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Neumann J, Hofmann B, Dhein S, Gergs U. Glucagon and Its Receptors in the Mammalian Heart. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12829. [PMID: 37629010 PMCID: PMC10454195 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucagon exerts effects on the mammalian heart. These effects include alterations in the force of contraction, beating rate, and changes in the cardiac conduction system axis. The cardiac effects of glucagon vary according to species, region, age, and concomitant disease. Depending on the species and region studied, the contractile effects of glucagon can be robust, modest, or even absent. Glucagon is detected in the mammalian heart and might act with an autocrine or paracrine effect on the cardiac glucagon receptors. The glucagon levels in the blood and glucagon receptor levels in the heart can change with disease or simultaneous drug application. Glucagon might signal via the glucagon receptors but, albeit less potently, glucagon might also signal via glucagon-like-peptide-1-receptors (GLP1-receptors). Glucagon receptors signal in a species- and region-dependent fashion. Small molecules or antibodies act as antagonists to glucagon receptors, which may become an additional treatment option for diabetes mellitus. Hence, a novel review of the role of glucagon and the glucagon receptors in the mammalian heart, with an eye on the mouse and human heart, appears relevant. Mouse hearts are addressed here because they can be easily genetically modified to generate mice that may serve as models for better studying the human glucagon receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Neumann
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 4, D-06097 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Britt Hofmann
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Mid-German Heart Center, University Hospital Halle, Ernst Grube Straße 40, D-06097 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Stefan Dhein
- Rudolf-Boehm Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, D-04107 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Ulrich Gergs
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 4, D-06097 Halle (Saale), Germany;
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2
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Miller CO, Cao J. Probing Hepatic Glucose Metabolism via 13C NMR Spectroscopy in Perfused Livers-Applications to Drug Development. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11110712. [PMID: 34822370 PMCID: PMC8622237 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11110712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite being first published over 40 years ago, the combination of 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and the isolated perfused liver preparation remains a unique and relevant approach in investigating the effects of pharmacological interventions on hepatic metabolism. The use of intact, perfused livers maintains many metabolic reactions at their respective rates in vivo, while the use of 13C-labelled substrates in combination with 13C NMR allows for a detailed study of specific pathways, as well as the design of robust assays which can be used to evaluate novel pharmacological agents. In this review article, we share some of the methods used to probe glucose metabolism, and highlight key findings and successes derived from the application of this specialized technique to the area of drug development for diabetes and related metabolic disorders.
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3
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Dutta K, Das R, Ling J, Monibas RM, Carballo-Jane E, Kekec A, Feng DD, Lin S, Mu J, Saklatvala R, Thayumanavan S, Liang Y. In Situ Forming Injectable Thermoresponsive Hydrogels for Controlled Delivery of Biomacromolecules. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:17531-17542. [PMID: 32715238 PMCID: PMC7379096 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Due to their relatively large molecular sizes and delicate nature, biologic drugs such as peptides, proteins, and antibodies often require high and repeated dosing, which can cause undesired side effects and physical discomfort in patients and render many therapies inordinately expensive. To enhance the efficacy of biologic drugs, they could be encapsulated into polymeric hydrogel formulations to preserve their stability and help tune their release in the body to their most favorable profile of action for a given therapy. In this study, a series of injectable, thermoresponsive hydrogel formulations were evaluated as controlled delivery systems for various peptides and proteins, including insulin, Merck proprietary peptides (glucagon-like peptide analogue and modified insulin analogue), bovine serum albumin, and immunoglobulin G. These hydrogels were prepared using concentrated solutions of poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-block-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA-PEG-PLGA), which can undergo temperature-induced sol-gel transitions and spontaneously solidify into hydrogels near the body temperature, serving as an in situ depot for sustained drug release. The thermoresponsiveness and gelation properties of these triblock copolymers were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and oscillatory rheology, respectively. The impact of different hydrogel-forming polymers on release kinetics was systematically investigated based on their hydrophobicity (LA/GA ratios), polymer concentrations (20, 25, and 30%), and phase stability. These hydrogels were able to release active peptides and proteins in a controlled manner from 4 to 35 days, depending on the polymer concentration, solubility nature, and molecular sizes of the cargoes. Biophysical studies via size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and circular dichroism (CD) indicated that the encapsulation and release did not adversely affect the protein conformation and stability. Finally, a selected PLGA-PEG-PLGA hydrogel system was further investigated by the encapsulation of a therapeutic glucagon-like peptide analogue and a modified insulin peptide analogue in diabetic mouse and minipig models for studies of glucose-lowering efficacy and pharmacokinetics, where superior sustained peptide release profiles and long-lasting glucose-lowering effects were observed in vivo without any significant tolerability issues compared to peptide solution controls. These results suggest the promise of developing injectable thermoresponsive hydrogel formulations for the tunable release of protein therapeutics to improve patient's comfort, convenience, and compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kingshuk Dutta
- Discovery
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Merck & Co.,
Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Ritam Das
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Jing Ling
- Discovery
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Merck & Co.,
Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Rafael Mayoral Monibas
- Discovery
Biology, Merck & Co., Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Ester Carballo-Jane
- External
In Vivo Pharmacology, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Ahmet Kekec
- Chemistry
Capabilities Accelerating Therapeutics, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Danqing Dennis Feng
- Chemistry
Capabilities Accelerating Therapeutics, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Songnian Lin
- Chemistry
Capabilities Accelerating Therapeutics, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - James Mu
- Discovery
Biology, Merck & Co., Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Robert Saklatvala
- Discovery
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Merck & Co.,
Inc., Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - S. Thayumanavan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Yingkai Liang
- Discovery
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Merck & Co.,
Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
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4
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Guan HP, Yang X, Lu K, Wang SP, Castro-Perez JM, Previs S, Wright M, Shah V, Herath K, Xie D, Szeto D, Forrest G, Xiao JC, Palyha O, Sun LP, Andryuk PJ, Engel SS, Xiong Y, Lin S, Kelley DE, Erion MD, Davis HR, Wang L. Glucagon receptor antagonism induces increased cholesterol absorption. J Lipid Res 2015; 56:2183-95. [PMID: 26373568 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m060897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucagon and insulin have opposing action in governing glucose homeostasis. In type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), plasma glucagon is characteristically elevated, contributing to increased gluconeogenesis and hyperglycemia. Therefore, glucagon receptor (GCGR) antagonism has been proposed as a pharmacologic approach to treat T2DM. In support of this concept, a potent small-molecule GCGR antagonist (GRA), MK-0893, demonstrated dose-dependent efficacy to reduce hyperglycemia, with an HbA1c reduction of 1.5% at the 80 mg dose for 12 weeks in T2DM. However, GRA treatment was associated with dose-dependent elevation of plasma LDL-cholesterol (LDL-c). The current studies investigated the cause for increased LDL-c. We report findings that link MK-0893 with increased glucagon-like peptide 2 and cholesterol absorption. There was not, however, a GRA-related modulation of cholesterol synthesis. These findings were replicated using structurally diverse GRAs. To examine potential pharmacologic mitigation, coadministration of ezetimibe (a potent inhibitor of cholesterol absorption) in mice abrogated the GRA-associated increase of LDL-c. Although the molecular mechanism is unknown, our results provide a novel finding by which glucagon and, hence, GCGR antagonism govern cholesterol metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Ping Guan
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Xiaodong Yang
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Ku Lu
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Sheng-Ping Wang
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Jose M Castro-Perez
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Stephen Previs
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Michael Wright
- Late Stage In Vitro Pharmacology, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Vinit Shah
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Kithsiri Herath
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Dan Xie
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Daphne Szeto
- Late Stage In Vivo Pharmacology, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Gail Forrest
- Late Stage In Vivo Pharmacology, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Jing Chen Xiao
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Oksana Palyha
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Li-Ping Sun
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Paula J Andryuk
- Clinical Research Department, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, NJ 07065
| | - Samuel S Engel
- Clinical Research Department, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, NJ 07065
| | - Yusheng Xiong
- Discovery Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Songnian Lin
- Discovery Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - David E Kelley
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Mark D Erion
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Harry R Davis
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
| | - Liangsu Wang
- Departments of Cardiometabolic Disease, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ 07033
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5
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Lotfy M, Kalasz H, Szalai G, Singh J, Adeghate E. Recent Progress in the Use of Glucagon and Glucagon Receptor Antago-nists in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. THE OPEN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY JOURNAL 2014; 8:28-35. [PMID: 25674162 PMCID: PMC4321206 DOI: 10.2174/1874104501408010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Glucagon is an important pancreatic hormone, released into blood circulation by alpha cells of the islet of
Langerhans. Glucagon induces gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in hepatocytes, leading to an increase in hepatic glucose
production and subsequently hyperglycemia in susceptible individuals. Hyperglucagonemia is a constant feature in
patients with T2DM. A number of bioactive agents that can block glucagon receptor have been identified. These glucagon
receptor antagonists can reduce the hyperglycemia associated with exogenous glucagon administration in normal as well
as diabetic subjects. Glucagon receptor antagonists include isoserine and beta-alanine derivatives, bicyclic 19-residue peptide
BI-32169, Des-His1-[Glu9] glucagon amide and related compounds, 5-hydroxyalkyl-4-phenylpyridines, N-[3-cano-6-
(1,1 dimethylpropyl)-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1-benzothien-2-yl]-2-ethylbutamide, Skyrin and NNC 250926. The absorption,
dosage, catabolism, excretion and medicinal chemistry of these agents are the subject of this review. It emphasizes the
role of glucagon in glucose homeostasis and how it could be applied as a novel tool for the management of diabetes mellitus
by blocking its receptors with either monoclonal antibodies, peptide and non-peptide antagonists or gene knockout
techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Lotfy
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University; School of Forensic and Investigative Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, England, UK; National Research Centre, Hormones Department, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Huba Kalasz
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gyorgy Szalai
- ENT Department, St. Janos Hospital, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jaipaul Singh
- School of Forensic and Investigative Sciences and School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, England, UK
| | - Ernest Adeghate
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Ar-ab Emirates
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Mu J, Qureshi SA, Brady EJ, Muise ES, Candelore MR, Jiang G, Li Z, Wu MS, Yang X, Dallas-Yang Q, Miller C, Xiong Y, Langdon RB, Parmee ER, Zhang BB. Anti-diabetic efficacy and impact on amino acid metabolism of GRA1, a novel small-molecule glucagon receptor antagonist. PLoS One 2012. [PMID: 23185367 PMCID: PMC3501516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperglucagonemia is implicated in the pathophysiology of hyperglycemia. Antagonism of the glucagon receptor (GCGR) thus represents a potential approach to diabetes treatment. Herein we report the characterization of GRA1, a novel small-molecule GCGR antagonist that blocks glucagon binding to the human GCGR (hGCGR) and antagonizes glucagon-induced intracellular accumulation of cAMP with nanomolar potency. GRA1 inhibited glycogenolysis dose-dependently in primary human hepatocytes and in perfused liver from hGCGR mice, a transgenic line of mouse that expresses the hGCGR instead of the murine GCGR. When administered orally to hGCGR mice and rhesus monkeys, GRA1 blocked hyperglycemic responses to exogenous glucagon. In several murine models of diabetes, acute and chronic dosing with GRA1 significantly reduced blood glucose concentrations and moderately increased plasma glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1. Combination of GRA1 with a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor had an additive antihyperglycemic effect in diabetic mice. Hepatic gene-expression profiling in monkeys treated with GRA1 revealed down-regulation of numerous genes involved in amino acid catabolism, an effect that was paralleled by increased amino acid levels in the circulation. In summary, GRA1 is a potent glucagon receptor antagonist with strong antihyperglycemic efficacy in preclinical models and prominent effects on hepatic gene-expression related to amino acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Mu
- Discovery and Preclinical Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Whitehouse Station, New Jersey, United States of America.
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7
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Cho YM, Merchant CE, Kieffer TJ. Targeting the glucagon receptor family for diabetes and obesity therapy. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 135:247-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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8
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Sinz C, Chang J, Lins AR, Brady E, Candelore M, Dallas-Yang Q, Ding V, Jiang G, Lin Z, Mock S, Qureshi S, Salituro G, Saperstein R, Shang J, Szalkowski D, Tota L, Vincent S, Wright M, Xu S, Yang X, Zhang B, Tata J, Kim R, Parmee E. Discovery of cyclic guanidines as potent, orally active, human glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:7131-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.09.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Revised: 09/18/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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9
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Mu J, Jiang G, Brady E, Dallas-Yang Q, Liu F, Woods J, Zycband E, Wright M, Li Z, Lu K, Zhu L, Shen X, Sinharoy R, Candelore ML, Qureshi SA, Shen DM, Zhang F, Parmee ER, Zhang BB. Chronic treatment with a glucagon receptor antagonist lowers glucose and moderately raises circulating glucagon and glucagon-like peptide 1 without severe alpha cell hypertrophy in diet-induced obese mice. Diabetologia 2011; 54:2381-91. [PMID: 21695571 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-011-2217-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Antagonism of the glucagon receptor (GCGR) represents a potential approach for treating diabetes. Cpd-A, a potent and selective GCGR antagonist (GRA) was studied in preclinical models to assess its effects on alpha cells. METHODS Studies were conducted with Cpd-A to examine the effects on glucose-lowering efficacy, its effects in combination with a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, and the extent and reversibility of alpha cell hypertrophy associated with GCGR antagonism in mouse models. RESULTS Chronic treatment with Cpd-A resulted in effective and sustained glucose lowering in mouse models in which endogenous murine Gcgr was replaced with human GCGR (hGCGR). Treatment with Cpd-A also led to stable, moderate elevations in both glucagon and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) levels, which were completely reversible and not associated with a hyperglycaemic overshoot following termination of treatment. When combined with a DPP-4 inhibitor, Cpd-A led to additional improvement of glycaemic control correlated with elevated active GLP-1 levels after glucose challenge. In contrast to Gcgr-knockout mice in which alpha cell hypertrophy was detected, chronic treatment with Cpd-A in obese hGCGR mice did not result in gross morphological changes in pancreatic tissue. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION A GRA lowered glucose effectively in diabetic models without significant alpha cell hypertrophy during or following chronic treatment. Treatment with a GRA may represent an effective approach for glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes, which could be further enhanced when combined with DPP-4 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Mu
- Merck, RY80N-A58, 126 East Lincoln Avenue, Rahway, NJ, USA.
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10
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Shen DM, Lin S, Parmee ER. A survey of small molecule glucagon receptor antagonists from recent patents (2006 – 2010). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2011; 21:1211-40. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2011.587001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Shen DM, Brady EJ, Candelore MR, Dallas-Yang Q, Ding VDH, Feeney WP, Jiang G, McCann ME, Mock S, Qureshi SA, Saperstein R, Shen X, Tong X, Tota LM, Wright MJ, Yang X, Zheng S, Chapman KT, Zhang BB, Tata JR, Parmee ER. Discovery of novel, potent, selective, and orally active human glucagon receptor antagonists containing a pyrazole core. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 21:76-81. [PMID: 21147532 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 11/09/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A novel class of 1,3,5-pyrazoles has been discovered as potent human glucagon receptor antagonists. Notably, compound 26 is orally bioavailable in several preclinical species and shows selectivity towards cardiac ion channels, other family B receptors such hGIP and hGLP1, and a large panel of enzymes and additional receptors. When dosed orally, compound 26 is efficacious in suppressing glucagon induced plasma glucose excursion in rhesus monkey and transgenic murine pharmacodynamic models at 1 and 10 mpk, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Ming Shen
- Department of Basic Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, RY50G-346, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA.
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12
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Kwun J, Hazinedaroglu SM, Schadde E, Kayaoglu HA, Fechner J, Hu HZ, Roenneburg D, Torrealba J, Shiao L, Hong X, Peng R, Szewczyk JW, Sullivan KA, DeMartino J, Knechtle SJ. Unaltered graft survival and intragraft lymphocytes infiltration in the cardiac allograft of Cxcr3-/- mouse recipients. Am J Transplant 2008; 8:1593-603. [PMID: 18476975 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02250.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that absence of chemokine receptor Cxcr3 or its blockade prolong mouse cardiac allograft survival. We evaluated the effect of the CXCR3 receptor antagonist MRL-957 on cardiac allograft survival, and also examined the impact of anti-CXCR3 mAb in human CXCR3 knock-in mice. We found only a moderate increase in graft survival (10.5 and 16.6 days, p < 0.05) using either the antagonist or the antibody, respectively, compared to control (8.7 days). We re-evaluated cardiac allograft survival with two different lines of Cxcr3(-/-) mice. Interestingly, in our hands, neither of the independently derived Cxcr3(-/-) lines showed remarkable prolongation, with mean graft survival of 9.5 and 10.8 days, respectively. There was no difference in the number of infiltrating mononuclear cells, expansion of splenic T cells or IFN-gamma production of alloreactive T cells. Mechanistically, an increased other chemokine receptor fraction in the graft infiltrating CD8 T cells in Cxcr3(-/-) recipients compared to wild-type recipients suggested compensatory T-cell trafficking in the absence of Cxcr3. We conclude Cxcr3 may contribute to, but does not govern, leukocyte trafficking in this transplant model.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kwun
- Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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13
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Kim RM, Chang J, Lins AR, Brady E, Candelore MR, Dallas-Yang Q, Ding V, Dragovic J, Iliff S, Jiang G, Mock S, Qureshi S, Saperstein R, Szalkowski D, Tamvakopoulos C, Tota L, Wright M, Yang X, Tata JR, Chapman K, Zhang BB, Parmee ER. Discovery of potent, orally active benzimidazole glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2008; 18:3701-5. [PMID: 18539028 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.05.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2008] [Revised: 05/15/2008] [Accepted: 05/16/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The discovery and optimization of potent and selective aminobenzimidazole glucagon receptor antagonists are described. One compound possessing moderate pharmacokinetic properties in multiple preclinical species was orally efficacious at inhibiting glucagon-mediated glucose excursion in transgenic mice expressing the human glucagon receptor, and in rhesus monkeys. The compound also significantly lowered glucose levels in a murine model of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald M Kim
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA.
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14
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Sloop KW, Michael MD, Moyers JS. Glucagon as a target for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 9:593-600. [PMID: 15948676 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.9.3.593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Glucagon is the key counter-regulatory hormone that opposes the action of insulin. In states of relative hypoglycaemia, glucagon acts to increase blood glucose by stimulating hepatic glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis to achieve euglycaemia. Type 2 diabetes is characterised by inappropriate regulation of hepatic glucose production, which is due, at least in part, to an imbalance in the bihormonal relationship between plasma levels of glucagon and insulin. The glucose-lowering effects of glucagon peptide antagonists and antiglucagon neutralising antibodies first demonstrated the potential of glucagon receptor (GCGR) antagonism as a treatment for hyperglycaemia. In recent years, the development of GCGR antisense oligonucleotides and small molecular weight GCGR antagonists have been pursued as possible therapeutic agents to target glucagon action as a treatment for Type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle W Sloop
- Endocrine Discovery, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, USA.
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15
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Cohen SM, Duffy JL, Miller C, Kirk BA, Candelore MR, Ding VDH, Kaczorowski G, Tota LM, Werrmann JG, Wright M, Parmee ER, Tata JR, Zhang BB. Direct observation (NMR) of the efficacy of glucagon receptor antagonists in murine liver expressing the human glucagon receptor. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14:1506-17. [PMID: 16256355 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2005] [Revised: 10/03/2005] [Accepted: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The demonstration of pharmacodynamic efficacy of novel chemical entities represents a formidable challenge in the early exploration of synthetic lead classes. Here, we demonstrate a technique to validate the biological efficacy of novel antagonists of the human glucagon receptor (hGCGR) in the surgically removed perfused liver prior to the optimization of the pharmacokinetic properties of the compounds. The technique involves the direct observation by (13)C NMR of the biosynthesis of [(13)C]glycogen from [(13)C]pyruvate via the gluconeogenic pathway. The rapid breakdown of [(13)C]glycogen (glycogenolysis) following the addition of 50 pM exogenous glucagon is then monitored in real time in the perfused liver by (13)C NMR. The concentration-dependent inhibition of glucagon-mediated glycogenolysis is demonstrated for both the peptidyl glucagon receptor antagonist 1 and structurally diverse synthetic antagonists 2-7. Perfused livers were obtained from a transgenic mouse strain that exclusively expresses the functional human glucagon receptor, conferring human relevance to the activity observed with glucagon receptor antagonists. This technique does not provide adequate quantitative precision for the comparative ranking of active compounds, but does afford physiological evidence of efficacy in the early development of a chemical series of antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila M Cohen
- Department of Research Imaging, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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16
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Shen DM, Zhang F, Brady EJ, Candelore MR, Dallas-Yang Q, Ding VDH, Dragovic J, Feeney WP, Jiang G, McCann PE, Mock S, Qureshi SA, Saperstein R, Shen X, Tamvakopoulos C, Tong X, Tota LM, Wright MJ, Yang X, Zheng S, Chapman KT, Zhang BB, Tata JR, Parmee ER. Discovery of novel, potent, and orally active spiro-urea human glucagon receptor antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:4564-9. [PMID: 16102966 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.06.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2005] [Revised: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A novel class of spiro-ureas has been discovered as potent human glucagon receptor antagonists in both binding and functional assays. Preliminary studies have revealed that compound 15 is an orally active human glucagon receptor antagonist in a transgenic murine pharmacodynamic model at 10 and 30 mpk. Compound 15 is orally bioavailable in several preclinical species and shows selectivity toward cardiac ion channels and other family B receptors, such as hGIP1 and hGLP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Ming Shen
- Department of Basic Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, RY50G-146, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA.
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17
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Kurukulasuriya R, Link JT. Progress towards glucagon receptor antagonist therapy for Type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2005. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.15.12.1739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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18
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Duffy JL, Kirk BA, Konteatis Z, Campbell EL, Liang R, Brady EJ, Candelore MR, Ding VDH, Jiang G, Liu F, Qureshi SA, Saperstein R, Szalkowski D, Tong S, Tota LM, Xie D, Yang X, Zafian P, Zheng S, Chapman KT, Zhang BB, Tata JR. Discovery and investigation of a novel class of thiophene-derived antagonists of the human glucagon receptor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:1401-5. [PMID: 15713396 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2004] [Revised: 12/28/2004] [Accepted: 01/04/2005] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A novel class of antagonists of the human glucagon receptor (hGCGR) has been discovered. Systematic modification of the lead compound identified substituents that were essential for activity and those that were amenable to further optimization. This SAR exploration resulted in the synthesis of 13, which exhibited good potency as an hGCGR functional antagonist (IC50 = 34 nM) and moderate bioavailability (36% in mice).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph L Duffy
- Department of Basic Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA.
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19
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Dallas-Yang Q, Shen X, Strowski M, Brady E, Saperstein R, Gibson RE, Szalkowski D, Qureshi SA, Candelore MR, Fenyk-Melody JE, Parmee ER, Zhang BB, Jiang G. Hepatic glucagon receptor binding and glucose-lowering in vivo by peptidyl and non-peptidyl glucagon receptor antagonists. Eur J Pharmacol 2005; 501:225-34. [PMID: 15464082 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2004] [Revised: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 08/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Glucagon receptor antagonists have been actively pursued as potential therapeutics for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Peptidyl and non-peptidyl glucagon receptor antagonists have been shown to block glucagon-induced blood glucose elevation in both animals and humans. How the antagonists and the glucagon receptor interact in vivo has not been reported and is the subject of the current study. Using (125)I-labeled glucagon as a radiotracer, we developed an in vivo glucagon receptor occupancy assay in mice expressing a human glucagon receptor in place of the endogenous mouse glucagon receptor (hGCGR mice). Using this assay, we first showed that the glucagon receptor is expressed predominantly in liver, to a much lesser extent in kidney, and is below detection in several other tissues/organs in the mice. We subsequently showed that, at 2 mg/kg body weight (mg/pk) dosed intraperitoneally (i.p.), peptidyl glucagon receptor antagonist des-His-glucagon binds to approximately 78% of the hepatic glucagon receptor and blocks an exogenous glucagon-induced blood glucose elevation in the mice. Finally, we also showed that, at 10 and 30 mg/kg dosed orally (p.o.), compound A, a non-peptidyl small molecule glucagon receptor antagonist, occupied 65-70% of the hepatic glucagon receptor, and significantly diminished exogenous glucagon-induced blood glucose elevation in the mice. At 3 mg/kg, however, compound A occupied only approximately 39% of the hepatic glucagon receptor and did not affect exogenous glucagon-induced blood glucose elevation in the mice. Taken together, the results confirmed previous reports that glucagon receptors are present predominantly in the liver, and provide the first direct evidence that peptidyl and non-peptidyl glucagon receptor antagonists bind to the hepatic glucagon receptor in vivo, and that at least 60% receptor occupancy correlates with the glucose lowering efficacy by the antagonists in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Dallas-Yang
- Metabolic Disorders-Diabetes, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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20
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Qureshi SA, Rios Candelore M, Xie D, Yang X, Tota LM, Ding VDH, Li Z, Bansal A, Miller C, Cohen SM, Jiang G, Brady E, Saperstein R, Duffy JL, Tata JR, Chapman KT, Moller DE, Zhang BB. A novel glucagon receptor antagonist inhibits glucagon-mediated biological effects. Diabetes 2004; 53:3267-73. [PMID: 15561959 DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.53.12.3267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Glucagon maintains glucose homeostasis during the fasting state by promoting hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Hyperglucagonemia and/or an elevated glucagon-to-insulin ratio have been reported in diabetic patients and animals. Antagonizing the glucagon receptor is expected to result in reduced hepatic glucose overproduction, leading to overall glycemic control. Here we report the discovery and characterization of compound 1 (Cpd 1), a compound that inhibits binding of 125I-labeled glucagon to the human glucagon receptor with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration value of 181 +/- 10 nmol/l. In CHO cells overexpressing the human glucagon receptor, Cpd 1 increased the half-maximal effect for glucagon stimulation of adenylyl cyclase with a KDB of 81 +/- 11 nmol/l. In addition, Cpd 1 blocked glucagon-mediated glycogenolysis in primary human hepatocytes. In contrast, a structurally related analog (Cpd 2) was not effective in blocking glucagon-mediated biological effects. Real-time measurement of glycogen synthesis and breakdown in perfused mouse liver showed that Cpd 1 is capable of blocking glucagon-induced glycogenolysis in a dosage-dependent manner. Finally, when dosed in humanized mice, Cpd 1 blocked the rise of glucose levels observed after intraperitoneal administration of exogenous glucagon. Taken together, these data suggest that Cpd 1 is a potent glucagon receptor antagonist that has the capability to block the effects of glucagon in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajjad A Qureshi
- Department of Metabolic Disorder and Molecular Endocrinology, Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey, USA.
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21
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McNally T, Grihalde ND, Pederson TM, Ogiela CA, Djuric SW, Collins CA, Lin CW, Reilly RM. Cloning and characterization of the glucagon receptor from cynomologous monkey. Peptides 2004; 25:1171-8. [PMID: 15245877 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2004.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2003] [Revised: 05/04/2004] [Accepted: 05/04/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The glucagon receptor was cloned from cynolomologous monkey. A frame-shift mutation at the 3' end of the monkey transcript results in a C-terminal extension of 14 amino acids. This extension is not observed in either the human or rodent glucagon receptors. Monkey glucagon receptor was expressed in CHO cells, either with (mkGCGR) or without (mkGCGRDelta14) the 14-amino acid C-terminal extension to approximate the human receptor. Both forms of the monkey receptor bound glucagon with similar affinity and showed glucagon-stimulated cAMP production, however the full-length form of the monkey receptor (mkGCGR) was less sensitive to glucagon in its ability to stimulate cAMP than the shortened form (mkGCGRDelta14). PCR of genomic DNA from baboon and rhesus monkeys suggests that they express a form of the receptor similar to that of cynomologous monkey, while in chimpanzee, the receptor is similar to the human form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa McNally
- Metabolic Disease Research, Abbott Laboratories, 100 Abbott Park Road, Abbott Park, IL 60064, USA.
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- John McNeish
- Genetic Technologies, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton 06340, Connecticut, USA.
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23
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Prosser H, Rastan S. Manipulation of the mouse genome: a multiple impact resource for drug discovery and development. Trends Biotechnol 2003; 21:224-32. [PMID: 12727384 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7799(03)00087-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Few would deny that the pharmaceutical industry's investment in genomics throughout the 1990s has yet to deliver in terms of drugs on the market. The reasons are complex and beyond the scope of this review. The unique ability to manipulate the mouse genome, however, has already had a positive impact on all stages of the drug discovery process and, increasingly, on the drug development process too. We give an overview of some recent applications of so-called 'transgenic' mouse technology in pharmaceutical research and development. We show how genetic manipulation in the mouse can be employed at multiple points in the drug discovery and development process, providing new solutions to old problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haydn Prosser
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, CB10 1SA UK
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24
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Abstract
As a counterregulatory hormone for insulin, glucagon plays a critical role in maintaining glucose homeostasis in vivo in both animals and humans. To increase blood glucose, glucagon promotes hepatic glucose output by increasing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and by decreasing glycogenesis and glycolysis in a concerted fashion via multiple mechanisms. Compared with healthy subjects, diabetic patients and animals have abnormal secretion of not only insulin but also glucagon. Hyperglucagonemia and altered insulin-to-glucagon ratios play important roles in initiating and maintaining pathological hyperglycemic states. Not surprisingly, glucagon and glucagon receptor have been pursued extensively in recent years as potential targets for the therapeutic treatment of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqiang Jiang
- Department of Metabolic Disorders and Molecular Endocrinology, Merck Research Laboratory, Rahway, New Jersey 07065, USA
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25
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Prosser HM, Cooper DG, Forbes IT, Geppert M, Gribble AD, Grau EV, Groot PH, Harper AJ, Moores KE, Pickering SJ, Piercy V. Targeted replacement of rodent CCR2 with the human orthologue CCR2B: A mouse model for in vivo analysis of human target-selective small molecule MCP-1 receptor antagonists. Drug Dev Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.10044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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