galician samples, the effect of alkaline hydrolysis on homo-YTX and 45OH-Homo-YTX was only checked in 23 additional samples, observing no negative effect but a high correlation between raw and hydrolyzed extracts. Hydrolyzed samples can be used instead of raw ones to carry out YTXs determinations in monitoring systems, which may increase the efficiency of those systems where okadaic acid episodes are very frequent and therefore a higher number of hydrolyzed samples are routinely analyzed. The presence of YTX in the studied bivalves varied with the species, with mussels and cockles having the highest percentages of YTX-detected samples. The presence of 45-OH YTX was clearly related to YTX and was detected only in mussels and cockles. Wild populations of mussels contained proportionally more 45-OH YTX than those that were raft-cultured. Spatially, toxin toxicities varied across the sampling area, with higher levels in raft-cultured mussels except those of Ría de Arousa. Ría de Ares (ARE) was the most affected geographical area, although in other northern locations, lower toxin levels were detected. Seasonally, YTX and 45-OH YTX toxicities showed similar patterns, with higher levels in late summer and autumn but lower toxicities of the 45-OH toxin in August. The relationship between the two toxins also varied seasonally, in general with a minimum proportion of 45-OH YTX in July-August but with different maximum levels for raft-cultured and wild mussel populations. Interannually, the average toxicities of YTX decreased from 2014 to 2017 and newly increased from 2018 to 2021, but decreased slightly in 2022. The relationship between 45-OH YTX and YTX also varied over the years, but neither a clear trend nor a similar trend for wild and raft mussels was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Jorge Correa
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Juan Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control do Medio Mariño de Galicia (Intecmar), 36611 Pontevedra, Spain
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How Safe Is Safe for Marine Toxins Monitoring? Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070208. [PMID: 27399774 PMCID: PMC4963841 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current regulation for marine toxins requires a monitoring method based on mass spectrometric analysis. This method is pre-targeted, hence after searching for pre-assigned masses, it identifies those compounds that were pre-defined with available calibrants. Therefore, the scope for detecting novel toxins which are not included in the monitoring protocol are very limited. In addition to this, there is a poor comprehension of the toxicity of some marine toxin groups. Also, the validity of the current approach is questioned by the lack of sufficient calibrants, and by the insufficient coverage by current legislation of the toxins reported to be present in shellfish. As an example, tetrodotoxin, palytoxin analogs, or cyclic imines are mentioned as indicators of gaps in the system that require a solid comprehension to assure consumers are protected.
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Bacchiocchi S, Siracusa M, Ruzzi A, Gorbi S, Ercolessi M, Cosentino MA, Ammazzalorso P, Orletti R. Two-year study of lipophilic marine toxin profile in mussels of the North-central Adriatic Sea: First report of azaspiracids in Mediterranean seafood. Toxicon 2015; 108:115-25. [PMID: 26455996 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since the late 1980s, the North-central Adriatic Sea has frequently experienced blooms of harmful algal species, producing marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) which accumulate in mussels and pose a serious threat to consumer health. Here, we present a 2-year LC-MS/MS study (2012-2014) of the MLT profile in mussels from the North-central Adriatic Sea in the context of the presence of toxic phytoplankton concentrations in seawater. Okadaic acid increased in mussels from all areas during the summer and autumn-winter periods with a rising trend between 2012 and 2014. In the same periods, Dinophysis sp. increased in abundance in seawater, but the highest densities of algae did not always coincide with the highest levels of toxins in mussels. Yessotoxins (YTXs) content in mussel increased sharply in the autumn-winter periods even exceeding the legal limit; although this accumulation did not always correlated with the YTX-producers in water (such as Lingulodinium polyedrum and Protoceratium reticulatum) a massive bloom of Gonyaulax spinifera was reported in November 2013, suggesting the role of this species in YTXs shellfish contamination. Traces of Azaspiracid 2 (AZA-2) were observed often in mussels during the study period, confirming for the first time the presence of this biotoxin in Mediterranean seafood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Bacchiocchi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Umbria e Marche, Via Cupa di Posatora, 3, 60100 Ancona, Italy
| | - Melania Siracusa
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Umbria e Marche, Via Cupa di Posatora, 3, 60100 Ancona, Italy
| | - Angela Ruzzi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Umbria e Marche, Via Cupa di Posatora, 3, 60100 Ancona, Italy
| | - Stefania Gorbi
- Università Politecnica delle Marche, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Manuela Ercolessi
- Agenzia Regionale Protezione Ambiente Marche, Via Caduti del Lavoro, 40, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Maria Anna Cosentino
- Agenzia Regionale Protezione Ambiente Marche, Via Caduti del Lavoro, 40, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Patrizia Ammazzalorso
- Agenzia Regionale Protezione Ambiente Marche, Via Caduti del Lavoro, 40, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Roberta Orletti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Umbria e Marche, Via Cupa di Posatora, 3, 60100 Ancona, Italy
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Forino M, Tartaglione L. Marine Toxins in Italy: The More You Look, the More You Find. European J Org Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201300991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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5
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Suzuki T, Quilliam MA. LC-MS/MS analysis of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin analogues, and other lipophilic toxins. ANAL SCI 2011; 27:571-84. [PMID: 21666353 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.27.571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a severe gastrointestinal illness caused by consumption of shellfish contaminated with DSP toxins that are originally produced by toxic dinoflagellates. Based on their structures, DSP toxins were initially classified into three groups, okadaic acid (OA)/dinophysistoxin (DTX) analogues, pectenotoxins (PTXs), and yessotoxins (YTXs). Because PTXs and YTXs have been subsequently shown to have no diarrhetic activities, PTXs and YTXs have recently been eliminated from the definition of DSP toxins. Mouse bioassay (MBA), which is the official testing method of DSP in Japan and many countries, also detects PTXs and YTXs, and thus alternative testing methods detecting only OA/DTX analogues are required in DSP monitoring. Electrospray ionization (ESI) liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is a very powerful tool for the detection, identification and quantification of DSP and other lipophilic toxins. In the present review, application of ESI LC-MS techniques to the analysis of each toxin group is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Suzuki
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama 236–8648, Japan.
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Dominguez HJ, Paz B, Daranas AH, Norte M, Franco JM, Fernández JJ. Dinoflagellate polyether within the yessotoxin, pectenotoxin and okadaic acid toxin groups: Characterization, analysis and human health implications. Toxicon 2010; 56:191-217. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 10/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Tartaglione L, Boschetti L, Rubini S, Cangini M, Pigozzi S, Poletti R. Complex toxin profile of Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Adriatic sea revealed by LC–MS. Toxicon 2010; 55:280-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2009] [Revised: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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These A, Scholz J, Preiss-Weigert A. Sensitive method for the determination of lipophilic marine biotoxins in extracts of mussels and processed shellfish by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry based on enrichment by solid-phase extraction. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:4529-38. [PMID: 19362722 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.03.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A solid-phase extraction (SPE) method for the enrichment and clean-up of lipophilic marine biotoxins from extracts of different species of bivalve molluscs and processed shellfish products was developed. Okadaic acid (OA), pectenotoxin2 (PTX2), azaspiracid1 (AZA1) and yessotoxin (YTX) were determined by LC-MS/MS in hydrolyzed and non-hydrolyzed extracts. Applying a concentration factor of 10 the limit of quantification for the four toxins was determined to be 1 microg/kg. An organized in-house ring trial proved transferability of the method protocol and satisfactory results for all four toxins with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 5-12%. The precision of the whole method including LC-MS detection was determined by processing seven independent extractions analyzed in independent sequences. RSD ranged between 12% and 24%. This SPE method was tested within a concentration range corresponding to the range of the current European Union regulatory limits (up to 160 microg/kg for the OA group), but it would also be applicable to a lower microg/kg range which is important in view of a possible decrease of regulatory limits as proposed by a working group of the European Food Safety Authority. The potential of SPE as a cleaning tool to cope with matrix effects in LC-MS/MS was studied and compared to liquid-liquid portioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja These
- NRL Marine Biotoxins, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany.
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Bowden BF. YESSOTOXINS—POLYCYCLIC ETHERS FROM DINOFLAGELLATES: RELATIONSHIPS TO DIARRHETIC SHELLFISH TOXINS. TOXIN REV 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/15569540600599209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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10
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Fraga S, Penna A, Bianconi I, Paz B, Zapata M. COOLIA CANARIENSIS SP. NOV. (DINOPHYCEAE), A NEW NONTOXIC EPIPHYTIC BENTHIC DINOFLAGELLATE FROM THE CANARY ISLANDS(1). JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2008; 44:1060-1070. [PMID: 27041624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00555.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A new photosynthetic dinoflagellate species, Coolia canariensis S. Fraga sp. nov., is described based on samples taken from tidal ponds on the rocky shore of the Canary Islands, northeast Atlantic Ocean. Its morphology was studied by LM and SEM. It is almost spherical and has a thick smooth theca with many scattered pores. Plate 1' is the biggest of the epithecal plates, and 7″ is twice as wide as it is long. Phylogeny inferred from the D1/D2 regions of the LSU nuclear rDNA of three strains of C. canariensis and several strains of other Coolia species, C. monotis, C. sp., showed that C. canariensis strains clustered in a well-supported clade distinct from the other species. No toxins were detected using mouse bioassay, liquid chromatography with Fluorescence detection (LC-FLD) or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Its pigment composition is of the peridinin type of dinoflagellates. Together with this new species, many other strains of C. monotis from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea have been analyzed for toxin presence, and no evidence of toxin production related to yessotoxins (YTXs) was found, as was previously suggested for C. monotis from Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Fraga
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, SpainCentro Biologia Ambientale, University of Urbino, Vle. Trieste 296, 61100 Pesaro, ItalyCentro Biotecnologie, University of Urbino, Fano Ateneo, Via T. Campanella 1, 61032 Fano, ItalyInstituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, SpainCentro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de Galicia, Apdo. 13, 36260 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Antonella Penna
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, SpainCentro Biologia Ambientale, University of Urbino, Vle. Trieste 296, 61100 Pesaro, ItalyCentro Biotecnologie, University of Urbino, Fano Ateneo, Via T. Campanella 1, 61032 Fano, ItalyInstituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, SpainCentro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de Galicia, Apdo. 13, 36260 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Irene Bianconi
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, SpainCentro Biologia Ambientale, University of Urbino, Vle. Trieste 296, 61100 Pesaro, ItalyCentro Biotecnologie, University of Urbino, Fano Ateneo, Via T. Campanella 1, 61032 Fano, ItalyInstituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, SpainCentro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de Galicia, Apdo. 13, 36260 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Beatriz Paz
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, SpainCentro Biologia Ambientale, University of Urbino, Vle. Trieste 296, 61100 Pesaro, ItalyCentro Biotecnologie, University of Urbino, Fano Ateneo, Via T. Campanella 1, 61032 Fano, ItalyInstituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, SpainCentro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de Galicia, Apdo. 13, 36260 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Manuel Zapata
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, SpainCentro Biologia Ambientale, University of Urbino, Vle. Trieste 296, 61100 Pesaro, ItalyCentro Biotecnologie, University of Urbino, Fano Ateneo, Via T. Campanella 1, 61032 Fano, ItalyInstituto de Investigacións Mariñas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, SpainCentro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos, Xunta de Galicia, Apdo. 13, 36260 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
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Yessotoxins, a group of marine polyether toxins: an overview. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:73-102. [PMID: 18728761 PMCID: PMC2525482 DOI: 10.3390/md20080005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2007] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Yessotoxin (YTX) is a marine polyether toxin that was first isolated in 1986 from the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. Subsequently, it was reported that YTX is produced by the dinoflagellates Protoceratium reticulatum, Lingulodinium polyedrum and Gonyaulax spinifera. YTXs have been associated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) because they are often simultaneously extracted with DSP toxins, and give positive results when tested in the conventional mouse bioassay for DSP toxins. However, recent evidence suggests that YTXs should be excluded from the DSP toxins group, because unlike okadaic acid (OA) and dinophyisistoxin-1 (DTX-1), YTXs do not cause either diarrhea or inhibition of protein phosphatases. In spite of the increasing number of molecular studies focused on the toxicity of YTX, the precise mechanism of action is currently unknown. Since the discovery of YTX, almost forty new analogues isolated from both mussels and dinoflagellates have been characterized by NMR or LC-MS/MS techniques. These studies indicate a wide variability in the profile and the relative abundance of YTXs in both, bivalves and dinoflagellates. This review covers current knowledge on the origin, producer organisms and vectors, chemical structures, metabolism, biosynthetic origin, toxicological properties, potential risks to human health and advances in detection methods of YTXs.
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Stobo L, Lacaze JP, Scott A, Petrie J, Turrell E. Surveillance of algal toxins in shellfish from Scottish waters. Toxicon 2008; 51:635-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2007] [Revised: 11/23/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Loader JI, Hawkes AD, Beuzenberg V, Jensen DJ, Cooney JM, Wilkins AL, Fitzgerald JM, Briggs LR, Miles CO. Convenient large-scale purification of yessotoxin from Protoceratium reticulatum culture and isolation of a novel furanoyessotoxin. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2007; 55:11093-11100. [PMID: 18052242 DOI: 10.1021/jf072704z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Yessotoxins from a large-scale culture (226 L) of Protoceratium reticulatum strain CAWD129 were harvested by filtration followed by solid-phase extraction. The extract was purified by column chromatography over basic alumina and reverse-phase flash chromatography to afford pure yessotoxin (193 mg). Isolation of yessotoxin was greatly facilitated by selection of a strain which did not produce analogues that interfered with yessotoxin isolation. In addition to yessotoxin, numerous minor yessotoxins were detected by LC-MS in other fractions. From one of these, an early eluting minor analogue with the same molecular weight as yessotoxin and a similar mass spectrometric fragmentation pattern was isolated. This analogue was identified by NMR and mass spectrometry as a novel yessotoxin analogue containing a furan ring in the side chain. This finding reveals biosynthetic flexibility of the yessotoxin pathway in P. reticulatum and confirms earlier findings of production of many minor yessotoxin analogues by this alga. Production of these analogues appeared to be a constitutive trait of P. reticulatum CAWD129.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared I Loader
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand
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Paz B, Riobó P, Ramilo I, Franco JM. Yessotoxins profile in strains of Protoceratium reticulatum from Spain and USA. Toxicon 2007; 50:1-17. [PMID: 17395228 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2006] [Revised: 02/08/2007] [Accepted: 02/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Seven strains of Protoceratium reticulatum isolated from Spain and the USA were cultured in the laboratory. Yessotoxins (YTXs) quantification and toxin profile determination were performed by LC-FLD and LC-MS/MS. The four Spanish strains were found to produce YTX and known YTX analogs, however, YTX was not detected in any of the three USA strains. Among the strains that produced YTXs, toxin production ranged between 2.9 and 28.6pg/cell. The YTX profile was substantially different between strains, in three out of the four Spanish strains YTX was the main toxin and in the fourth homoYTX was the prominent toxin. This work demonstrates that YTX is not always the main toxin in P. reticulatum and a high variability in YTX amounts and profile found in other locations is confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Paz
- Fitoplancton Tóxico, Instituto Investigaciones Marinas (CSIC), Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, Spain.
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Turrell EA, Stobo L. A comparison of the mouse bioassay with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for the detection of lipophilic toxins in shellfish from Scottish waters. Toxicon 2007; 50:442-7. [PMID: 17499325 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Revised: 04/03/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Some lipophilic shellfish toxins (LSTs) can cause human illness due to eating shellfish that have become naturally contaminated following filter feeding on toxin producing algae. A mouse bioassay (MBA) is widely used to detect LSTs in regulatory monitoring of shellfish. However, the MBA is imprecise giving only a positive or negative result and is prone to interference from other compounds. In this study, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was compared to the MBA, with the aim of substituting the in vivo assay for monitoring shellfish from Scottish waters. Overall, it was not feasible to demonstrate equivalence of LC-MS with the MBA, but due to the detection of a range of LSTs, it is considered that LC-MS methods capable of detecting multiple analogues are accepted by international markets of shellfish to assure consumer protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Turrell
- Fisheries Research Services, Marine Laboratory, P.O. Box 101, Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, UK.
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Suzuki T, Horie Y, Koike K, Satake M, Oshima Y, Iwataki M, Yoshimatsu S. Yessotoxin analogues in several strains of Protoceratium reticulatum in Japan determined by liquid chromatography–hybrid triple quadrupole/linear ion trap mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1142:172-7. [PMID: 17223118 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2006] [Revised: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Several strains of Protoceratium reticulatum, one of the dinoflagellates producing yessotoxins (YTXs), were collected from various shellfish producing areas in Japan. YTXs in the cultured strains were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Neutral loss scan monitoring, multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) for more than 20 YTX analogues, and full-scan MS/MS spectra obtained with a hybrid triple quadrupole/linear ion trap mass spectrometer showed that yessotoxin (YTX), 45,46,47-trinoryessotoxin (trinorYTX), 1-homoyessotoxin (homoYTX), and 45,46,47-trinor-1-homoyessotoxin (trinor-1-homoYTX) were the dominant toxins in these strains of P. reticulatum. Enone isomer of 42,43,44,45,46,47,55-heptanor-41-oxoyessotoxin (noroxoYTX enone) was also detected in some strains. Toxin profiles and contents were different among the strains. Some strains produced YTX, trinorYTX, 1-homoYTX, trinor-1-homoYTX, and noroxoYTX enone, whereas other strains produced only YTX or 1-homoYTX. This is the first identification of 1-homoYTX and noroxoYTX enone in P. reticulutum in Japan. Some strains did not produce any detectable YTX analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Tohoku National Fisheries Research Institute, 3-27-5 Shinhama, Shiogama, Miyagi 985-0001, Japan.
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Paz B, Riobó P, Souto ML, Gil LV, Norte M, Fernández JJ, Franco JM. Detection and identification of glycoyessotoxin A in a culture of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum. Toxicon 2006; 48:611-9. [PMID: 16920172 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2006] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The toxin composition of a culture of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum was investigated using LC-FLD, after derivatization with DMEQ-TAD (4-(2-(6,7-dimethoxy-4-methyl-3-oxo-3,4-dihydroquinoxalimylethyl)-1,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione)). Besides yessotoxin (YTX), the new YTX analogue, glycoyessotoxin A (G-YTXA) was detected in culture medium as well as in cells. The conditions for extraction were optimized and the production profile established. Retention time of the resulting fluorescent G-YTXA adduct was identified by comparison of the appropriate standard. Additionally, both G-YTXA and the DMEQ-TAD-G-YTXA adduct were confirmed by LC-MS showing ion peaks at m/z 1273 [M-2Na+H](-) and m/z 1618 [M-2Na+H](-), respectively. The LC-MS(n) displayed a fragmentation pattern similar to that of the YTX series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Paz
- Unidad Asociada (CSIC-IEO) Fitoplancton Tóxico Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO), Apdo. 1552, 36200 Vigo, Spain
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Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Hawkes AD, Selwood AI, Jensen DJ, Cooney JM, Beuzenberg V, MacKenzie AL. Identification of 45-hydroxy-46,47-dinoryessotoxin, 44-oxo-45,46,47-trinoryessotoxin, and 9-methyl-42,43,44,45,46,47,55-heptanor-38-en-41-oxoyessotoxin, and partial characterization of some minor yessotoxins, from Protoceratium reticulatum. Toxicon 2006; 47:229-40. [PMID: 16375937 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2005] [Revised: 11/01/2005] [Accepted: 11/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Preparative HPLC purification of a side-fraction obtained during purification of 44,55-dihydroxyyessotoxin (6) afforded fractions containing previously unidentified yessotoxin analogues. Careful analysis of these fractions by HPLC-UV, LC-MS3, and NMR spectroscopy, revealed the identities of some of these analogues as 45-hydroxy-46,47-dinoryessotoxin (1), 44-oxo-45,46,47-trinoryessotoxin (2) and 9-methyl-42,43,44,45,46,47,55-heptanor-38-en-41-oxoyessotoxin (5). Numerous other analogues were present but could only be characterized by HPLC-UV and LC-MS3 due to their low abundance. The HPLC-UV and LC-MS3 data confirm the presence of large numbers of yessotoxin analogues, some of which may be oxidative degradation products, in extracts of Protoceratium reticulatum. Compound-1 is the first 46,47-dinoryessotoxin to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- AgResearch Ltd, Department of Toxinology, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, East Street, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Magno S, Santelia F, Tsoukatou M. Investigation of the toxin profile of Greek mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis by liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2006; 47:174-81. [PMID: 16330059 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2005] [Accepted: 10/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Samples of Mytilus galloprovincialis were harvested from five different locations in Thermaikos gulf, Greece after harmful algae bloom. All of the mussel samples were found positive by mouse bioassay for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. Liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) was used to search for the following lipophilic toxins: okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins (DTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs), azaspiracids (AZAs) and yessotoxins (YTXs). In order to investigate the presence of okadaic acid esters, alkaline hydrolysis was performed for all the samples, and LC-MS analyses were carried out on the samples before and after hydrolysis. Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS) analyses were also carried out to investigate the presence of domoic acid and paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins at trace levels. All of the samples were found to be contaminated only with okadaic acid at levels 0.10-0.20 microg/g.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Ciminiello
- Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
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Ciminiello P, Fattorusso E. Bivalve Molluscs as Vectors of Marine Biotoxins Involved in Seafood Poisoning. MOLLUSCS 2006; 43:53-82. [PMID: 17153338 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-30880-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Molluscs of many sorts, which are high in protein and trace minerals, have always been a substantial portion of the human diet. A great variety of mollusc species are therefore of commercial importance throughout the world. Episodes of poisoning occasionally happen to the consumers of molluscs, the main hazard being represented by bivalve molluscs. These organisms are filter-feeders, feeding mainly on a wide range of phytoplankton species. Among the thousands of species of microscopic algae at the base of the marine food chain, there are a few dozen which produce potent toxins. One major category of impact occurs when toxic phytoplankton are filtered from the water as food by shellfish, which then accumulate the algal toxins to levels which can be lethal to humans. Incidences of poisoning related to marine algal toxins come under the main categories of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), depending upon the toxins and the symptoms that they cause. Since the beginning of the 1990s, a research program has been initiated to examine the toxin profiles in mussels from the Adriatic Sea. Since then, a number of polyether toxins have been isolated and characterized, some of which represent new additions to the DSP class of biotoxins. During this investigation, new types of toxins have also been isolated. The recent application of LC-MS methods for the detection of Adriatic marine biotoxins made it possible to speed up the analysis of toxic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Ciminiello
- Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Hawkes AD, Selwood A, Jensen DJ, Aasen J, Munday R, Samdal IA, Briggs LR, Beuzenberg V, MacKenzie AL. Isolation of a 1,3-enone isomer of heptanor-41-oxoyessotoxin from Protoceratium reticulatum cultures. Toxicon 2004; 44:325-36. [PMID: 15321705 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2004] [Revised: 06/11/2004] [Accepted: 06/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The 1,3-enone isomer (1) of heptanor-41-oxoyessotoxin (2) was isolated from extracts of Protoceratium reticulatum during large-scale production of yessotoxin (4). We found that 2 readily isomerizes to 1 in the presence of dilute ammonia and present evidence for the existence of 40-epi-2 (3) that also isomerizes to 1. 1-3 were detected by LC-MS methods both in extracts of P. reticulatum cultures and in mussels contaminated with yessotoxins. The isomerization of 2 and 3 into 1 occurs so readily that purification on basic alumina needs to be conducted carefully. No toxic effects were recorded in mice injected intraperitoneally with 1 at a dose of 5,000 microg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Department of Toxinology, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Paz B, Riobó P, Fernández ML, Fraga S, Franco JM. Production and release of yessotoxins by the dinoflagellates Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedrum in culture. Toxicon 2004; 44:251-8. [PMID: 15302531 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/11/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The presence of YTX was confirmed in Protoceratium reticulatum cultures and detected for the first time in Lingulodinium polyedrum cultures, mainly in the cells but also, to a lesser extent, dissolved in the culture medium. The production of yessotoxins (YTXs) by cultures of different strains of P. reticulatum and L. polyedrum was studied with liquid chromatography coupled to fluorometric detection using the dienophile reagent DMEQ-TAD and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. When comparing toxin production at different stages of culture growth, larger amounts of toxins were observed in the cellular fraction and in the culture medium at the last stage of the culture (day 21) in both species. Although YTX was detected in culture medium, with this study it was not possible to explain which is the release mechanism of the toxin in the medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Paz
- Unidad Asociada (CSIC-IEO) Fitoplancton Tóxico, Instituto Español de Oceanografía Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Apdo 1552, 36200 Vigo, Spain
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Ferrari S, Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Forino M, Malaguti C, Tubaro A, Poletti R, Yasumoto T, Fattorusso E, Rossini GP. Structure−Activity Relationships of Yessotoxins in Cultured Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2004; 17:1251-7. [PMID: 15377159 DOI: 10.1021/tx030054x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The structure-activity relationship of yessotoxins (YTX) has been probed by measuring the potency of several YTX analogues to cause the accumulation of a 100 kDa MW fragment of E-cadherin in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Under our experimental conditions, the EC(50) of YTX, the reference compound, was 0.55 nM. The introduction of a methylene unit adjacent to one of the sulfate groups, as is the case with the homoyessotoxin molecule, did not appear to greatly affect the potency of the analogue, as the measured EC(50) for this compound was 0.62 nM. The EC(50) values we measured for 45-hydroxyhomoyessotoxin and carboxyyessotoxin were about 9.4 and 26 nM, respectively, whereas the EC(50) of noroxoyessotoxin, lacking most of the C(9) chain, was about 50 nM. Thus, significant differences in the potencies of YTX analogues were found when structural changes involved the C(9) terminal chain of these compounds, leading to the conclusion that this portion of the molecule is essential for the activity of YTX in MCF-7 cells. A comparison of our findings with available information regarding the potency of YTX and its analogues in other experimental systems shows that the EC(50)'s we measured for the different compounds are up to 200-fold lower and vary in a wider concentration range. We speculate that YTX effects could involve two separate receptorial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ferrari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, I-41100 Modena, Italy
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Ciminiello P, Fattorusso E. Shellfish Toxins − Chemical Studies on Northern Adriatic Mussels. European J Org Chem 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.200300769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Ciminiello
- Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali, Università degli studi di Napoli ”Federico II”, via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy, Fax: (internat.) +39‐081‐748‐6552
| | - Ernesto Fattorusso
- Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali, Università degli studi di Napoli ”Federico II”, via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy, Fax: (internat.) +39‐081‐748‐6552
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Magno S, Guerrini F, Pistocchi R, Boni L. Complex yessotoxins profile in Protoceratium reticulatum from north-western Adriatic sea revealed by LC-MS analysis. Toxicon 2003; 42:7-14. [PMID: 12893055 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00094-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
While the occurrence of yessotoxin (YTX) has been reported worldwide from Protoceratium reticulatum, the biogenetic origin of some YTX analogues is still unknown, thus raising an issue whether they are metabolites of YTX formed in mussels or true products of different dinoflagellate species. Findings reported herein suggest that P. reticulatum from the north-western Adriatic sea is responsible for production, together with YTX (1), of homoYTX (2), 45-OHYTX (3), carboxyYTX (5), and noroxoYTX (7). YTX and its analogues have been determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS and HPLC-MSn experiments). The result is the first to confirm production of these YTX analogues from this species and indicate it as a producing organism of homoYTX, 45-OHYTX, carboxyYTX, and noroxoYTX found in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Ciminiello
- Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali, Università degli Studi di Napoli, via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
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