Radical acetylation of 2'-deoxyguanosine and L-histidine coupled to the reaction of diacetyl with peroxynitrite in aerated medium

Acyl-caged rhodamines: photo-controlled and self-calibrated generation of acetyl radicals for neural function recovery in early AD mice

The biological function of radicals is a broad continuum from signaling to killing. Yet, biomedical exploitation of radicals is largely restricted to the theme of healing-by-killing. To explore their potential in healing-by-signaling, robust radical generation methods are warranted. Acyl radicals are endogenous, exhibit facile chemistry and elicit matrix-dependent biological outcomes. Their implications in health and disease remain untapped, primarily due to the lack of a robust generation method with spatiotemporal specificity. Fusing the Norrish chemistry into the xanthene scaffold, we developed a novel general and modular molecular design strategy for photo-triggered generation of acyl radicals, i.e., acyl-caged rhodamine (ACR). A notable feature of ACR is the simultaneous release of a fluorescent probe for cell redox homeostasis allowing real-time monitoring of the biological outcome of acyl radicals. With a donor of the endogenous acetyl radical (ACR575a), we showcased its capability in precise and continuous modulation of the cell redox homeostasis from signaling to stress, and induction of a local oxidative burst to promote differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs). Upon intracerebral-injection of ACR575a and subsequent fiber-optical activation, early AD mice exhibited enhanced differentiation of NSCs toward neurons, reduced formation of Aβ plaques, and significantly improved cognitive abilities, including learning and memory.

Oxidative Modification of Proteins: From Damage to Catalysis, Signaling, and Beyond

Significance: The systematic investigation of oxidative modification of proteins by reactive oxygen species started in 1980. Later, it was shown that reactive nitrogen species could also modify proteins. Some protein oxidative modifications promote loss of protein function, cleavage or aggregation, and some result in proteo-toxicity and cellular homeostasis disruption. Recent Advances: Previously, protein oxidation was associated exclusively to damage. However, not all oxidative modifications are necessarily associated with damage, as with Met and Cys protein residue oxidation. In these cases, redox state changes can alter protein structure, catalytic function, and signaling processes in response to metabolic and/or environmental alterations. This review aims to integrate the present knowledge on redox modifications of proteins with their fate and role in redox signaling and human pathological conditions. Critical Issues: It is hypothesized that protein oxidation participates in the development and progression of many pathological conditions. However, no quantitative data have been correlated with specific oxidized proteins or the progression or severity of pathological conditions. Hence, the comprehension of the mechanisms underlying these modifications, their importance in human pathologies, and the fate of the modified proteins is of clinical relevance. Future Directions: We discuss new tools to cope with protein oxidation and suggest new approaches for integrating knowledge about protein oxidation and redox processes with human pathophysiological conditions. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 35, 1016-1080.

Singlet oxygen generation by the reaction of acrolein with peroxynitrite via a 2-hydroxyvinyl radical intermediate

Acrolein (2-propenal) is an environmental pollutant, food contaminant, and endogenous toxic by-product formed in the thermal decomposition and peroxidation of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Like other α,β-unsaturated aldehydes, acrolein undergoes Michael addition of nucleophiles such as basic amino acids residues of proteins and nucleobases, triggering aging associated disorders. Here, we show that acrolein is also a potential target of the potent biological oxidant, nitrosating and nitrating agent peroxynitrite. In vitro studies revealed the occurrence of 1,4-addition of peroxynitrite (k₂ = 6 × 10³ M^-1 s^-1, pH 7.2, 25 °C) to acrolein in air-equilibrated phosphate buffer. This is attested by acrolein concentration-dependent oxygen uptake, peroxynitrite consumption, and generation of formaldehyde and glyoxal as final products. These products are predicted to be originated from the Russell termination of ^•OOCH=CH(OH) radical which also includes molecular oxygen at the singlet delta state (O₂¹Δ_g). Accordingly, EPR spin trapping studies with the 2,6-nitrosobenzene-4-sulfonate ion (DBNBS) revealed a 6-line spectrum attributable to the 2-hydroxyvinyl radical adduct. Singlet oxygen was identified by its characteristic monomolecular IR emission at 1,270 nm in deuterated buffer, which was expectedly quenched upon addition of water and sodium azide. These data represent the first report on singlet oxygen creation from a vinylperoxyl radical, previously reported for alkyl- and formylperoxyl radicals, and may contribute to better understand the adverse acrolein behavior in vivo.

Effects of Diacetyl Flavoring Exposure in Mice Metabolism

Diacetyl is a flavoring that imparts a buttery flavor to foods, but the use or exposure to diacetyl has been related to some diseases. We investigated the effect of oral intake of diacetyl in male and female C57/Bl mice. We performed a target metabolomics assay using ultraperformance liquid chromatography paired with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for the determination and quantification of plasmatic metabolites. We observed alterations in metabolites present in the urea and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycles. Peroxynitrite plasmatic levels were evaluated by a colorimetric method, final activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was evaluated by an enzymatic method, and mouse behavior was evaluated. Majority of the assay showed differences between control and treatment groups, as well as between genders. This may indicate the involvement of sex hormones in the regulation of a normal metabolic profile, and the implication of sex differences in metabolite disease response.

Radical acylation of L-lysine derivatives and L-lysine-containing peptides by peroxynitrite-treated diacetyl and methylglyoxal

Highly electrophilic α-dicarbonyls such as diacetyl, methylglyoxal, 3-deoxyglucosone, and4,5-dioxovaleric acid have been characterized as secondary catabolites that can aggregate proteins and form DNA nucleobase adducts in several human maladies, including Alzheimer's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, sepsis, renal failure, and respiratory distress syndrome. In vitro, diacetyl and methylglyoxal have also been shown to rapidly add up the peroxynitrite anion (k2 ~ 10(4)-10(5) M(-1) s(-1)), a potent biological nucleophile, oxidant and nitrosating agent, followed by carbon chain cleavage to carboxylic acids via acetyl radical intermediate that can modify amino acids. In this study, we used the amino acid derivatives Ac-Lys-OMe and Z-Lys-OMe and synthesized the tetrapeptides H-KALA-OH, Ac-KALA-OH, and H-K(Boc)ALA-OH to reveal the preferential Lys amino group targeted by acyl radical generated by the α-dicarbonyl/peroxynitrite system. The pH profiles of the reactions are bell-shaped, peaking at approximately 7.5; hence, they are close to the pKa values of ONOOH and of the catalytic H2PO4(-) anion. RP-HPLC and ESI-MS analyses of reaction products confirmed (α)N- and (ϵ)N-acetylation of Lys by diacetyl as well as acetylation and formylation by methylglyoxal, with preference for the α-amino group. These data suggest the possibility of radical acylation of proteins in epigenetic processes, where enzymatic acetylation of these biomolecules is a well-documented event, recently reported to be as critical to the cell cycle as phosphorylation. Also noteworthy is the observed formylation of L-Lys containing peptides by methylglyoxal never reported to occur in amino acid residues of peptides and proteins.

Generation of singlet oxygen by the glyoxal-peroxynitrite system

Diacetyl, methylglyoxal, and glyoxal are α-dicarbonyl catabolites prone to nucleophilic additions of amino groups of proteins and nucleobases, thereby triggering adverse biological responses. Because of their electrophilicity, in aqueous medium, they exist in a phosphate-catalyzed dynamic equilibrium with their hydrate forms. Diacetyl and methylglyoxal can be attacked by peroxynitrite (k(2) ≈ 1.0 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1) and k(2) ≈ 1.0 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), respectively), a potent biological nucleophile and oxidant, yielding the acetyl radical from the homolysis of peroxynitrosocarbonyl adducts, and acetate or formate ions, respectively. We report here that glyoxal also reacts with peroxynitrite, yielding formate ion at rates at least 1 order of magnitude greater than does methylglyoxal. A triplet EPR signal (1:2:1; a(H) = 0.78 mT) attributable to hydrated formyl radical was detected by direct flow experiments. In the presence of the spin trap 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane, the EPR spectrum displays the di-tert-butyl nitroxide signal, another signal assignable to the spin trapping adduct with hydrogen radical (a(N) = a(H) = 1.44 mT), probably formed from formyl radical decarbonylation, and a third EPR signal assignable to the formyl radical adduct of the spin trap (a(N) = 0.71 mT and a(H) = 0.14 mT). The novelty here is the detection of singlet oxygen ((1)Δ(g)) monomol light emission at 1270 nm during the reaction, probably formed by subsequent dioxygen addition to formyl radical and a Russell reaction of nascent formylperoxyl radicals. Accordingly, the near-infrared emission increases upon raising the peroxynitrite concentration in D(2)O buffer and is suppressed upon addition of O(2) ((1)Δ(g)) quenchers (NaN(3), l-His, H(2)O). Unequivocal evidence of O(2) ((1)Δ(g)) generation was also obtained by chemical trapping of (18)O(2) ((1)Δ(g)) with anthracene-9,10-divinylsulfonate, using HPLC/MS/MS for detection of the corresponding 9,10-endoperoxide derivative. Our studies add insights into the molecular events underlying nitrosative, oxidative, and carbonyl stress in inflammatory processes and aging-associated maladies.

Acetyl radical production by the methylglyoxal-peroxynitrite system: a possible route for L-lysine acetylation

Methylglyoxal is an α-oxoaldehyde putatively produced in excess from triose phosphates, aminoacetone, and acetone in some disorders, particularly in diabetes. Here, we investigate the nucleophilic addition of ONOO(-), known as a potent oxidant and nucleophile, to methylglyoxal, yielding an acetyl radical intermediate and ultimately formate and acetate ions. The rate of ONOO(-) decay in the presence of methylglyoxal [k(2,app) = (1.0 ± 0.1) × 10(3) M(-1) s(-1); k(2) ≈ 1.0 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)] at pH 7.2 and 25 °C was found to be faster than that reported with monocarbonyl substrates (k(2) < 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)), diacetyl (k(2) = 1.0 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1)), or CO(2) (k(2) = 3-6 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1)). The pH profile of the methylglyoxal-peroxynitrite reaction describes an ascendant curve with an inflection around pH 7.2, which roughly coincides with the pK(a) values of both ONOOH and H(2)PO(4)(-) ion. Electron paramagnetic resonance spin trapping experiments with 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane revealed concentration-dependent formation of an adduct that can be attributed to 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane-CH(3)CO(•) (a(N) = 0.83 mT). Spin trapping with 3,5-dibromo-4-nitrosobenzene sulfonate gave a signal that could be assigned to a methyl radical adduct [a(N) = 1.41 mT; a(H) = 1.35 mT; a(H(m)) = 0.08 mT]. The 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane-CH(3)CO(•) adduct could also be observed by replacement of ONOO(-) with H(2)O(2), although at much lower yields. Acetyl radicals could be also trapped by added L-lysine as indicated by the presence of (ε)N-acetyl-L-lysine in the spent reaction mixture. This raises the hypothesis that ONOO(-)/H(2)O(2) in the presence of methylglyoxal is endowed with the potential to acetylate proteins in post-translational processes.

Radicals in the reaction between peroxynitrite and uric acid identified by electron spin resonance spectroscopy and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

Peroxynitrite is a reactive oxidant produced in vivo in response to oxidative and other stress by the diffusion-limited reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide. This article is focused on the identification of free radical intermediates of uric acid formed during its reaction with peroxynitrite. The experimental approach included the ESR spin trapping of the radical generated from the reaction between uric acid and peroxynitrite at pH 7.4 and mass spectrometry studies of the trapped radicals. Using PBN (N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenylnitrone) as the spin trapping agent, a six-line ESR spectrum was obtained and its hyperfine coupling constants, a(N)=15.6 G and a(H)=4.4 G, revealed the presence of carbon-based radicals. Further structural identification of the PBN-radical adducts was carried out using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. After comparison with the control reactions, two species were identified that correspond to the protonated molecules (M+1) at m/z 352 and 223, respectively. The ions of m/z 352 were characterized as the PBN-triuretcarbonyl radical adduct and the m/z 223 ion was identified as the PBN-aminocarbonyl radical adduct. Their mechanism of formation is discussed.