Reciprocal Relations Between Depressive Symptoms and Self-Criticism (but Not Dependency) Among Early Adolescent Girls (but Not Boys)

Investigating psychometric properties of short versions of the depressive experiences questionnaire: Findings from a representative large sample of Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescence involves a period of swift change, including the development of personality vulnerabilities (i.e., dependency and self-criticism) that act as transdiagnostic factors to psychopathology. Over the past several decades, numerous short revisions have condensed the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) into more efficient measures of personality vulnerability. Prior research has investigated the psychometric properties of the short DEQs in adult and clinical samples. However, there has been insufficient exploration within adolescents, who are in addition marked by fluctuating personality vulnerabilities.

METHOD

A representative large sample of adolescents and emerging adults in China aged 10 to 25 (N = 23,953) was administered five short DEQs, including the Revised DEQ (RevDEQ), Reconstructed DEQ (RecDEQ), Theoretical DEQ-21/12 (TDEQ-21/12) and adolescent DEQ (DEQ-A). The data was evaluated for internal consistency and criterion-related validity, while factor structure and measurement invariances across gender and age groups were analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A subset of the original sample (N = 2874) was retested after six months and analyzed for test-retest reliability and cross-time invariance.

RESULT

CFA of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ supported the intended two-factor model. Good criterion-related validity, internal consistency and test-retest reliability for these three versions were found. Satisfying measurement invariances across gender, time, and age groups were established.

LIMITATION

The study's scope was confined to non-clinical adolescent populations within China, highlighting a gap in cross-cultural and clinical applicability.

CONCLUSION

The present study supports the use of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ as valid and concise instruments for measuring Chinese adolescent personality vulnerability.

State of the art of the literature on definitions of self-criticism: a meta-review

Background

Several authors have developed important theoretical models on an important transdiagnostic factor in psychopathology: self-criticism (SC). Currently, there are substantial variations in the theoretical definition of SC. The lack of awareness of similarities and differences between models may in turn impact the comparison between empirical results, limiting their clinical implications.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to identify current trends in the field of SC and to explore whether these were approached and shaped by different conceptualizations of SC.

Methods

Core components of the most influential models of SC were identified. A meta-review was conducted searching for systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses in the following databases: PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed (all years up to 28 April 2023).

Results

Contributions were heterogeneous with respect to the definition of SC and the theoretical framework. Almost all systematic reviews poorly addressed the multidimensionality of SC. In addition, discrepancies between the definitions of SC provided and their operationalizations emerged.

Conclusions

The lack of dialogue between the different theoretical perspectives emerged from key contributions in the field of SC. Potential research questions to answer to stimulate this dialogue are proposed.

Breaking the anxious cycle of self-criticism: Action orientation buffers the detrimental effects of a self-critical personality style

BACKGROUND

A self-critical personality style has been associated with psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Self-critical people also tend to strive more anxiously for basic motives such as affiliation, achievement, power, and autonomy. This anxious motive enactment mediates the relationship between self-critical style and psychological symptoms that may, in turn, reinforce self-criticism. The present study examines whether action orientation (i.e., a high self-regulatory ability) offers a way out of this anxious cycle and buffers the detrimental effects of self-criticism.

METHODS

A coaching- and therapy-based sample (N = 479, age: 14-71 years) was collected by a private German institute as part of the assessment, research, and training program. Data were collected online in form of questionnaires. We performed moderated mediation analysis to test our hypothesis.

RESULTS

The relationship between self-critical style and psychological symptoms was mediated by anxious motive enactment. Action orientation moderated the link between self-critical style and anxious motive enactment and buffered the effects of a self-critical style on both anxious motive enactment and psychological symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

The study used cross-sectional data and should be followed-up longitudinally. Our data come only from self-report and could be extended to non-reactive measures.

CONCLUSIONS

The detrimental effects of a self-critical personality style in terms of anxious motive enactment and psychological symptoms are more severe when self-regulation (action orientation) is low. The findings have practical implications for clinical work because action orientation is malleable. The ability to self-regulate affect is comparatively easier to train than to ease self-critical people's inherent affect sensitivity.

Daily ups and downs in adolescents' depressive symptoms: The role of daily self-criticism, dependency and basic psychological needs

INTRODUCTION

Although associations between Blatt's personality dimensions of self-criticism and dependency and adolescents' depressive symptoms are well-established, only few studies have examined associations between these variables at the level of daily, within-person fluctuations. Moreover, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this personality vulnerability to depressive symptoms is limited. Therefore, we studied (a) daily fluctuations in both personality and depressive symptoms over a 7-day period and (b) the possible interplay between daily variations in personality vulnerability, need-based experiences (as conceptualized in Self-Determination Theory), and depressive symptoms. This interplay was examined in terms of both a mediational and a moderating role of the need-based experiences.

METHODS

Participants were 121 Belgian adolescents (M_age = 15.81; SD_age = 1.50; 52 % male) who completed questionnaires tapping into daily self-criticism, dependency, need-based experiences, and depressive symptoms every evening during seven consecutive days.

RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS

Multilevel analysis revealed that self-criticism and dependency fluctuated substantially on a daily basis. These daily fluctuations in personality were related to daily fluctuations in depressive symptoms, with daily variation in need-based experiences mediating these associations. We found no evidence for interactions between personality and the need-based experiences. The findings underscore the importance of considering daily fluctuations in individuals' personality vulnerability and point to the explanatory role of need-based experiences in the relation between personality and depressive symptoms on a daily basis.

Parental bonding, depressive experiences, and symptomology: An investigation among college students in Malaysia

This study examined the perceptions of parental bonding, depressive experiences of self-criticism and dependency, and the current level of depressive symptomology among 212 college students from Sabah, Malaysia. The participants completed the brief version of the Parental Bonding Instrument, the Reconstructed Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, and the Patient Health Questionnaire. The results showed significant direct effects of maternal care, maternal overprotection, paternal care, self-criticism, and dependency on depressive symptomology. In contrast, the indirect effects of self-criticism and dependency on the relationship between parental bonding and depressive symptomology were not significant. These findings were in line with previous studies that have highlighted the significance of parent-child bonding, self-criticism, and dependency in the development of depressive symptomology. However, they contradicted previous results on the significant indirect effects of self-criticism and dependency. This study highlights the importance of parental care and overprotection, as they can predict the manifestation of depressive symptomology at a later stage in life.

Is perfectionism a vulnerability factor for depressive symptoms, a complication of depressive symptoms, or both? A meta-analytic test of 67 longitudinal studies

Decades of research implicates perfectionism in depressive symptoms. Yet, inconsistent findings, underpowered studies, and the tendency for researchers to assume one direction of influence have clouded understanding of whether perfectionism is a vulnerability factor for depressive symptoms, a complication of depressive symptoms, or both. Our primary aim was to address this by using meta-analytic structural equation modeling to test cross-lagged reciprocal relations between depressive symptoms and two perfectionism factors: perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings. Our secondary aim was to catalyze a search for moderators that might explain heterogeneity by conducting a bivariate random-effects meta-analysis. The literature search yielded 67 longitudinal studies (N = 20,583) composed of undergraduates, community members, medical students, treatment-seeking adults, and patients with mental health problems. The relationship between perfectionistic concerns and depressive symptoms was reciprocal, with perfectionistic concerns predicting increased depressive symptoms and vice versa. In contrast, the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and depressive symptoms was unidirectional, with perfectionistic strivings conferring vulnerability for depressive symptoms, but not the reverse. Clinicians who overlook the reciprocal relationship between perfectionistic concerns and depressive symptoms might miss information vital to accurate conceptualization, assessment, and treatment. Perfectionistic strivings may be distinguishable from perfectionistic concerns by being more in line with classical models of personality vulnerability.

Self-criticism and self-esteem in early adolescence: Do they predict depression?

Beck's theory suggests that forming negative self-cognitions is a key early step in the development of depression. However, others have suggested the reverse, arguing that depression leads to development of negative self-beliefs. As such, there is debate about whether these cognitions are precursors to, or alternatively are caused by, depression. Although Beck's theory is supported in older adolescents, it has not been clearly seen in younger adolescents. This study aimed to assess the relation between two major self-cognitions (self-esteem and self-criticism) and depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Two-hundred and forty-three Australian adolescents (mean age = 12.08, 52% female) completed measures of self-esteem, self-criticism and depressive symptoms at baseline, then approximately 12- and 24-months later. Growth-curve modelling was used to assess changes in the variables. Cross-lagged analysis assessed whether either of the self-cognition variables predicted depressive symptoms, or if depressive symptoms predicted self-cognitions. Results indicated that self-criticism and depressive symptoms increased over the time period, while self-esteem decreased, and these changes were all related. Self-esteem predicted depressive symptoms from Time 2 to Time 3, while depressive symptoms predicted self-esteem from Time 1 to Time 2. Self-criticism did not predict depressive symptoms, nor did depressive symptoms predict self-criticism. These links appeared largely independent of gender. Self-esteem and depressive symptoms during the early adolescent period thus appear to have a somewhat reciprocal relation, while self-criticism does not appear to predict the development of depression. As such, while low self-esteem does appear to have an important role of in the development of depression in this age group, it is not strictly predictive, nor is this effect seen across all negative self-cognitions.

The clinical trait self-criticism and its relation to psychopathology: A systematic review - Update

BACKGROUND

Self-criticism represents a central phenomenon in a variety of mental disorders. The review looks at the recent body of literature (2012-2018) to summarize the relation of self-criticism and psychopathology beyond depression and aims at detecting how different conceptualizations of self-criticism with psychoanalytical, psychodynamic, or cognitive-evolutionary background are related to psychopathology. Furthermore, latest treatment approaches for dysfunctional forms of self-criticism are reviewed.

METHODS

The literature research of five databases (PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, PubMed, Medline, and Cochrane Library) took place in August 2018. Inclusion criteria for studies to enter the review narrative were an adult sample, non-clinical samples as well as clinical samples, and an empirical approach, which resulted in quantitative data.

RESULTS

48 studies entered the review. Besides depressive symptoms, self-criticism showed positive relations to symptoms of eating disorders, social anxiety disorder, and personality disorders as well as to psychotic symptoms or interpersonal problems through different conceptualizations of self-criticism. Regarding the treatment of self-criticism, compassion- or emotion-focused therapy interventions were investigated in most of the reviewed studies and both reduced self-criticism in clinical and non-clinical samples. However, harsh forms of self-criticism were more persistent and difficult to change.

LIMITATIONS

The review focused only on the latest empirical findings regarding self-criticism and psychopathology.

CONCLUSION

Potentially functional forms and functions of self-criticism need further consideration, as they represent a possible goal of psychotherapeutic treatment. Future research should address specific questions regarding antecedents and consequences of self-criticism.

Role of adolescent exposure to rockets in the links between personality vulnerability and psychopathology

The aim of this study is to examine the role of repeated exposure to rocket attacks in the links between personality vulnerability (dependency and self-criticism) and internalizing/externalizing psychopathology. A main-effect vulnerability model (personality leads to psychopathology) was compared with a main-effect scarring model (psychopathology leads to personality vulnerability). Also, a stress-diathesis pattern (personality vulnerability is activated under stress) was compared to a dual-vulnerability pattern (either personality vulnerability or stress, but not both, lead to psychopathology). Israeli adolescents (N = 362) repeatedly exposed to rocket attacks were assessed annually over 3 years. In 2008 and 2010, personality and psychopathology were assessed. Cumulative exposure was measured as the sums of exposure across the three assessment waves. Theoretical models were tested via Autoregressive Cross-Lagged Structural Equation Modeling analyses. Baseline dependency and self-criticism were associated with an increase in anxiety, whereas baseline depression was associated with an increase in dependency. Under low, not high, levels of rocket exposure, self-criticism and depression were longitudinally associated. Violence commission was associated with an increase in dependency under high, not low, cumulative exposure. Results are consistent with both scarring and vulnerability models, and with both stress-diathesis and dual-vulnerability patterns of adolescent risk and resilience.

Perfectionism, Burnout, and Depression in Youth Soccer Players: A Longitudinal Study

The relationship between perfectionism, burnout and depression among youth soccer players is of interest due to the competitive academy environments that must be navigated in order to become a professional soccer player. Three alternative theoretical models have been proposed to explain the relationship between perfectionism, burnout and depression. These models state that perfectionism is (a) a vulnerability factor for burnout and depression (vulnerability model), (b) a consequence of burnout and depression (complication/scar model), or (c) that the relationships are reciprocal (reciprocal relations model). The purpose of this study was to test these three models in youth soccer players. One hundred and eight male soccer players (M = 16.15 years, SD = 1.84) from professional clubs completed measures of perfectionism, burnout symptoms, and depressive symptoms twice, three months apart. Cross-lagged panel analysis provided support for a reciprocal relations model for burnout symptoms and a complication/scar model for depressive symptoms.

The (Suicidal-) Depressive Position: A Scientifically Informed Reformulation

Despite considerable progress in depression research and treatment, the disorder continues to pose daunting challenges to scientists and practitioners alike. This article presents a novel conceptualization of the psychological dynamics of depression which draws from Melanie Klein's notion of the positions, reformulated using social-cognitive terms. Specifically, Klein's notion of position, consisting of anxieties (persecutory vs. "depressive"), defense mechanisms ("primitive"/split based vs. neurotic/repression based), and object relations (part vs. whole) is reformulated to include (1) affect, broadly defined, (2) affect regulatory strategies (defense mechanisms, coping strategies, and motivation regulation), and (3) mental representations of self-with-others, all pertaining to the past, present, and future. I reformulate the depressive position to include-beyond sadness, anxiety, and anhedonia-also anger/agitation, shame, disgust, and contempt, all of which are down-regulated via diverse mechanisms. In the depressive position, the self is experienced as wronged and others as punitive, albeit seductive. Attempts to appease internal others (objects) are projected into the future, only to be thwarted by awkward and inept interpersonal behavior. This might propel the use of counter-phobic, counter-dependent, and "manic" affect regulatory mechanisms, potentially leading to suicidal depression.

Depressive personality vulnerability in chronic physical pain: Centrality of sociotropy

OBJECTIVE

Chronic physical pain is one of modern medicine's principal challenges. Recently, there has been a keen research interest in the role of depressive personality vulnerability (DPV) in the course of chronic pain. This is the first attempt to examine the role of three leading DPV dimensions-sociotropy, autonomy, and self-criticism-in chronic pain.

METHOD

Chronic pain patients (N = 428) were assessed four times as to their pain, disability, anxious depression, and pain-based catastrophizing. At Time 1, sociotropy, autonomy, and self-criticism were also assessed. The effects of sociotropy, autonomy, and self-criticism on pain, disability, anxious depression, and pain-based catastrophizing were examined using structural equation modeling analyses.

RESULTS

All DPV dimensions uniquely predicted Time 1, but not Time 2, anxious depression. Sociotropy predicted Time 1 pain and catastrophizing over and above anxious depression, as well as an increase in catastrophizing over time. Autonomy predicted a decrease in catastrophizing and disability, and Time 1 anxious depression predicted an increase in self-criticism.

CONCLUSIONS

Sociotropy appears to be a unique dimension of DPV in chronic pain.

Longitudinal Links Between Perfectionism and Depression in Children

The temporal relation between two types of perfectionism - self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) - and depressive symptoms was examined in a sample of 653 children (286 girls, 367 boys) across Grades 6 (depressive symptoms only), 7, and 8. A vulnerability model, in which perfectionism affects depressive symptoms, was compared to a scar model, in which depressive symptoms affects perfectionism, and to a reciprocal-causality model, in which both constructs concurrently affect each other across time. Cross-lagged paths analyses using structural equation modeling supported a scar model where increases in depressive symptoms lead to increases in SPP, but not SOP. The findings applied to both boys and girls. Results suggest that in childhood, depressive symptoms increase the perception that others are expecting excessively high standards of oneself and the need to satisfy this perception.

Being bullied and feeling ashamed: Implications for eating psychopathology and depression in adolescent girls

The current study examined the associations between peer victimization, body image shame, self-criticism, self-reassurance, depressive symptoms and eating psychopathology in 609 female adolescents. Correlational analyses showed that being the victim of bullying was positively associated with body image shame, self-criticism, with low self-reassurance, depressive symptoms and eating psychopathology. A path analysis indicated that victimization experiences were associated with increased depressive symptoms partially through increased levels of body image shame, and a severe form of self-criticism - hated self. Body image shame and hated-self self-criticism fully mediated the association between victimization experiences eating psychopathology. The tested model accounted for a total of 51% of depressive symptoms variance and for 52% of eating psychopathology variance. These findings may have important intervention and prevention implications, by suggesting that bullying experiences fuel body image shame and consequent self-directed hostility and anger, which, in turn, predict increased depressive symptomatology and eating psychopathology in female adolescents.

Review: Assessment, development, and treatment of childhood perfectionism: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

In the adult literature, perfectionism has been linked with psychopathology and poor treatment outcomes, leading to perfectionism-focussed therapies. The child and adolescent perfectionism literature is comparatively sparse.

METHOD

A systematic search of five electronic databases (Web of Knowledge, APA PsycNET, PubMed, ERIC/ProQuest, and Scopus) was conducted to identify studies of perfectionism in children and adolescents, in the context of psychopathology.

RESULTS

The search identified 133 studies, 84 of which discussed perfectionism as a correlate of mental health problems. These studies were briefly synthesised, with the systematic review focussing on evaluating papers on the development (n = 23), assessment (n = 19), and treatment (n = 7) of perfectionism.

CONCLUSION

Treatment studies did not reflect the phenomenology of perfectionism found in this review.

Why are anxiety and depressive symptoms comorbid in youth? A multi-wave, longitudinal examination of competing etiological models

BACKGROUND

The present study sought to clarify the development of comorbid emotional distress by comparing different explanations for how youth develop anxiety and depressive symptoms. Specifically, we introduced the diathesis-anxiety approach (whether cognitive vulnerabilities interact with anxiety symptoms), and compared it to a causal model (anxiety symptoms predicting depressive symptoms), and a correlated liabilities model (whether cognitive vulnerabilities interacted with stressors to predict both anxiety and depressive symptoms) to examine which model best explained the relation between depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth.

METHODS

678 3rd (n=208), 6th (n=245), and 9th (n=225) grade girls (n=380) and boys (n=298) completed self-report measures at baseline assessing cognitive vulnerabilities (rumination and self-criticism), stressors, depressive and anxiety symptoms. Every 3 months over the next 18 months, youth completed follow-up measures of symptoms and stressors.

RESULTS

While limited support was found for a causal (p>0.10) or correlated-liability model (p>0.05) for comorbidity, findings did support a diathesis-anxiety approach for both self-criticism (t(2494)=3.36, p<0.001) and rumination (t(2505)=2.40, p<0.05).

LIMITATIONS

The present study׳s findings are based on self-report measure and makes inferences concerning comorbidity with a community sample.

CONCLUSIONS

These results may help clarify past research concerning comorbidity by introducing a diathesis-anxiety approach as a viable model to understand which youth are most at-risk for developing comorbid emotional distress.

The role of socially prescribed perfectionism in the link between perceived racial discrimination and African American adolescents' depressive symptoms

Research examining the social origins of perfectionism has focused on negative evaluative experiences in the family, with less attention to negative social evaluations in other contexts and situations relevant for African American adolescents. The experience of racial discrimination is common for African American youth, and may trigger maladaptive perfectionistic beliefs if the youth perceive that they do not meet others' standards (socially prescribed perfectionism) or internalize discriminatory messages. Thus, the present study examined longitudinal associations among racial discrimination, socially prescribed perfectionism, and depressive symptoms among a community sample of urban and predominantly low income African American adolescents (n = 492; 46.7 % female). In each of grades 7, 8 and 9, participants reported their experiences with racial discrimination, perfectionistic beliefs, and depressive symptoms. Analyses revealed that experiences with racial discrimination in grade 7 were associated with socially prescribed perfectionism in grade 8 which, in turn, was linked with depressive symptoms in grade 9. Results suggest that prospective associations between the experience of racial discrimination and depressive symptoms are due, in part, to increased socially prescribed perfectionism. Implications for interventions targeting depression in African American are discussed.

Transactional relationships among cognitive vulnerabilities, stressors, and depressive symptoms in adolescence

The transactional cognitive vulnerability to stress model Hankin & Abramson (Psychological Bulletin, 127:773-796, 2001) extends the traditional diathesis-stress model by proposing that the relationships among cognitions, depressive symptoms, and stressors are dynamic and bidirectional. In this study three different pathways among these variables were assessed simultaneously: (1) cognitive vulnerabilities and stressors as predictors of depressive symptoms (vulnerability model), (2) depressive symptoms and cognitive vulnerabilities as predictors of stressors (stress generation model), and (3) depressive symptoms and stressors as predictors of cognitive vulnerabilities (consequence model). A fully cross-lagged design panel was employed with 1,187 adolescents (545 girls and 642 boys, Mean Age = 13.42 years) who were assessed at two time points separated by 6 months. They completed measures of cognitive vulnerabilities (maladaptive schema domains and negative inferential style), stressors, and depressive symptoms. Inferential style and schemas of the disconnection and rejection domain predicted prospective increases in depressive symptoms. Initial levels of depressive symptoms and most cognitive vulnerabilities predicted greater stress generation. Initial levels of stressors and depressive symptoms predicted an increase in negative inferential style and maladaptive schema domains over time. These bidirectional relationships were mostly similar for boys and girls, although there were a few gender differences. The findings support a transactional model with reciprocal relationships among stress, depressive symptoms, and cognitive vulnerabilities. Transactional implications for depression interventions among adolescents are discussed.

PERSONALITY PREDISPOSITIONS IN CHINESE ADOLESCENTS: THE RELATION BETWEEN SELF-CRITICISM, DEPENDENCY, AND PROSPECTIVE INTERNALIZING SYMPTOMS

The present study examined the prospective relation between two personality predispositions, self-criticism and dependency, and internalizing symptoms. Specifically, it was examined whether self-criticism and dependency predicted symptoms of depression and social anxiety, and if a moderation (e.g. diathesis-stress) or mediation model best explained the relation between the personality predispositions and emotional distress in Chinese adolescents. Participants included 1,150 adolescents (597 females and 553 males) from mainland China. Participants completed self-report measures of self-criticism, dependency, and neuroticism at baseline, and self-report measures of negative events, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety symptoms once a month for six months. Findings showed that self-criticism predicted depressive symptoms, while dependency predicted social anxiety symptoms. In addition, support was found for a mediation model, as opposed to a moderation model, with achievement stressors mediating the relation between self-criticism and depressive symptoms. Overall, these findings highlight new developmental pathways for the development of depression and social anxiety symptoms in mainland Chinese adolescents. Implications for cross-cultural developmental psychopathology research are discussed.

Do PTSD symptoms and trauma-related cognitions about the self constitute a vicious cycle? Evidence for both cognitive vulnerability and scarring models

Cognitive models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) posit that negative cognitions regarding the self and the world underlie the disorder. In contrast, scarring models - which postulate that distress brings about an elevation in vulnerability - predict the inverse relationship. Both models were tested amongst 156 Israeli trauma victims. Participants were assessed for PTSD symptoms and trauma-related cognitions (negative thoughts regarding self and world) over 2 weeks (T1), 4 weeks (T2), and 12 weeks (T3) following the traumatic event. A cross-lagged structural equation modeling analysis yielded evidence for both cognitive vulnerability and scarring. Baseline PTSD was prospectively associated with an increase in negative cognitions regarding both the self and the world during the T1-T2 period. Negative cognitions regarding the self were prospectively associated with an increase in PTSD symptoms during both T1-T2 and T2-T3 periods. PTSD symptoms and negative cognitions regarding the self thus appear to form a vicious cognitive-symptomatic cycle which might impede recovery.

Personality predispositions to depression in children of affectively-ill parents: the buffering role of self-esteem

A major theory of personality predispositions to depression posits that individuals who possess high levels of self-criticism and/or dependency are vulnerable to developing depression following negative life events. The goal of the current study was to test this theory of personality predispositions and the self-esteem buffering hypothesis in a sample of youth using an idiographic approach, a high-risk sample, and a multiwave longitudinal design. One hundred forty children aged 6 to 14 completed measures of dependency, self-criticism, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Over the course of the following year, 8 follow-up assessments were conducted 6 weeks apart during which all children were administered measures assessing depressive symptoms and the occurrence of negative events. Results of hierarchical linear modeling analyses indicated that higher levels of dependency were associated with greater increases in depressive symptoms following negative events among children possessing low, but not high, self-esteem. In contrast, self-criticism was not associated with changes in depressive symptoms over time regardless of children's levels of stress and/or self-esteem.

Rejection Sensitivity in Late Adolescence: Social and Emotional Sequelae

This study used longitudinal, multi-reporter data, in a community sample, to examine the role of rejection sensitivity in late adolescents' social and emotional development. Rejection sensitivity was linked to a relative increase in adolescent depressive and anxiety symptoms over a three-year period, even after accounting for teens' baseline level of social competence. Additionally, reciprocal relationships emerged between rejection sensitivity and internalizing symptoms. Rejection sensitivity was also linked to relative decreases in peer-reports of teens' social competence over a three-year period. Consistent with research on gendered socialization, males reported higher levels of rejection sensitivity than females at age 16 and 17. Results are interpreted as highlighting the importance of rejection sensitivity in understanding late adolescent social and emotional development.

The mediating role of self-criticism and dependency in the association between perceptions of maternal caring and depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

This study examined a theoretically based mediation model including participants' perceptions of early relationships with their mother, self-criticism, dependency, and current depressive symptoms. We expect that (a) early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection will be positively associated with both current depressive state and self-criticism and dependency; (b) high levels of self-criticism and dependency will be positively associated with depressive symptoms; and (c) self-criticism and dependency will play a mediating role in the association between participants' perceptions of early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection and their current depressive symptoms.

METHODS

A nonclinical community sample of 200 Portuguese adults participated in the study. Perceptions of early relationships were measured using the mother scales of the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker et al. [1979: Br J Med Psychol 52:1-10]), levels of self-criticism and dependency were measured using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt et al. [1976: J Abn Psy 6:383-389]), and depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for the Epidemiological Studies of Depression Scale (Radloff [1977: Appl Psychol Meas 1:385-401].

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling showed that the link between participants' perceptions of early caretaking relationships with their mothers and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of self-criticism--a personality trait associated with vulnerability to depression--but not Dependency. However, an ancillary analysis indicated that the link between participants' perceptions of early maternal overprotective relationships and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of Neediness.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings underscore the role of perceived early relationships in psychological vulnerability to depression among highly self-critical and among highly needy individuals and highlight the negative role played by perceived mothers' early dysfunctional practices, characterized by low levels of caring and high levels of overprotection, for the self-critical vulnerability to depression and by perceived mothers' high levels of overprotection, for the neediness vulnerability to depression. These potential causal mechanisms warrant longitudinal evaluation. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

Stability and change in levels of depression and personality: a follow-up study of postpartum depressed mothers that were hospitalized in a mother-infant unit

This prospective longitudinal study investigated the role of the personality dimensions of dependency and self-criticism in the course of depressive symptoms in a sample of inpatient severely postpartum depressed mothers (n = 55). Depressive symptoms and personality were measured during hospitalization and on average 3 1/2 years later. In line with previous research, a considerable subgroup of mothers (39%) reported moderate to severe symptoms of depression at time 2. In addition, although these mothers did not exhibit more depressive episodes during follow-up period compared with mothers with a less chronic course of depression, their depressive episodes were considerably longer, and they had higher levels of severity of depression as well as of dependency and self-criticism at Time 1. Finally, self-criticism, but not dependency, assessed at Time 1, predicted both depression diagnosis and levels of depression at follow-up, supporting a vulnerability model positing that self-criticism confers vulnerability for depression over time.

When Friends Make You Blue: The Role of Friendship Contingent Self-Esteem in Predicting Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms

This research examines the role of friendship contingent self-esteem (FCSE), or self-esteem that is dependent on the quality of one’s friendships, in predicting depressive symptoms. In Study 1, the authors developed a measure of FCSE. Both FCSE and others’ approval correlated with self-esteem and depressive symptoms, but when entered simultaneously in a regression equation, only FCSE significantly predicted self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Study 2 showed that dependency and close friendship competence predicted depressive symptoms only for those high in FCSE. In Study 3, a diary study, FCSE predicted self-esteem instability. Self-esteem instability, in turn, predicted depressive symptoms. Furthermore, a three-way interaction of rumination, FCSE, and the valence of the event predicted momentary self-esteem. Findings are discussed with regard to the importance of considering FCSE when investigating interpersonal risk for depression.

Self-criticism, dependency, and stress reactivity: an experience sampling approach to testing Blatt and Zuroff's (1992) theory of personality predispositions to depression in high-risk youth

S. J. Blatt and D. C. Zuroff's 1992 theory of personality predispositions to depression posits that individuals who possess high levels of self-criticism and/or dependency are vulnerable to developing depression following negative events. The current study used experience sampling methodology to test this theory in a sample of 49 children ages 7 to 14. Children completed measures of dependency, self-criticism, and depressive symptoms. Subsequently, children were given a handheld computer that signaled them to complete measures of depressive symptoms and negative events at randomly selected times over 2 months. Results of hierarchical linear modeling analyses indicated that higher levels of both self-criticism and dependency were associated with greater elevations in depressive symptoms following negative events. Furthermore, each personality predisposition remained a significant predictor of such elevations after controlling for the interaction between the other personality predisposition and negative events. The results suggest that dependency and self-criticism represent distinct vulnerability factors to depression in youth.

Hypomanic symptoms predict an increase in narcissistic and histrionic personality disorder features in suicidal young adults

Consistent with the "scar hypothesis", according to which mood depression might impact personality, we examined the effect of unipolar and hypomanic mood disturbances on cluster B (i.e., narcissistic, histrionic, and borderline) personality disorder features. Data from 113 suicidal young adults were utilized, and cross-lagged associations between unipolar and hypomanic mood disturbances and cluster B personality disorder features were examined using manifest-variable structural equation modeling (SEM). Hypomanic symptoms predicted an increase in narcissistic and histrionic personality disorder features over the Time 1-Time 2 period, as well as an increase in narcissistic personality disorder features over the Time 1-Time 3 period. Unipolar depressive symptoms and borderline features were reciprocally and longitudinally associated, albeit at different time periods. The sample distinct features restrict generalization of the findings. An exclusive use of self-report measures might have contributed to shared method variance. Results are consistent with the notion that hypomanic symptoms increase narcissistic personality disorder tendencies.

A new comprehensive evolutionary model of depression and anxiety

Difference amplification was the process whereby the difference in fitness between two competing individuals in early man was magnified by the results of the competition. It arises from adaptive and maladaptive cycles (characterized by depression and anxiety) that are initiated by winning and losing agonistic encounters. Those who were most successful were likely to find mates that were also successful and vice versa. This would have contributed to well-endowed progeny and accelerated phylogenetic evolution. The adaptive and maladaptive cycles of the difference amplification model are also a feature of the social rank and attachment models. Ineffective operation of social rank and attachment systems is associated with anxiety and depression. This paper introduces the notion that the efficient operation of these two systems in hierarchical encounters accelerates the phylogenetic adaptation of the individual's genetic line. This suggests an adaptive function of attachment and social rank mechanisms that has not been previously described. Social rank, attachment and difference amplification should be viewed as different aspects of a comprehensive evolutionary model of depression and anxiety. This new model has psychotherapeutic implications.

Cognitive features associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence: directionality and specificity

In this study we examined cognitive features that have been posited to contribute to depressive vulnerability in adolescents. Using a longitudinal sample of 331 young adolescents followed from 6th to 7th grade, cross-lagged structural equation analyses were conducted. Controlling for baseline levels of depressive, conduct, and anxiety symptoms, low self-worth was associated with a vulnerability to both depressive symptoms and conduct problems, whereas rejection sensitivity was uniquely predictive of increases in anxiety. In support of cognitive "scar" models, baseline depressive and conduct problems were both predictive of a more negative attributional style. Depressive symptoms also predicted more rejection sensitivity, whereas conduct problems predicted lower self-esteem.