1
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Protti-Sánchez F, Mayer U, Rowland HM. In paired preference tests, domestic chicks innately choose the colour green over red, and the shape of a frog over a sphere when both stimuli are green. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1973-1983. [PMID: 37610527 PMCID: PMC10769926 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01821-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Many animals express unlearned colour preferences that depend on the context in which signals are encountered. These colour biases may have evolved in response to the signalling system to which they relate. For example, many aposematic animals advertise their unprofitability with red warning signals. Predators' innate biases against these warning colours have been suggested as one of the potential explanations for the initial evolution of aposematism. It is unclear, however, whether unlearned colour preferences reported in a number of species is truly an innate behaviour or whether it is based on prior experience. We tested the spontaneous colour and shape preferences of dark-hatched, unfed, and visually naive domestic chicks (Gallus gallus). In four experiments, we presented chicks with a choice between either red (a colour typically associated with warning patterns) or green (a colour associated with palatable cryptic prey), volume-matched spheres (representing a generalised fruit shape) or frogs (representing an aposematic animal's shape). Chicks innately preferred green stimuli and avoided red. Chicks also preferred the shape of a frog over a sphere when both stimuli were green. However, no preference for frogs over spheres was present when stimuli were red. Male chicks that experienced a bitter taste of quinine immediately before the preference test showed a higher preference for green frog-shaped stimuli. Our results suggest that newly hatched chicks innately integrate colour and shape cues during decision making, and that this can be augmented by other sensory experiences. Innate and experience-based behaviour could confer a fitness advantage to novel aposematic prey, and favour the initial evolution of conspicuous colouration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Protti-Sánchez
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Uwe Mayer
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
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2
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Raška J, Chalušová K, Krajiček J, Čabala R, Bosáková Z, Štys P, Exnerová A. Ontogenetic change in effectiveness of chemical defence against different predators in Oxycarenus true bugs. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:1050-1064. [PMID: 37428808 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Many prey species change their antipredator defence during ontogeny, which may be connected to different potential predators over the life cycle of the prey. To test this hypothesis, we compared reactions of two predator taxa - spiders and birds - to larvae and adults of two invasive true bug species, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis and Oxycarenus lavaterae (Heteroptera: Oxycarenidae) with life-stage-specific chemical defence mechanisms. The reactions to larvae and adults of both true bug species strikingly differed between the two predator taxa. The spiders were deterred by the defences of adult bugs, but the larval defences were ineffective against them. By contrast, birds attacked the larvae considerably less often than the adult bugs. The results indicate a predator-specific ontogenetic change in defence effectiveness of both Oxycarenus species. The change in defence is likely linked to the life-stage-specific composition of secretions in both species: whereas secretions of larvae are dominated by unsaturated aldehydes, secretions of adults are rich in terpenoids, which probably serve dual function of defensive chemicals and pheromones. Our results highlight the variation in defence between different life stages and the importance of testing responses of different types of predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Chalušová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krajiček
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Radomír Čabala
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Bosáková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University Faculty of Science, Praha, Czech Republic
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3
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Jiang X, Liang W, Zhang Y. Black-headed gulls are more wary of people dressed in red: a test of the concealment color hypothesis. J ETHOL 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-023-00786-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2023]
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4
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Experimental evidence in a poison frog model suggests that tadpole transport on the dorsum may affects warning signal effectiveness in poison frogs. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10219-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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5
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Roberts SM, Stuart‐Fox D, Medina I. The evolution of conspicuousness in frogs: When to signal toxicity? J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1455-1464. [PMID: 36129907 PMCID: PMC9825868 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Many organisms use conspicuous colour patterns to advertise their toxicity or unpalatability, a strategy known as aposematism. Despite the recognized benefits of this anti-predator tactic, not all chemically defended species exhibit warning coloration. Here, we use a comparative approach to investigate which factors predict the evolution of conspicuousness in frogs, a group in which conspicuous coloration and toxicity have evolved multiple times. We extracted colour information from dorsal and ventral photos of 594 frog species for which chemical defence information was available. Our results show that chemically defended and diurnal species have higher internal chromatic contrast, both ventrally and dorsally, than chemically undefended and/or nocturnal species. Among species that are chemically defended, conspicuous coloration is more likely to occur if species are diurnal. Our results also suggest that the evolution of conspicuous colour is more likely to occur in chemically defended prey with smaller body size. We discuss potential explanations for this association and suggest that prey profitability (related to body size) could be an important force driving the macroevolution of warning signals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Devi Stuart‐Fox
- School of BioSciencesUniversity of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciencesUniversity of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
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6
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Burdfield-Steel E, Kemp DJ. Negative intersexual genetic correlation for colour pattern in a variable aposematic insect. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Despite the fact their coloration functions as an aposematic signal, and is thus expected to be under stabilizing selection, hibiscus harlequin bugs (Tectocoris diophthalmus) show an impressive level of variation in their iridescent coloration both within and between populations. To date the heritability of coloration in this species remains unknown. Here we focus on a single population in New South Wales (the southern part of this species’ Australian range), with the greatest colour variation. We reared full-sib families of known pedigree in the laboratory and analysed the extent of iridescent coloration at adulthood. We then looked for evidence of heritability, condition dependence and antagonistic sexual selection acting on colour in this species. We found significant heritability in the extent of iridescent coloration for both sexes, as well as in development time and body size, but no evidence that condition dependence played a role in the determination of adult coloration. There was, however, a sex by genotype interaction for iridescent cover, in the form of a negative intersexual genetic correlation: in families where sons had high iridescent cover the daughters had low, and vice versa. Our results suggest that different selective pressures may act on coloration in males and females of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Burdfield-Steel
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Darrell J Kemp
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
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7
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Pegram KV, Fankhauser K, Rutowski RL. Variation in predator response to short-wavelength warning coloration. Behav Processes 2021; 187:104377. [PMID: 33771606 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Warning coloration deters predators from attacking unpalatable prey, and is often characterized by long-wavelength colors, such as orange and red. However, warning colors in nature are more diverse and include short-wavelength colors, like blue. Blue has evolved as a primary defense in some animals but is not common. One hypothesis for the maintenance of this diversity is interspecific variation in predator responses to signals. We tested this hypothesis with galliform birds: Gambel's quail (Callipepla gambelii) and two domestic chicken breeds (Gallus gallus domesticus; Plymouth Rocks, Cochin Bantams). We measured innate avoidance and learning responses to only blue prey, only orange prey, and orange-and-blue prey, where the blue was iridescent to represent the natural coloration of the pipevine swallowtail butterfly (Battus philenor). We predicted birds would have similar responses to orange, but vary in response to blue. Upon first encounter, Cochin Bantams did not attack blue and Gambel's quail readily attacked, indicating innate avoidance by Cochin Bantams. Plymouth Rocks had no innate aversion to any color, lower attack latencies and attacked most prey items. Cochin Bantams and Gambel's quail both learned orange and orange-and-blue quicker than blue. Our results support the hypothesis that interspecific variation in predator response could maintain warning color diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly V Pegram
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States; Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix, AZ, 85008, United States.
| | - Kaci Fankhauser
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States
| | - Ronald L Rutowski
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-4501, United States
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8
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Medina I, Vega-Trejo R, Wallenius T, Esquerré D, León C, Perez DM, Head ML. No link between nymph and adult coloration in shield bugs: weak selection by predators. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201011. [PMID: 32576112 PMCID: PMC7329039 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many organisms use different antipredator strategies throughout their life, but little is known about the reasons or implications of such changes. For years, it has been suggested that selection by predators should favour uniformity in local warning signals. If this is the case, we would expect high resemblance in colour across life stages in aposematic animals where young and adults share similar morphology and habitat. In this study, we used shield bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomoidea) to test whether colour and colour diversity evolve similarly at different life stages. Since many of these bugs are considered to be aposematic, we also combined multi-species analyses with predation experiments on the cotton harlequin bug to test whether there is evidence of selection for uniformity in colour across life stages. Overall, we show that the diversity of colours used by both life stages is comparable, but adults are more cryptic than nymphs. We also demonstrate that nymphs and adults of the same species do not tend to look alike. Experiments on our model system suggest that predators can generalise among life stages that look different, and exhibit strong neophobia. Altogether, our results show no evidence of selection favouring colour similarity between adults and nymphs in this speciose clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | - Thomas Wallenius
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Damien Esquerré
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Constanza León
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Daniela M. Perez
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Megan L. Head
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
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9
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Lindstedt C, Suisto K, Burdfield-Steel E, Winters AE, Mappes J. Defense against predators incurs high reproductive costs for the aposematic moth Arctia plantaginis. Behav Ecol 2020; 31:844-850. [PMID: 32595271 PMCID: PMC7303824 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand how variation in warning displays evolves and is maintained, we need to understand not only how perceivers of these traits select color and toxicity but also the sources of the genetic and phenotypic variation exposed to selection by them. We studied these aspects in the wood tiger moth Arctia plantaginis, which has two locally co-occurring male color morphs in Europe: yellow and white. When threatened, both morphs produce defensive secretions from their abdomen and from thoracic glands. Abdominal fluid has shown to be more important against invertebrate predators than avian predators, and the defensive secretion of the yellow morph is more effective against ants. Here, we focused on the morph-linked reproductive costs of secretion of the abdominal fluid and quantified the proportion of phenotypic and genetic variation in it. We hypothesized that, if yellow males pay higher reproductive costs for their more effective aposematic display, the subsequent higher mating success of white males could offer one explanation for the maintenance of the polymorphism. We first found that the heritable variation in the quantity of abdominal secretion was very low (h 2 = 0.006) and the quantity of defensive secretion was not dependent on the male morph. Second, deploying the abdominal defensive secretion decreased the reproductive output of both color morphs equally. This suggests that potential costs of pigment production and chemical defense against invertebrates are not linked in A. plantaginis. Furthermore, our results indicate that environmentally induced variation in chemical defense can alter an individual's fitness significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Kaisa Suisto
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Emily Burdfield-Steel
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anne E Winters
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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10
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Kikuchi DW, Waldron SJ, Valkonen JK, Dobler S, Mappes J. Biased predation could promote convergence yet maintain diversity within Müllerian mimicry rings of Oreina leaf beetles. J Evol Biol 2020; 33:887-898. [PMID: 32202678 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Müllerian mimicry is a classic example of adaptation, yet Müller's original theory does not account for the diversity often observed in mimicry rings. Here, we aimed to assess how well classical Müllerian mimicry can account for the colour polymorphism found in chemically defended Oreina leaf beetles by using field data and laboratory assays of predator behaviour. We also evaluated the hypothesis that thermoregulation can explain diversity between Oreina mimicry rings. We found that frequencies of each colour morph were positively correlated among species, a critical prediction of Müllerian mimicry. Predators learned to associate colour with chemical defences. Learned avoidance of the green morph of one species protected green morphs of another species. Avoidance of blue morphs was completely generalized to green morphs, but surprisingly, avoidance of green morphs was less generalized to blue morphs. This asymmetrical generalization should favour green morphs: indeed, green morphs persist in blue communities, whereas blue morphs are entirely excluded from green communities. We did not find a correlation between elevation and coloration, rejecting thermoregulation as an explanation for diversity between mimicry rings. Biased predation could explain within-community diversity in warning coloration, providing a solution to a long-standing puzzle. We propose testable hypotheses for why asymmetric generalization occurs, and how predators maintain the predominance of blue morphs in a community, despite asymmetric generalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Samuel J Waldron
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Molecular Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Susanne Dobler
- Molecular Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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11
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McClure M, Clerc C, Desbois C, Meichanetzoglou A, Cau M, Bastin-Héline L, Bacigalupo J, Houssin C, Pinna C, Nay B, Llaurens V, Berthier S, Andraud C, Gomez D, Elias M. Why has transparency evolved in aposematic butterflies? Insights from the largest radiation of aposematic butterflies, the Ithomiini. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182769. [PMID: 30991931 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Defended species are often conspicuous and this is thought to be an honest signal of defences, i.e. more toxic prey are more conspicuous. Neotropical butterflies of the large Ithomiini tribe numerically dominate communities of chemically defended butterflies and may thus drive the evolution of mimetic warning patterns. Although many species are brightly coloured, most are transparent to some degree. The evolution of transparency from a warning-coloured ancestor is puzzling as it is generally assumed to be involved in concealment. Here, we show that transparent Ithomiini species are indeed less detectable by avian predators (i.e. concealment). Surprisingly, transparent species are not any less unpalatable, and may in fact be more unpalatable than opaque species, the latter spanning a larger range of unpalatability. We put forth various hypotheses to explain the evolution of weak aposematic signals in these butterflies and other cryptic defended prey. Our study is an important step in determining the selective pressures and constraints that regulate the interaction between conspicuousness and unpalatability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie McClure
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Corentin Clerc
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Charlotte Desbois
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Aimilia Meichanetzoglou
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France.,2 Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes (MCAM), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , 75005 Paris , France
| | - Marion Cau
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Lucie Bastin-Héline
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France.,4 Sorbonne Université, INRA, CNRS, IRD, UPEC, Université Paris Diderot, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris , Paris and Versailles , France
| | - Javier Bacigalupo
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Céline Houssin
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Charline Pinna
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Bastien Nay
- 2 Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes (MCAM), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , 75005 Paris , France.,3 Laboratoire de Synthèse Organique, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris , 91128 Palaiseau , France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
| | - Serge Berthier
- 5 Institut des NanoSciences de Paris, UMR 7588, CNRS, Sorbonne Université , 75252 Paris , France
| | - Christine Andraud
- 6 Centre de recherche et Conservation des Collections (CRCC), MNHN , 75005 Paris , France
| | - Doris Gomez
- 7 CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3 , EPHE, IRD, Montpellier , France
| | - Marianne Elias
- 1 Institut Systématique Évolution Biodiversité (ISYEB), CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université , EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP50 75005 Paris , France
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12
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Raška J, Krajíček J, Bosáková Z, Štys P, Exnerová A. Larvae of pyrrhocorid true bugs are not to spiders’ taste: putative Müllerian mimicry. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Adults and larvae of a true bug, Scantius aegyptius (Heteroptera: Pyrrhocoridae), closely resemble sympatric firebugs, Pyrrhocoris apterus, and probably form a mimetic relationship with the latter species. Scantius aegyptius adults, although producing a secretion atypical of true bugs, are to some extent chemically protected against predators. In this study, we analysed the composition and function of the larval secretion in S. aegyptius, and investigated the mimetic relationship between larvae of S. aegyptius and P. apterus. The main component of the larval secretion in S. aegyptius is 2-heptanol, a chemical not known to function in anti-predatory defence, followed by (E)-2-octenal, a common defensive chemical of true bugs. When larvae of both species were presented to jumping spiders (Evarcha arcuata), S. aegyptius was slightly less well protected than P. apterus, but the spiders behaved towards the two species in a similar way: they quickly learned to avoid the bugs, but usually attacked them again on the second day. The spiders also generalized their learned avoidance from one true bug species to the other (with only slight asymmetry favouring S. aegyptius), suggesting that the bugs’ mimetic relationship is most probably Müllerian, being advantageous to both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krajíček
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Bosáková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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13
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Abstract
With our comprehensive set of field (model survival), laboratory (controlled learning, palatability, toxin analysis), and molecular data, we provide evidence that polymorphism can persist in an aposematic population, despite expectations of positive frequency-dependent selection. We show that this can happen if prey species carrying a strong signal can exploit predator learning to elicit broad avoidance of many signals, even if predators only have experience with a single signal. This could allow novel signals to be protected within a population of aposematic prey. Thus, under the expectations of broad generalization coupled with limited gene flow, weak aposematic signals can persist, contributing to the overall diversity of signals found within aposematic species. Aposematic organisms couple conspicuous warning signals with a secondary defense to deter predators from attacking. Novel signals of aposematic prey are expected to be selected against due to positive frequency-dependent selection. How, then, can novel phenotypes persist after they arise, and why do so many aposematic species exhibit intrapopulation signal variability? Using a polytypic poison frog (Dendrobates tinctorius), we explored the forces of selection on variable aposematic signals using 2 phenotypically distinct (white, yellow) populations. Contrary to expectations, local phenotype was not always better protected compared to novel phenotypes in either population; in the white population, the novel phenotype evoked greater avoidance in natural predators. Despite having a lower quantity of alkaloids, the skin extracts from yellow frogs provoked higher aversive reactions by birds than white frogs in the laboratory, although both populations differed from controls. Similarly, predators learned to avoid the yellow signal faster than the white signal, and generalized their learned avoidance of yellow but not white. We propose that signals that are easily learned and broadly generalized can protect rare, novel signals, and weak warning signals (i.e., signals with poor efficacy and/or poor defense) can persist when gene flow among populations, as in this case, is limited. This provides a mechanism for the persistence of intrapopulation aposematic variation, a likely precursor to polytypism and driver of speciation.
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14
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Cyriac VP, Kodandaramaiah U. Conspicuous colours reduce predation rates in fossorial uropeltid snakes. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7508. [PMID: 31428543 PMCID: PMC6698130 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Uropeltid snakes (Family Uropeltidae) are non-venomous, fossorial snakes that are found above ground occasionally, during which time they are exposed to predation. Many species are brightly coloured, mostly on the ventral surface, but these colours are expected to have no function below the ground. Observations have shown that the cephalic resemblance (resemblance to heads) of uropeltid tails may direct attacks of predators towards the hardened tails, thereby potentially increasing handling times for predators. Experiments have also shown that predators learn to avoid prey that are non-toxic and palatable but are difficult to capture, hard to process or require long handling time when such prey advertise their unprofitability through conspicuous colours. We here postulate that uropeltid snakes use their bright colours to signal long handling times associated with attack deflection to the tails, thereby securing reduced predation from predators that can learn to associate colour with handling time. Captive chicken experiments with dough models mimicking uropeltids indicate that attacks were more common on the tail than on the head. Field experiments with uropeltid clay models show that the conspicuous colours of these snakes decrease predation rates compared to cryptic models, but a novel conspicuous colour did not confer such a benefit. Overall, our experiments provide support for our hypothesis that the conspicuous colours of these snakes reduce predation, possibly because these colours advertise unprofitability due to long handling times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Philip Cyriac
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution and School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Ullasa Kodandaramaiah
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution and School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Raška
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská, Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná, Czech Republic
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská, Czech Republic
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16
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Briolat ES, Zagrobelny M, Olsen CE, Blount JD, Stevens M. No evidence of quantitative signal honesty across species of aposematic burnet moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae). J Evol Biol 2018; 32:31-48. [PMID: 30317689 PMCID: PMC6378400 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many defended species use conspicuous visual warning signals to deter potential predators from attacking. Traditional theory holds that these signals should converge on similar forms, yet variation in visual traits and the levels of defensive chemicals is common, both within and between species. It is currently unclear how the strength of signals and potency of defences might be related: conflicting theories suggest that aposematic signals should be quantitatively honest, or, in contrast, that investment in one component should be prioritized over the other, while empirical tests have yielded contrasting results. Here, we advance this debate by examining the relationship between defensive chemicals and signal properties in a family of aposematic Lepidoptera, accounting for phylogenetic relationships and quantifying coloration from the perspective of relevant predators. We test for correlations between toxin levels and measures of wing colour across 14 species of day‐flying burnet and forester moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae), protected by highly aversive cyanogenic glucosides, and find no clear evidence of quantitative signal honesty. Significant relationships between toxin levels and coloration vary between sexes and sampling years, and several trends run contrary to expectations for signal honesty. Although toxin concentration is positively correlated with increasing luminance contrast in forewing pattern in 1 year, higher toxin levels are also associated with paler and less chromatically salient markings, at least in females, in another year. Our study also serves to highlight important factors, including sex‐specific trends and seasonal variation, that should be accounted for in future work on signal honesty in aposematic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carl E Olsen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory and Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonathan D Blount
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
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17
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Zvereva EL, Doktorovová L, Hotová Svádová K, Zverev V, Štys P, Adamová-Ježová D, Kozlov MV, Exnerová A. Defence strategies of Chrysomela lapponica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) larvae: relative efficacy of secreted and stored defences against insect and avian predators. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vitali Zverev
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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18
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Bramer C, Schweizer C, Dobler S. Cardenolide-defended milkweed bugs do not evoke learning inNephila senegalensisspiders. Ethology 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Bramer
- Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach-Institut; Georg-August-Universität; Göttingen Germany
- Institut für Zoologie; Universität Hamburg; Hamburg Germany
| | | | - Susanne Dobler
- Institut für Zoologie; Universität Hamburg; Hamburg Germany
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19
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Distance-dependent defensive coloration in the poison frog Dendrobates tinctorius, Dendrobatidae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:6416-6421. [PMID: 29866847 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1800826115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Poison dart frogs provide classic examples of warning signals: potent toxins signaled by distinctive, conspicuous coloration. We show that, counterintuitively, the bright yellow and blue-black color of Dendrobates tinctorius (Dendrobatidae) also provides camouflage. Through computational modeling of predator vision, and a screen-based detection experiment presenting frogs at different spatial resolutions, we demonstrate that at close range the frog is highly detectable, but from a distance the colors blend together, forming effective camouflage. This result was corroborated with an in situ experiment, which found survival to be background-dependent, a feature more associated with camouflage than aposematism. Our results suggest that in D. tinctorius the distribution of pattern elements, and the particular colors expressed, act as a highly salient close range aposematic signal, while simultaneously minimizing detectability to distant observers.
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Casas-Cardona S, Márquez R, Vargas-Salinas F. Different colour morphs of the poison frogAndinobates bombetes(Dendrobatidae) are similarly effective visual predator deterrents. Ethology 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Casas-Cardona
- Grupo de Evolución, Ecología y Conservación (EECO); Programa de Biología; Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Tecnologías; Universidad del Quindío; Armenia Colombia
| | - Roberto Márquez
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; University of Chicago; Chicago IL USA
| | - Fernando Vargas-Salinas
- Grupo de Evolución, Ecología y Conservación (EECO); Programa de Biología; Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Tecnologías; Universidad del Quindío; Armenia Colombia
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21
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Rönkä K, De Pasqual C, Mappes J, Gordon S, Rojas B. Colour alone matters: no predator generalization among morphs of an aposematic moth. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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22
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Tan EJ, Reid CAM, Symonds MRE, Jurado-Rivera JA, Elgar MA. The Role of Life-History and Ecology in the Evolution of Color Patterns in Australian Chrysomeline Beetles. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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23
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Lindstedt C, Boncoraglio G, Cotter S, Gilbert J, Kilner RM. Aposematism in the burying beetle? Dual function of anal fluid in parental care and chemical defense. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arx100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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24
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Raška J, Štys P, Exnerová A. How variation in prey aposematic signals affects avoidance learning, generalization and memory of a salticid spider. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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25
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Veselý P, Ernestová B, Nedvěd O, Fuchs R. Do predator energy demands or previous exposure influence protection by aposematic coloration of prey? Curr Zool 2017; 63:259-267. [PMID: 29491984 PMCID: PMC5804175 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence exists that aposematic and toxic prey may be included in a predator's diet when the predator experiences physiological stress. The tree sparrow Passer montanus is known to have a significant portion of aposematic and toxic ladybirds in its natural diet. Here, we present experiments testing the attack and eating rate of the tree sparrow toward the invasive aposematic harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis. We wondered whether the sparrow's ability to prey on native ladybirds predisposes them to also prey on harlequin ladybirds. We compared the attack and eating rates of tree sparrows of particular age and/or experience classes to test for any changes during ontogeny (hand-reared × young wild-caught ×adult wild-caught) and with differing perceived levels of physiological stress (summer adult × winter adult). Winter adult tree sparrows commonly attacked and ate the offered ladybirds with no evidence of disgust or metabolic difficulties after ingestion. Naïve and wild immature tree sparrows attacked the ladybirds but hesitated to eat them. Adult tree sparrows caught in the summer avoided attacking the ladybirds. These results suggest that tree sparrows are able to cope with chemicals ingested along with the ladybirds. This pre-adaptation enables them to include ladybirds in their diet; though they commonly do this only in times of shortage in insect availability (winter). Young sparrows showed avoidance toward the chemical protection of the ladybirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Veselý
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Ernestová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Oldřich Nedvěd
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Fuchs
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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26
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Derenne A, Breitstein RM, Cicha RJ. Shifts in Postdiscrimination Gradients Within a Stimulus Dimension Based on Female Waist-to-Hip Ratios. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03395602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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27
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Experimental evidence suggests that specular reflectance and glossy appearance help amplify warning signals. Sci Rep 2017; 7:257. [PMID: 28325898 PMCID: PMC5427979 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00217-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Specular reflection appears as a bright spot or highlight on any smooth glossy convex surface and is caused by a near mirror-like reflectance off the surface. Convex shapes always provide the ideal geometry for highlights, areas of very strong reflectance, regardless of the orientation of the surface or position of the receiver. Despite highlights and glossy appearance being common in chemically defended insects, their potential signalling function is unknown. We tested the role of highlights in warning colouration of a chemically defended, alpine leaf beetle, Oreina cacaliae. We reduced the beetles' glossiness, hence their highlights, by applying a clear matt finish varnish on their elytra. We used blue tits as predators to examine whether the manipulation affected their initial latency to attack, avoidance learning and generalization of warning colouration. The birds learned to avoid both dull and glossy beetles but they initially avoided glossy prey more than dull prey. Interestingly, avoidance learning was generalized asymmetrically: birds that initially learned to avoid dull beetles avoided glossy beetles equally strongly, but not vice versa. We conclude that specular reflectance and glossiness can amplify the warning signal of O. cacaliae, augmenting avoidance learning, even if it is not critical for it.
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28
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Rowland HM, Fulford AJ, Ruxton GD. Predator learning differences affect the survival of chemically defended prey. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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29
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Bravo C, Mas-Peinado P, Bautista LM, Blanco G, Alonso JC, García-París M. Cantharidin is conserved across phylogeographic lineages and present in both morphs of Iberian Berberomeloe blister beetles (Coleoptera, Meloidae). Zool J Linn Soc 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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30
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Lindstedt C, Schroderus E, Lindström L, Mappes T, Mappes J. Evolutionary constraints of warning signals: A genetic trade-off between the efficacy of larval and adult warning coloration can maintain variation in signal expression. Evolution 2016; 70:2562-2572. [PMID: 27624666 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2015] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
To predict evolutionary responses of warning signals under selection, we need to determine the inheritance pattern of the signals, and how they are genetically correlated with other traits contributing to fitness. Furthermore, protective coloration often undergoes remarkable changes within an individual's lifecycle, requiring us to quantify the genetic constraints of adaptive coloration across all the relevant life stages. Based on a 12 generation pedigree with > 11,000 individuals of the wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis), we show that high primary defense as a larva (large warning signal) results in weaker defenses as adult (less efficient warning color), due to the negative genetic correlation between the efficacy of larval and adult warning coloration. However, production of effective warning coloration as a larva did not incur any life-history costs and was positively genetically correlated with reproductive output. These results provide novel insights into the evolutionary constraints on protective coloration in animals, and explain the maintenance of variation in the signal expression despite the strong directional selection by predators. By analyzing the genetic and environmental effects on warning signal and life-history traits in all relevant life stages, we can accurately determine the mechanisms shaping the evolutionary responses of phenotypic traits under different selection environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lindstedt
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland. .,Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland.
| | - E Schroderus
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - L Lindström
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland.,Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - T Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - J Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland.,Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
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31
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Effects of directionality, signal intensity, and short-wavelength components on iridescent warning signal efficacy. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2141-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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32
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Kang C, Cho HJ, Lee SI, Jablonski PG. Post-attack Aposematic Display in Prey Facilitates Predator Avoidance Learning. Front Ecol Evol 2016. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2016.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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33
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34
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35
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Karlíková Z, Veselý P, Beránková J, Fuchs R. Low Ability of Great Tits to Discriminate Similarly Inconspicuous Edible and Inedible Prey. Ethology 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Karlíková
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia; České Budějovice Czech Republic
| | - Petr Veselý
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia; České Budějovice Czech Republic
| | - Jana Beránková
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia; České Budějovice Czech Republic
| | - Roman Fuchs
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia; České Budějovice Czech Republic
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36
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Taylor LA, Amin Z, Maier EB, Byrne KJ, Morehouse NI. Flexible color learning in an invertebrate predator:Habronattusjumping spiders can learn to prefer or avoid red during foraging. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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37
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Honma A, Mappes J, Valkonen JK. Warning coloration can be disruptive: aposematic marginal wing patterning in the wood tiger moth. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:4863-74. [PMID: 26640666 PMCID: PMC4662304 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Warning (aposematic) and cryptic colorations appear to be mutually incompatible because the primary function of the former is to increase detectability, whereas the function of the latter is to decrease it. Disruptive coloration is a type of crypsis in which the color pattern breaks up the outline of the prey, thus hindering its detection. This delusion can work even when the prey's pattern elements are highly contrasting; thus, it is possible for an animal's coloration to combine both warning and disruptive functions. The coloration of the wood tiger moth (Parasemia plantaginis) is such that the moth is conspicuous when it rests on vegetation, but when it feigns death and drops to the grass- and litter-covered ground, it is hard to detect. This death-feigning behavior therefore immediately switches the function of its coloration from signaling to camouflage. We experimentally tested whether the forewing patterning of wood tiger moths could function as disruptive coloration against certain backgrounds. Using actual forewing patterns of wood tiger moths, we crafted artificial paper moths and placed them on a background image resembling a natural litter and grass background. We manipulated the disruptiveness of the wing pattern so that all (marginal pattern) or none (nonmarginal pattern) of the markings extended to the edge of the wing. Paper moths, each with a hidden palatable food item, were offered to great tits (Parus major) in a large aviary where the birds could search for and attack the "moths" according to their detectability. The results showed that prey items with the disruptive marginal pattern were attacked less often than prey without it. However, the disruptive function was apparent only when the prey was brighter than the background. These results suggest that warning coloration and disruptive coloration can work in concert and that the moth, by feigning death, can switch the function of its coloration from warning to disruptive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Honma
- University of Jyväskylä Department of Biological and Environmental Science Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions P.O. Box 35 Jyväskylä 40014 Finland ; Department of Ecosystem Studies School of Environmental Science The University of Shiga Prefecture 2500 Hassaka-cho Hikone City Shiga 522-8533 Japan
| | - Johanna Mappes
- University of Jyväskylä Department of Biological and Environmental Science Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions P.O. Box 35 Jyväskylä 40014 Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- University of Jyväskylä Department of Biological and Environmental Science Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions P.O. Box 35 Jyväskylä 40014 Finland
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38
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Flores EE, Stevens M, Moore AJ, Rowland HM, Blount JD. Body size but not warning signal luminance influences predation risk in recently metamorphosed poison frogs. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:4603-16. [PMID: 26668726 PMCID: PMC4670055 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
During early development, many aposematic species have bright and conspicuous warning appearance, but have yet to acquire chemical defenses, a phenotypic state which presumably makes them vulnerable to predation. Body size and signal luminance in particular are known to be sensitive to variation in early nutrition. However, the relative importance of these traits as determinants of predation risk in juveniles is not known. To address this question, we utilized computer‐assisted design (CAD) and information on putative predator visual sensitivities to produce artificial models of postmetamorphic froglets that varied in terms of body size and signal luminance. We then deployed the artificial models in the field and measured rates of attack by birds and unknown predators. Our results indicate that body size was a significant predictor of artificial prey survival. Rates of attack by bird predators were significantly higher on smaller models. However, predation by birds did not differ between artificial models of varying signal luminance. This suggests that at the completion of metamorphosis, smaller froglets may be at a selective disadvantage, potentially because predators can discern they have relatively low levels of chemical defense compared to larger froglets. There is likely to be a premium on efficient foraging, giving rise to rapid growth and the acquisition of toxins from dietary sources in juvenile poison frogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric E Flores
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK ; Sistema Nacional de Investigacion de Panama (SNI) Panama
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - Allen J Moore
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK ; Department of Genetics University of Georgia 30602 Athens Georgia
| | | | - Jonathan D Blount
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
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39
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Exnerová A, Ježová D, Štys P, Doktorovová L, Rojas B, Mappes J. Different reactions to aposematic prey in 2 geographically distant populations of great tits. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
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40
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Derenne A, Loshek EA, Bohrer B. Postdiscrimination Gradients With Familiar and Unfamiliar Faces. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-014-0091-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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41
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Differential detectability of polymorphic warning signals under varying light environments. Behav Processes 2014; 109 Pt B:164-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 08/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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42
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Relative effectiveness of blue and orange warning colours in the contexts of innate avoidance, learning and generalization. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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43
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Burdfield-Steel ER, Shuker DM. The evolutionary ecology of the Lygaeidae. Ecol Evol 2014; 4:2278-301. [PMID: 25360267 PMCID: PMC4201440 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Lygaeidae (sensu lato) are a highly successful family of true bugs found worldwide, yet many aspects of their ecology and evolution remain obscure or unknown. While a few species have attracted considerable attention as model species for the study of insect physiology, it is only relatively recently that biologists have begun to explore aspects of their behavior, life history evolution, and patterns of intra- and interspecific ecological interactions across more species. As a result though, a range of new phenotypes and opportunities for addressing current questions in evolutionary ecology has been uncovered. For example, researchers have revealed hitherto unexpectedly rich patterns of bacterial symbiosis, begun to explore the evolutionary function of the family's complex genitalia, and also found evidence of parthenogenesis. Here we review our current understanding of the biology and ecology of the group as a whole, focusing on several of the best-studied characteristics of the group, including aposematism (i.e., the evolution of warning coloration), chemical communication, sexual selection (especially, postcopulatory sexual selection), sexual conflict, and patterns of host-endosymbiont coevolution. Importantly, many of these aspects of lygaeid biology are likely to interact, offering new avenues for research, for instance into how the evolution of aposematism influences sexual selection. With the growing availability of genomic tools for previously “non-model” organisms, combined with the relative ease of keeping many of the polyphagous species in the laboratory, we argue that these bugs offer many opportunities for behavioral and evolutionary ecologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily R Burdfield-Steel
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews Harold Mitchell Building, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - David M Shuker
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews Harold Mitchell Building, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
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Fabricant SA, Exnerová A, Ježová D, Štys P. Scared by shiny? The value of iridescence in aposematic signalling of the hibiscus harlequin bug. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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The functional significance of aposematic signals: geographic variation in the responses of widespread lizard predators to colourful invertebrate prey. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91777. [PMID: 24614681 PMCID: PMC3948897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Conspicuous colouration can evolve as a primary defence mechanism that advertises unprofitability and discourages predatory attacks. Geographic overlap is a primary determinant of whether individual predators encounter, and thus learn to avoid, such aposematic prey. We experimentally tested whether the conspicuous colouration displayed by Old World pachyrhynchid weevils (Pachyrhynchus tobafolius and Kashotonus multipunctatus) deters predation by visual predators (Swinhoe’s tree lizard; Agamidae, Japalura swinhonis). During staged encounters, sympatric lizards attacked weevils without conspicuous patterns at higher rates than weevils with intact conspicuous patterns, whereas allopatric lizards attacked weevils with intact patterns at higher rates than sympatric lizards. Sympatric lizards also attacked masked weevils at lower rates, suggesting that other attributes of the weevils (size/shape/smell) also facilitate recognition. Allopatric lizards rapidly learned to avoid weevils after only a single encounter, and maintained aversive behaviours for more than three weeks. The imperfect ability of visual predators to recognize potential prey as unpalatable, both in the presence and absence of the aposematic signal, may help explain how diverse forms of mimicry exploit the predator’s visual system to deter predation.
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Importance of conspicuous colours in warning signals: the great tit’s (Parus major) point of view. Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Hotová Svádová K, Exnerová A, Kopečková M, Štys P. How Do Predators Learn to Recognize a Mimetic Complex: Experiments with Naive Great Tits and Aposematic Heteroptera. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Hotová Svádová
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Michala Kopečková
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
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Amézquita A, Castro L, Arias M, González M, Esquivel C. Field but not lab paradigms support generalisation by predators of aposematic polymorphic prey: the Oophaga histrionica complex. Evol Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-013-9635-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Fabricant SA, Kemp DJ, Krajíček J, Bosáková Z, Herberstein ME. Mechanisms of color production in a highly variable shield-back stinkbug, Tectocoris diophthalmus [corrected] (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae), and why it matters. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64082. [PMID: 23675520 PMCID: PMC3646777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory suggests that aposematism, specifically the learned avoidance of unprofitable prey via memorable color patterns, should result in selection for pattern uniformity. However, many examples to the contrary are seen in nature. Conversely, honest sexual signals are likely to exhibit greater variation because they reflect underlying variation in mate quality. Here we aim to characterize and quantify the mechanistic causes of color in Tectocoris diopthalmus to shed light on the costs of color production, and thus the potential information content of its color signals. We use Tectocoris diopthalmus because it is a weakly-defended stinkbug, and presents elements that have classically been studied in the context of aposematism (red coloring), and sexual selection (sexual dichromatism and iridescent coloring). Pigment analysis reveals that variation in orange coloration is due to the amount of erythropterin pigment, stored in intracellular granules. This pigment is common in Heteroptera, and as an endogenously produced excretory byproduct is unlikely to reflect mate quality or variation in unprofitability of the bug. Electron microscopy reveals the iridescent patches are caused by an epicuticular multilayer reflector, and the hue and patch size are directly related to the layer widths and extent of coverage of this layering. Furthermore, we identified melanin as an essential component of the multilayer reflector system; therefore, the quality of the iridescent patches may be affected by aspects of rearing environment and immunocompetence. We posit that T. diopthalmus has co-opted the melanic patches of a ‘typical’ red and black aposematic signal, transforming it into a complex and variable iridescent signal that may enhance its capacity to display individual quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Fabricant
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia.
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Pegram KV, Nahm AC, Rutowski RL. Warning color changes in response to food deprivation in the pipevine swallowtail butterfly, Battus philenor. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2013; 13:110. [PMID: 24735188 PMCID: PMC4011348 DOI: 10.1673/031.013.11001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/04/2012] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Predation on distasteful animals should favor warning coloration that is relatively conspicuous and phenotypically invariable. However, even among similarly colored individuals there can be variation in their warning signals. In butterflies, individual differences in larval feeding history could cause this variation. The warning signal of the pipevine swallowtail butterfly, Battus philenor L. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) consists of both a blue iridescent patch and pigmentbased orange spots on the ventral hindwing. B. philenor males also display a dorsal surface iridescent patch that functions as a sexual indicator signal. A previous study of iridescence in B. philenor found that the iridescent blue on both the dorsal and ventral hind wings is variable and significantly different between lab-reared and field-caught individuals. These differences could be the result of larval food deprivation in the field. Through experimental manipulation of larval diet, larval food deprivation was evaluated as a potential cause of the differences observed between lab and field individuals, and if food deprivation is a source of inter-individual variation in warning signals. B. philenor larvae were food restricted starting at two points in the last larval instar, and one group was fed through pupation. Adult coloration was then compared. Food deprivation led to poorer adult condition, as indicated by lower adult body mass, forewing length, and fat content of stressed individuals. As the level of food deprivation increased, the hue of the iridescent patches on both the dorsal and ventral hind wing shifted to shorter wavelengths, and the chroma of the orange spots decreased. The shifts in iridescent color did not match the differences previously found between lab and field individuals. However, the treatment differences indicate that food deprivation may be a significant source of warning color variation. The differences between the treatment groups are likely detectable by predators, but the effect of the variation on signal effectiveness and function remains to be empirically explored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alexandra C. Nahm
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4601
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250
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