Ammonium and nitrate in ice accretions and snow at two Central European montane locations: δ15N and δ18 O H 2 O isotope ratios, fluxes and sources

In many countries worldwide, NOx emissions currently decrease as a result of pollution control, while NH3 emissions stagnate or continue to increase. Little is known about horizontal deposition of NO3- and NH4+, the oxidation/neutralization products of these primary pollutants. To close the knowledge gap, we studied atmospheric inputs of NO3- and NH4+ at two mountain-top sites near the Czech-German-Polish borders during winter. Horizontal deposition via ice accretions (rime) made up 26-30 % of total atmospheric input of reactive nitrogen (Nr). Such high horizontal depositions should not be neglected in ecosystem N studies which currently often consider only vertical deposition via snow. Snow nitrate N was the largest type of Nr deposition (40-52 %), with snow ammonium N being the second largest (20-30 %). Rime ammonium N contributed a similar amount to total Nr input as rime nitrate N (12-16 %). The total inorganic Nr deposition was 4-6 kg ha-1 winter-1. Across the sites, the mean δ15N NH 4 + and δ15N NO 3 − values fell in a relatively narrow range from -3.1 to -7.3 ‰. Three systematic isotope patterns were observed: (i) NH4+-N was always heavier in rime than in snow, (ii) NO3--N was always heavier in rime than in snow, and (iii) NO3--N was always heavier than NH4+-N. For source apportionment, the Bayesian isotope mixing model SIMMR was used. Counter-intuitively, vehicles were larger sources of NH3 in rime than volatilation from animal waste plus fertilizers (46 vs. 19 %). The largest NO3- contributions to rime were derived from vehicles and biomass burning, followed by natural gas combustion and coal burning in power plants and households. Natural gas represented the largest source of nitrate in snow. Nitrate sources appeared to be better-mixed than ammonium sources. Our isotope-based source apportionment differed from national emission inventories, offering original insights into local atmospheric Nr inputs.

Clair JM, Trost B, Flynn JH, Savarino J, Conner LD, Kettle N, Heeringa KM, Albertin S, Baccarini A, Barret B, Battaglia MA, Bekki S, Brado T, Brett N, Brus D, Campbell JR, Cesler-Maloney M, Cooperdock S, Cysneiros de Carvalho K, Delbarre H, DeMott PJ, Dennehy CJ, Dieudonné E, Dingilian KK, Donateo A, Doulgeris KM, Edwards KC, Fahey K, Fang T, Guo F, Heinlein LMD, Holen AL, Huff D, Ijaz A, Johnson S, Kapur S, Ketcherside DT, Levin E, Lill E, Moon AR, Onishi T, Pappaccogli G, Perkins R, Pohorsky R, Raut JC, Ravetta F, Roberts T, Robinson ES, Scoto F, Selimovic V, Sunday MO, Temime-Roussel B, Tian X, Wu J, Yang Y. Overview of the Alaskan Layered Pollution and Chemical Analysis (ALPACA) Field Experiment

The Alaskan Layered Pollution And Chemical Analysis (ALPACA) field experiment was a collaborative study designed to improve understanding of pollution sources and chemical processes during winter (cold climate and low-photochemical activity), to investigate indoor pollution, and to study dispersion of pollution as affected by frequent temperature inversions. A number of the research goals were motivated by questions raised by residents of Fairbanks, Alaska, where the study was held. This paper describes the measurement strategies and the conditions encountered during the January and February 2022 field experiment, and reports early examples of how the measurements addressed research goals, particularly those of interest to the residents. Outdoor air measurements showed high concentrations of particulate matter and pollutant gases including volatile organic carbon species. During pollution events, low winds and extremely stable atmospheric conditions trapped pollution below 73 m, an extremely shallow vertical scale. Tethered-balloon-based measurements intercepted plumes aloft, which were associated with power plant point sources through transport modeling. Because cold climate residents spend much of their time indoors, the study included an indoor air quality component, where measurements were made inside and outside a house to study infiltration and indoor sources. In the absence of indoor activities such as cooking and/or heating with a pellet stove, indoor particulate matter concentrations were lower than outdoors; however, cooking and pellet stove burns often caused higher indoor particulate matter concentrations than outdoors. The mass-normalized particulate matter oxidative potential, a health-relevant property measured here by the reactivity with dithiothreiol, of indoor particles varied by source, with cooking particles having less oxidative potential per mass than pellet stove particles.

Low blank sampling method for measurement of the nitrogen isotopic composition of atmospheric NOx

The nitrogen isotopic composition of nitrogen oxide (NOx) is useful for estimating its sources and sinks. Several methods have been developed to convert atmospheric nitric oxide (NO) and/or nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to nitrites and/or nitrates for collection. However, the collection efficiency and blanks are poorly evaluated for many collection methods. Here, we present a method for collecting ambient NOx (NO and NO2 simultaneously) with over 90% efficiency collection of NOx and low blank (approximately 0.5 μM) using a 3 wt% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and 0.5 M sodium hydride (NaOH) solution. The 1σ uncertainty of the nitrogen isotopic composition was ± 1.2 ‰. The advantages of this method include its portability, simplicity, and the ability to collect the required amount of sample to analyze the nitrogen isotopic composition of ambient NOx in a short period of time. Using this method, we observed the nitrogen isotopic compositions of NOx at the Tsukuba and Yoyogi sites in Japan. The averaged δ15N(NOx) value and standard deviation (1σ) in the Yoyogi site was (-2.7 ± 1.8) ‰ and in the Tsukuba site was (-1.7 ± 0.9) ‰ during the sampling period. The main NOx source appears to be the vehicle exhaust in the two sites.

Increasing Nonfossil Fuel Contributions to Atmospheric Nitrate in Urban China from Observation to Prediction

China's nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions have undergone significant changes over the past few decades. However, nonfossil fuel NOx emissions are not yet well constrained in urban environments, resulting in a substantial underestimation of their importance relative to the known fossil fuel NOx emissions. We developed an approach using machine learning that is accurate enough to generate a long time series of the nitrogen isotopic composition (δ15N) of atmospheric nitrate using high-level accuracies of air pollutants and meteorology data. Air temperature was found to be the critical driver of the variation of nitrate δ15N at daily resolution based on this approach, while significant reductions of aerosol and its precursor emissions played a key role in the change of nitrate δ15N on the yearly scale. Predictions from this model found a significant decrease in nitrate δ15N in Chinese megacities (Beijing and Guangzhou as representative cities in the north and south, respectively) since 2013, implying an enhanced contribution of nonfossil fuel NOx emissions to nitrate aerosols (up to 22%-26% in 2021 from 18%-22% in 2013 quantified by an isotope mixing model), as confirmed by the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with online chemistry (WRF-Chem) simulation. Meanwhile, the declining contribution in coal combustion (34%-39% in 2013 to 31%-34% in 2021) and increasing contribution of natural gas combustion (11%-14% in 2013 to 14%-17% in 2021) demonstrated the transformation of China's energy structure from coal to natural gas. This approach provides missing records for exploring long-term variability in the nitrogen isotope system and may contribute to the study of the global reactive nitrogen biogeochemical cycle.

Sunlight-driven nitrate loss records Antarctic surface mass balance

Standard proxies for reconstructing surface mass balance (SMB) in Antarctic ice cores are often inaccurate or coarsely resolved when applied to more complicated environments away from dome summits. Here, we propose an alternative SMB proxy based on photolytic fractionation of nitrogen isotopes in nitrate observed at 114 sites throughout East Antarctica. Applying this proxy approach to nitrate in a shallow core drilled at a moderate SMB site (Aurora Basin North), we reconstruct 700 years of SMB changes that agree well with changes estimated from ice core density and upstream surface topography. For the under-sampled transition zones between dome summits and the coast, we show that this proxy can provide past and present SMB values that reflect the immediate local environment and are derived independently from existing techniques.

Robust Evidence of 14C, 13C, and 15N Analyses Indicating Fossil Fuel Sources for Total Carbon and Ammonium in Fine Aerosols in Seoul Megacity

Carbon- and nitrogen-containing aerosols are ubiquitous in urban atmospheres and play important roles in air quality and climate change. We determined the ¹⁴C fraction modern (f_M) and δ¹³C of total carbon (TC) and δ¹⁵N of NH₄⁺ in the PM_2.5 collected in Seoul megacity during April 2018 to December 2019. The seasonal mean δ¹³C values were similar to -25.1‰ ± 2.0‰ in warm and -24.2‰ ± 0.82‰ in cold seasons. Mean δ¹⁵N values were higher in warm (16.4‰ ± 2.8‰) than in cold seasons (4.0‰ ± 6.1‰), highlighting the temperature effects on atmospheric NH₃ levels and phase-equilibrium isotopic exchange during the conversion of NH₃ to NH₄⁺. While 37% ± 10% of TC was apportioned to fossil-fuel sources on the basis of f_M values, δ¹⁵N indicated a higher contribution of emissions from vehicle exhausts and electricity generating units (power-plant NH₃ slip) to NH₃: 60% ± 26% in warm season and 66% ± 22% in cold season, based on a Bayesian isotope-mixing model. The collective evidence of multiple isotope analysis reasonably supports the major contribution of fossil-fuel-combustion sources to NH₄⁺, in conjunction with TC, and an increased contribution from vehicle emissions during the severe PM_2.5 pollution episodes. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of a multiple-isotope approach in providing better insight into the major sources of PM_2.5 in the urban atmosphere.

Stable isotopic characterization of nitrate wet deposition in the tropical urban atmosphere of Costa Rica

Increasing energy consumption and food production worldwide results in anthropogenic emissions of reactive nitrogen into the atmosphere. To date, however, little information is available on tropical urban environments where inorganic nitrogen is vastly transported and deposited through precipitation on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To fill this gap, we present compositions of water stable isotopes in precipitation and atmospheric nitrate (δ¹⁸O-H₂O, δ²H-H₂O, δ¹⁵N-NO₃^-, and δ¹⁸O-NO₃^-) collected daily between August 2018 and November 2019 in a tropical urban atmosphere of central Costa Rica. Rainfall generation processes (convective and stratiform rainfall fractions) were identified using stable isotopes in precipitation coupled with air mass back trajectory analysis. A Bayesian isotope mixing model using δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- compositions and corrected for potential ¹⁵N fractionation effects revealed the contribution of lightning (25.9 ± 7.1%), biomass burning (21.8 ± 6.6%), gasoline (19.1 ± 6.4%), diesel (18.4 ± 6.0%), and soil biogenic emissions (15.0 ± 2.6%) to nitrate wet deposition. δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values reflect the oxidation of NO_x sources via the ·OH + RO₂ pathways. These findings provide necessary baseline information about the combination of water and nitrogen stable isotopes with atmospheric chemistry and hydrometeorological techniques to better understand wet deposition processes and to characterize the origin and magnitude of inorganic nitrogen loadings in tropical regions.

Size distributions and dry deposition fluxes of water-soluble inorganic nitrogen in atmospheric aerosols in Xiamen Bay, China

Size-segregated aerosol particles were collected using a high volume MOUDI sampler at a coastal urban site in Xiamen Bay, China, from March 2018 to June 2020 to examine the seasonal characteristics of aerosol and water-soluble inorganic ions (WSIIs) and the dry deposition of nitrogen species. During the study period, the annual average concentrations of PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and TSP were 14.8 ± 5.6, 21.1 ± 9.0, 35.4 ± 14.2 μg m^-3, and 45.2 ± 21.3 μg m^-3, respectively. The seasonal variations of aerosol concentrations were impacted by the monsoon with the lowest value in summer and the higher values in other seasons. For WSIIs, the annual average concentrations were 6.3 ± 3.3, 2.1 ± 1.2, 3.3 ± 1.5, and 1.6 ± 0.8 μg m^-3 in PM₁, PM_1-2.5, PM_2.5-10, and PM_>10, respectively. In addition, pronounced seasonal variations of WSIIs in PM₁ and PM_1-2.5 were observed, with the highest concentration in spring-winter and the lowest in summer. The size distribution showed that SO₄ ^2-, NH₄ ⁺ and K⁺ were consistently present in the submicron particles while Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺ and Cl^- mainly accumulated in the size range of 2.5-10 μm, reflecting their different dominant sources. In spring, fall and winter, a bimodal distribution of NO₃ ^- was observed with one peak at 2.5-10 μm and another peak at 0.44-1 μm. In summer, however, the fine mode peak disappeared, likely due to the unfavorable conditions for the formation of NH₄NO₃. For NH₄ ⁺ and SO₄ ^2-, their dominant peak at 0.25-0.44 μm in summer and fall shifted to 0.44-1 μm in spring and winter. Although the concentration of NO₃-N was lower than NH₄-N, the dry deposition flux of NO₃-N (35.77 ± 24.49 μmol N m^-2 d^-1) was much higher than that of NH₄-N (10.95 ± 11.89 μmol N m^-2 d^-1), mainly due to the larger deposition velocities of NO₃-N. The contribution of sea-salt particles to the total particulate inorganic N deposition was estimated to be 23.9-52.8%. Dry deposition of particulate inorganic N accounted for 0.95% of other terrestrial N influxes. The annual total N deposition can create a new productivity of 3.55 mgC m^-2 d^-1, accounting for 1.3-4.7% of the primary productivity in Xiamen Bay. In light of these results, atmospheric N deposition could have a significant influence on biogeochemistry cycle of nutrients with respect to projected increase of anthropogenic emissions from mobile sources in coastal region.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10874-021-09427-8.

The use of stable oxygen and nitrogen isotopic signatures to reveal variations in the nitrate formation pathways and sources in different seasons and regions in China

Nitrate (NO₃^-) is one of the most important inorganic ions in fine particulate (PM_2.5) and drives regional haze formation; however, the NO₃^- sources and formation mechanisms in different seasons and regions are still debated. Here, PM_2.5 samples were collected from Kunming and Nanning in southwestern China from September 1, 2017, to February 28, 2018 (spanning warm and cold months). We measured the daily O and N isotopic compositions of NO₃^- (δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- and δ¹⁵N-NO₃^-), estimated the δ¹⁸O-HNO₃ values produced by different oxidation pathways, and quantified the NO₃^- formation pathways based on the isotope mass-balance equation. Our results showed that the δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values in Kunming (65.3 ± 7.6‰) and Nanning (67.7 ± 10.1‰) are close to the δ¹⁸O-HNO₃ values arising from the OH radical pathway (P_OH, 54.7 ± 1.2‰ to 61.2 ± 1.8‰), suggesting that the δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values are mainly influenced by P_OH, which showed a contribution greater than 74%. Stronger surface solar radiation and higher air temperatures in low-latitude regions and warm months increased the amount of HNO₃ produced by P_OH and reduced the amount of HNO₃ produced by P_N2O5, which produced low δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values. Increased air pollution emissions decreased the contribution from P_OH and increased the contribution from N₂O₅ and NO₃ pathways (P_N2O5+NO3). The δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values of PM_2.5 in Kunming (7.3 ± 2.8‰) were slightly higher than those in Nanning (2.8 ± 2.7‰). The increased NO_x emissions with positive isotopic values led to high δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values in northern China and during cold months. A higher f_NO2 (f_NO2 = NO₂/(NO + NO₂), temperature, and contribution of P_OH produced lower N isotope fractionation between NO_x and δ¹⁵N-NO₃^-, which was found to further decrease the δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values in southwestern China and during warm months.

Formation Mechanisms and Source Apportionments of Airborne Nitrate Aerosols at a Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau Site: Insights from Nitrogen and Oxygen Isotopic Compositions

Formation pathways and sources of atmosphere nitrate (NO₃^-) have attracted much attention as NO₃^- had detrimental effects on Earth's ecosystem and climate change. Here, we measured nitrogen (δ¹⁵N-NO₃^-) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- and Δ¹⁷O-NO₃^-) isotope compositions in nitrate aerosols at the Qomolangma station (QOMS) over the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau (HTP) to quantify the formation mechanisms and emission sources of nitrate at the background site. At QOMS, the enhanced NO₃^- concentrations were observed in the springtime. The average δ¹⁵N-NO₃^-, δ¹⁸O-NO₃^-, and Δ¹⁷O-NO₃^- values were 0.4 ± 4.9, 64.7 ± 11.5 and 27.6 ± 6.9‰, respectively. Seasonal variations of isotope ratios at QOMS can be explained by the different emissions and formation pathways to nitrate. The average fractions of NO₂ + OH and N₂O₅ + H₂O to nitrate production were estimated to be 43 and 52%, respectively, when the NO₃ + hydrocarbon (HC)/dimethyl sulfide (DMS) (NO₃ + HC/DMS) pathway was assumed to be 5%. Using stable isotope analysis in the R (SIAR) model, the relative contributions of biomass burning (BB), biogenic soil emission, traffic, and coal combustion to nitrate were estimated to be 28, 25, 24, and 23%, respectively, on yearly basis. By FLEXible PARTicle (FLEXPART) dispersion model, we highlighted that NO_x from BB emission over South Asia that had undergone N₂O₅ + H₂O processes enhanced the nitrate concentrations in the springtime over the HTP region.

Combining dual isotopes and a Bayesian isotope mixing model to quantify the nitrate sources of precipitation in Ningbo, East China

Nitrate (NO₃^-) is becoming a significant contributor to acid deposition in many cities in China. Based on the chemical compositions and stable isotopes of NO₃^- in precipitation (δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- and δ¹⁸O-NO₃^-), the NO₃^- sources and their formation pathways were determined to aid in reducing NO_x emissions in Ningbo, an important port city. The acid rain frequency in Ningbo was 67%, and the mean SO₄^2-/NO₃^- ratio was 1.07. The δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- (49.5‰-82.8‰) and δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values (-4.3‰-2.7‰) both varied seasonally, with high values during the cold season and low values during the warm season. The seasonal variations in the δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values were mainly controlled by the NO₃^- formation pathways, following the OH· pathway during the warm season and N₂O₅ pathway during the cold season. The Monte Carlo simulation results indicated that the contributions of the OH· pathway ranged from 28.3% to 75.4%, with the remainder contributed by the N₂O₅ pathway. The improved Bayesian model incorporating nitrogen (N) isotopic fractionation (Ԑ = 4‰) indicated that mobile sources, including ship emissions (35.0%) > coal combustion (26.0%) > biomass burning (20.0%) > soil emissions (19.0%), were the major sources of NO_x emissions in Ningbo. The results indicate that the influence of isotopic fractionation on source apportionment must be considered in a Bayesian model.

Changes in nitrate accumulation mechanisms as PM2.5 levels increase on the North China Plain: A perspective from the dual isotopic compositions of nitrate

Nitrate (NO₃^-) has become recognized as the most important water-soluble ion in fine particulate (PM_2.5), and has been proposed as a driving factor for regional haze formation. However, nitrate formation mechanisms are still poorly understood. In this study, PM_2.5 samples were collected from September 2017 to August 2018 in Shijiazhuang, a city located on the North China Plain, and NO₃^-concentration, δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- and δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values in PM_2.5 were analyzed. NO₃^- concentrations increased as PM_2.5 levels increased during both polluted and non-polluted days over the entire year. δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values during cold months (63.5-103‰) were higher than those during warm months (50.3-85.4‰), these results suggested that the nitrate formation pathways shifted from the NO₂ + OH (P_OH) in warm months to the N₂O₅ + H₂O (P_N2O5) and NO₃ + VOCs (P_NO3) pathways in cold months. Especially during cold months, δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values increased from 65.2-79.9‰ to 80.7-96.2‰ when PM_2.5 increased from ∼25 to >100 μg/m³, but when PM_2.5 > 100 μg/m³, there were relatively small variations in δ¹⁸O-NO₃^-. These results suggested that nitrate formation pathways changed from P_OH to P_N2O5 and P_NO3 pathways when PM_2.5 < 100 μg/m³, but that P_N2O5 and P_NO3 dominated nitrate production when PM_2.5 > 100 μg/m³. Higher δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- values in warm months (-11.8-13.8‰) than in cold months (-0.7-22.6‰) may be attributed to differences in NO_x emission sources and nitrogen isotopic fractionation among NO_x and NO₃^-. These results provide information on the dual isotopic compositions of nitrate to understand nitrate formation pathways under different PM_2.5 levels.

The observation of isotopic compositions of atmospheric nitrate in Shanghai China and its implication for reactive nitrogen chemistry

The occurrence of PM_2.5 pollution in China is usually associated with the formation of atmospheric nitrate, the oxidation product of nitrogen oxides (NO_X = NO + NO₂). The oxygen-17 excess of nitrate (Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-)) can be used to reveal the relative importance of nitrate formation pathways and get more insight into reactive nitrogen chemistry. Here we present the observation of isotopic composition of atmospheric nitrate (Δ¹⁷O and δ¹⁵N) collected from January to June 2016 in Shanghai China. Concentrations of atmospheric nitrate ranged from 1.4 to 24.1 μg m^-3 with the mean values being (7.6 ± 4.4 (1SD)), (10.2 ± 5.8) and (4.1 ± 2.4) μg m^-3 in winter, spring and summer respectively. Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-) varied from 20.5‰ to 31.9‰ with the mean value being (26.9 ± 2.8) ‰ in winter, followed by (26.6 ± 1.7) ‰ in spring and the lowest (23.2 ± 1.6) ‰ in summer. Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-)-constrained estimates suggest that the conversion of NO_X to nitrate is dominated by NO₂ + OH and/or NO₂ + H₂O, with the mean possible contribution of 55-77% in total and even higher (84-92%) in summer. A diurnal variation of Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-) featured by high values at daytime (28.6 ± 1.2‰) and low values (25.4 ± 2.8‰) at nighttime was observed during our diurnal sampling period. This trend is related to the atmospheric life of nitrate (τ) and calculations indicate τ is around 15 h during the diurnal sampling period. In terms of δ¹⁵N(NO₃^-), it changed largely in our observation, from -2.9‰ to 18.1‰ with a mean of (6.4 ± 4.4) ‰. Correlation analysis implies that the combined effect of NO_X emission sources and isotopic fractionation processes are responsible for δ¹⁵N(NO₃^-) variations. Our observations with the aid of model simulation in future study will further improve the understanding of reactive nitrogen chemistry in urban regions.

Isotopic evidence for seasonality of microbial internal nitrogen cycles in a temperate forested catchment with heavy snowfall

The Hokuriku district of central Japan receives high levels of precipitation during winter, largely in the form of snow. This study aimed to elucidate the internal nitrogen dynamics in this temperate forested region with heavy snowfall using the triple oxygen and nitrogen isotopic compositions of NO₃^-. The isotopic compositions of NO₃^- in atmospheric depositions (P and Tf), with terrestrial components of the soil layer (A0, S25, S55, and S90), ground water (G), and output (St) were measured from 2015 to 2016 in a forested catchment located in the southern area of the Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. Seasonal distributions of Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-) showed a decreasing trend from the inputs to outputs of the ecosystem. We found relatively constant Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-) values in the output components (G and St), but found highly fluctuating Δ¹⁷O(NO₃^-) values resulting from the seasonal variations in the nitrification activity within soil waters. Specifically, we observed a lower nitrifying activity in the top soil layer throughout cold periods, presumably due to the input of cold melted snow water. The general trend of increasing δ¹⁵N(NO₃^-) value from the input to output components, with the changes in denitrification hotspots from shallow to deeper soil layer, can be observed between warm and cold periods. Thus, the seasonal changes of hotspots related to microbial nitrification and denitrification could be noted due to the seasonal changes in the isotopic compositions of nitrate. The estimated ecosystem-scale gross nitrification and denitrification rates are low; however, the output components are relatively stable with low concentrations of nitrate, indicating that the plant uptake of nitrogen most probably occurs at greater rates and scales in this forested ecosystem. Future nitrogen deposition and the vulnerable dynamics of snow melting are likely to have impactful consequences on such localities.

Traffic-related dustfall and NOx, but not NH3, seriously affect nitrogen isotopic compositions in soil and plant tissues near the roadside

Ammonia (NH₃) emissions from traffic have received particular attention in recent years because of their important contributions to the growth of secondary aerosols and the negative effects on urban air quality. However, few studies have been performed on the impacts of traffic NH₃ emissions on adjacent soil and plants. Moreover, doubt remains over whether dry nitrogen (N) deposition still contributes a minor proportion of plant N nutrition compared with wet N deposition in urban road environments. This study investigated the δ¹⁵N values of road dustfall, soil, moss, camphor leaf and camphor bark samples collected along a distance gradient from the road, suggesting that samples collected near the road have significantly more positive δ¹⁵N values than those of remote sites. According to the SIAR model (Stable Isotope Analysis in R) applied to dustfall and moss samples from the roadside, it was found that NH₃ from traffic exhaust (8.8 ± 7.1%) contributed much less than traffic-derived NO₂ (52.2 ± 10.0%) and soil N (39.0 ± 13.8%) to dustfall bulk N; additionally, 68.6% and 31.4% of N in mosses near the roadside could be explained by dry N deposition (only 20.4 ± 12.5% for traffic-derived NH₃) and wet N deposition, respectively. A two-member mixing model was used to analyse the δ¹⁵N in continuously collected mature camphor leaf and camphor bark samples, which revealed a similarity of the δ¹⁵N values of plant-available deposited N to ¹⁵N-enriched traffic-derived NO_x-N. We concluded that a relatively high proportion of N inputs in urban road environments was contributed by traffic-related dustfall and NO_x rather than NH₃. These information provide useful insights into reducing the impacts of traffic exhaust on adjacent ecosystems and can assist policy makers in determining the reconstruction of a monitoring network for N deposition that reaches the road level.

Isotopic advances in understanding reactive nitrogen deposition and atmospheric processing

Recent advances in stable isotope measurements now allow for detailed investigations of the sources, transformations, and deposition of reactive nitrogen (N) species. Stable isotopes show promise as a complementary tool for apportioning emissions sources that contribute to deposition and also for developing a more robust understanding of the transformations that can influence these isotope ratios. Methodological advances have facilitated the unprecedented examination of the isotopic composition of reactive N species in the atmosphere and in precipitation including nitrogen oxides (NOx = nitric oxide (NO) + nitrogen dioxide (NO2)), atmospheric nitrate (NO3-), nitric acid (HNO3), ammonia (NH3), and ammonium (NH4+). This isotopic information provides new insight into the mechanisms of transformation and cycling of reactive N in the atmosphere and moreover helps resolve the contribution of multiple NOx and NH3 emission sources to deposition across landscapes, regions, and continents. Here, we highlight the current state of knowledge regarding the isotopic ratios of NOx and NH3 emission sources and chemical alterations of isotopic ratios during atmospheric transformations. We also highlight illustrative examples where isotopic approaches are used and review recent methodological advances. While these highlights are not an exhaustive review of the literature, we hope they provide a glimpse of the potential for these methods to help resolve knowledge gaps regarding total N deposition to Earth surfaces. We conclude with promising opportunities for future research in the short-, medium-, and long-term.

Assessment and quantification of NOx sources at a regional background site in North China: Comparative results from a Bayesian isotopic mixing model and a positive matrix factorization model

Regional sources of nitrogen oxides (NO_x) in North China during summer were explored using both a Bayesian isotopic mixing model and a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. Results showed that the nitrogen isotope (δ¹⁵N) composition of particulate nitrate (NO₃^-) varied between -8.9‰ and +14.1‰, while the oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) composition ranged from +57.4‰ to +93.8‰. Based on results from the Bayesian isotopic mixing model, the contribution of the hydroxyl radical (•OH) NO_x conversion pathway showed clear diurnal fluctuation; values were higher during the day (0.53 ± 0.16) and lower overnight (0.42 ± 0.17). Values peaked at 06:00-12:00 and then decreased gradually until 00:00-06:00 the next day. Coal combustion (31.34 ± 9.04%) was the most significant source of NO_x followed by biomass burning (25.74 ± 2.58%), mobile sources (23.83 ± 3.66%), and microbial processes (19.09 ± 5.21%). PMF results indicated that the contribution from mobile sources was 19.83%, slightly lower as compared to the Bayesian model (23.83%). The PMF model also reported a lower contribution from coal combustion (28.65%) as compared to the Bayesian model (31.34%); however, the sum of biomass burning and microbial processes in the Bayesian model (44.83%) was lower than the aggregate of secondary inorganic aerosol, sea salt, and soil dust in PMF model (51.52%). Overall, differences between the two models were minor, suggesting that this study provided a reasonable source quantification for NO_x in North China during summer.

Tracing the Fate of Atmospheric Nitrate in a Subalpine Watershed Using Δ17O

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for life on Earth, but in excess, it can lead to environmental issues (e.g., N saturation, loss of biodiversity, acidification of lakes, etc.). Understanding the nitrogen budget (i.e., inputs and outputs) is essential to evaluate the prospective decay of the ecosystem services (e.g., freshwater quality, erosion control, loss of high patrimonial-value plant species, etc.) that subalpine headwater catchments provide, especially as these ecosystems experience high atmospheric nitrogen deposition. Here, we use a multi-isotopic tracer (Δ¹⁷O, δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) of nitrate in aerosols, snow, and streams to assess the fate of atmospherically deposited nitrate in the subalpine watershed of the Lautaret Pass (French Alps). We show that atmospheric N deposition contributes significantly to stream nitrate pool year-round, either by direct inputs (up to 35%) or by in situ nitrification of atmospheric ammonium (up to 35%). Snowmelt in particular leads to high exports of atmospheric nitrate, most likely fast enough to impede assimilation by surrounding ecosystems. Yet, in a context of climate change, with shorter snow seasons, and increasing nitrogen emissions, our results hint at possibly stronger ecological consequences of nitrogen atmospheric deposition in the close future.

Stable isotope analyses of precipitation nitrogen sources in Guiyang, southwestern China

To constrain sources of anthropogenic nitrogen (N) deposition is critical for effective reduction of reactive N emissions and better evaluation of N deposition effects. This study measured δ¹⁵N signatures of nitrate (NO₃^-), ammonium (NH₄⁺) and total dissolved N (TDN) in precipitation at Guiyang, southwestern China and estimated contributions of dominant N sources using a Bayesian isotope mixing model. For NO₃^-, the contribution of non-fossil N oxides (NO_x, mainly from biomass burning (24 ± 12%) and microbial N cycle (26 ± 5%)) equals that of fossil NO_x, to which vehicle exhausts (31 ± 19%) contributed more than coal combustion (19 ± 9%). For NH₄⁺, ammonia (NH₃) from volatilization sources (mainly animal wastes (22 ± 12%) and fertilizers (22 ± 10%)) contributed less than NH₃ from combustion sources (mainly biomass burning (17 ± 8%), vehicle exhausts (19 ± 11%) and coal combustions (19 ± 12%)). Dissolved organic N (DON) accounted for 41% in precipitation TDN deposition during the study period. Precipitation DON had higher δ¹⁵N values in cooler months (13.1‰) than in warmer months (-7.0‰), indicating the dominance of primary and secondary ON sources, respectively. These results newly underscored the importance of non-fossil NO_x, fossil NH₃ and organic N in precipitation N inputs of urban environments.

First Assessment of NOx Sources at a Regional Background Site in North China Using Isotopic Analysis Linked with Modeling

Nitrogen oxides (NO_x, including NO and NO₂) play an important role in the formation of atmospheric particles. Thus, NO_x emission reduction is critical for improving air quality, especially in severely air-polluted regions (e.g., North China). In this study, the source of NO_x was investigated by the isotopic composition (δ¹⁵N) of particulate nitrate (p-NO₃^-) at Beihuangcheng Island (BH), a regional background site in North China. It was found that the δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- (n = 120) values varied between -1.7‰ and +24.0‰ and the δ¹⁸O-NO₃^- values ranged from 49.4‰ to 103.9‰. On the basis of the Bayesian mixing model, 27.78 ± 8.89%, 36.53 ± 6.66%, 22.01 ± 6.92%, and 13.68 ± 3.16% of annual NO_x could be attributed to biomass burning, coal combustion, mobile sources, and biogenic soil emissions, respectively. Seasonally, the four sources were similar in spring and fall. Biogenic soil emissions were augmented in summer in association with the hot and rainy weather. Coal combustion increased significantly in winter with other sources showing an obvious decline. This study confirmed that isotope-modeling by δ¹⁵N-NO₃^- is a promising tool for partitioning NO_x sources and provides guidance to policymakers with regard to options for NO_x reduction in North China.

Agriculture causes nitrate fertilization of remote alpine lakes

Humans have altered Earth's nitrogen cycle so dramatically that reactive nitrogen (Nr) has doubled. This has increased Nr in aquatic ecosystems, which can lead to reduced water quality and ecosystem health. Apportioning sources of Nr to specific ecosystems, however, continues to be challenging, despite this knowledge being critical for mitigation and protection of water resources. Here we use Δ(17)O, δ(18)O and δ(15)N from Uinta Mountain (Utah, USA) snow, inflow and lake nitrate in combination with a Bayesian-based stable isotope mixing model, to show that at least 70% of nitrates in aquatic systems are anthropogenic and arrive via the atmosphere. Moreover, agricultural activities, specifically nitrate- and ammonium-based fertilizer use, are contributing most (∼60%) Nr, and data from other North American alpine lakes suggest this is a widespread phenomenon. Our findings offer a pathway towards more effective mitigation, but point to challenges in balancing food production with protection of important water resources.

Collection of NO and NO2 for isotopic analysis of NO(x) emissions

There have been several measurements made of the nitrogen isotopic composition of gaseous NOx (NOx = NO + NO2) from various emission sources, utilizing a wide variety of methods to collect the NOx in solution as nitrate or nitrite. However, previous collection techniques have not been verified for complete or efficient capture of NOx such that the isotopic composition of NOx remains unaltered during collection. Here, we present a method of collecting NOx (NO + NO2) in solution as nitrate to evaluate the nitrogen isotopic composition of the NOx (δ(15)N-NOx). Using a 0.25 M KMnO4 and 0.5 M NaOH solution, quantitative NOx collection was achieved under a variety of conditions in laboratory and field settings, allowing for isotopic analysis without correcting for fractionations. The uncertainty across the entire analytic procedure is ±1.5‰ (1σ). With this method, a more robust inventory of NOx source isotopic composition is possible, which has implications for studies of air quality and acid deposition.

Nitrogen isotopes in ice core nitrate linked to anthropogenic atmospheric acidity change

Nitrogen stable isotope ratio (δ(15)N) in Greenland snow nitrate and in North American remote lake sediments has decreased gradually beginning as early as ∼1850 Christian Era. This decrease was attributed to increasing atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic nitrate, reflecting an anthropogenic impact on the global nitrogen cycle, and the impact was thought to be amplified ∼1970. However, our subannually resolved ice core records of δ(15)N and major ions (e.g., NO3(-), SO4(2-)) over the last ∼200 y show that the decrease in δ(15)N is not always associated with increasing NO3(-) concentrations, and the decreasing trend actually leveled off ∼1970. Correlation of δ(15)N with H(+), NO3(-), and HNO3 concentrations, combined with nitrogen isotope fractionation models, suggests that the δ(15)N decrease from ∼1850-1970 was mainly caused by an anthropogenic-driven increase in atmospheric acidity through alteration of the gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric nitrate. The concentrations of NO3(-) and SO4(2-) also leveled off ∼1970, reflecting the effect of air pollution mitigation strategies in North America on anthropogenic NO(x) and SO2 emissions. The consequent atmospheric acidity change, as reflected in the ice core record of H(+) concentrations, is likely responsible for the leveling off of δ(15)N ∼1970, which, together with the leveling off of NO3(-) concentrations, suggests a regional mitigation of anthropogenic impact on the nitrogen cycle. Our results highlight the importance of atmospheric processes in controlling δ(15)N of nitrate and should be considered when using δ(15)N as a source indicator to study atmospheric flux of nitrate to land surface/ecosystems.

Analysis of oxygen-17 excess of nitrate and sulfate at sub-micromole levels using the pyrolysis method

RATIONALE

The oxygen-17 excess (Δ(17)O) of nitrate and sulfate contains valuable information regarding their atmospheric formation pathways. However, the current pyrolysis method to measure Δ(17)O requires large sample amounts (>4 µmol for nitrate and >1 µmol for sulfate). We present a new approach employing a Gas Bench interface which cryofocuses O2 produced from sample pyrolysis, enabling the analysis of sub-micromole size samples.

METHODS

Silver nitrate or sulfate at sub-micromole levels in a sample container was thermally decomposed to O2 and byproducts in a modified Temperature Conversion/Elemental Analyzer (TC/EA). Byproducts (mainly NO2 for silver nitrate and SO2 for silver sulfate) were removed in a liquid nitrogen trap and the sample O2 was carried by ultra-pure helium (He) gas to a Gas Bench II interface where it was cryofocused prior to entering an isotope ratio mass spectrometer.

RESULTS

Analysis of the international nitrate reference material USGS35 (Δ(17)O = 21.6‰) within the size range of 300-1000 nmol O2 gave a mean Δ(17)O value of (21.6 ± 0.69) ‰ (mean ±1σ). Three inter-laboratory calibrated sulfate reference materials, Sulf-α, Sulf-β and Sulf-ε, each within the size range of 180-1000 nmol O2, were analyzed and shown to possess mean Δ(17)O values of (0.9 ± 0.10)‰, (2.1 ± 0.25)‰ and (7.0 ± 0.63)‰, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The analyses of nitrate and sulfate reference materials at sub-micromole levels gave Δ(17)O values consistent with their accepted values. This new approach of employing the Gas Bench to cryofocus O2 after the pyrolysis of AgNO3 and Ag2SO4 particularly benefits the effort of measuring Δ(17)O in sample types with a low abundance of nitrate and sulfate such as ice cores.

Determination of nitrate isotopic signature in waters of different sources by analysing the nitrogen and oxygen isotopic ratio

A reference study on both the nitrogen content in waters and nitrogen and oxygen isotopic signatures characterising nitrate from different sources was conducted within the San River catchment area. Three kinds of catchments were studied: (1) forested and uncultivated; (2) artificially fertilised with nitrate; and (3) fertilised with manure and sewage. Moreover, atmospheric water was studied. The obtained values were found to be similar to others in the literature, with the exception of nitrate from the atmosphere, in regard to which influence reflecting the local conditions was to be noted. The isotopic signature of nitrate in the studied water results from the biogeochemical transformation of nitrogen compounds rather than from the mixing of different sources. The obtained results were statistically distinct and can be used as end-member values in further modelling studies connected with the management of nitrate in river waters, especially under middle-eastern European conditions.

Isotopic composition of atmospheric nitrate in a tropical marine boundary layer

Long-term observations of the reactive chemical composition of the tropical marine boundary layer (MBL) are rare, despite its crucial role for the chemical stability of the atmosphere. Recent observations of reactive bromine species in the tropical MBL showed unexpectedly high levels that could potentially have an impact on the ozone budget. Uncertainties in the ozone budget are amplified by our poor understanding of the fate of NOx (= NO + NO2), particularly the importance of nighttime chemical NOx sinks. Here, we present year-round observations of the multiisotopic composition of atmospheric nitrate in the tropical MBL at the Cape Verde Atmospheric Observatory. We show that the observed oxygen isotope ratios of nitrate are compatible with nitrate formation chemistry, which includes the BrNO3 sink at a level of ca. 20 ± 10% of nitrate formation pathways. The results also suggest that the N2O5 pathway is a negligible NOx sink in this environment. Observations further indicate a possible link between the NO2/NOx ratio and the nitrogen isotopic content of nitrate in this low NOx environment, possibly reflecting the seasonal change in the photochemical equilibrium among NOx species. This study demonstrates the relevance of using the stable isotopes of oxygen and nitrogen of atmospheric nitrate in association with concentration measurements to identify and constrain chemical processes occurring in the MBL.

Oxygen isotope exchange with quartz during pyrolysis of silver sulfate and silver nitrate

RATIONALE

Triple oxygen isotopes of sulfate and nitrate are useful metrics for the chemistry of their formation. Existing measurement methods, however, do not account for oxygen atom exchange with quartz during the thermal decomposition of sulfate. We present evidence for oxygen atom exchange, a simple modification to prevent exchange, and a correction for previous measurements.

METHODS

Silver sulfates and silver nitrates with excess (17)O were thermally decomposed in quartz and gold (for sulfate) and quartz and silver (for nitrate) sample containers to O(2) and byproducts in a modified Temperature Conversion/Elemental Analyzer (TC/EA). Helium carries O(2) through purification for isotope-ratio analysis of the three isotopes of oxygen in a Finnigan MAT253 isotope ratio mass spectrometer.

RESULTS

The Δ(17)O results show clear oxygen atom exchange from non-zero (17)O-excess reference materials to zero (17)O-excess quartz cup sample containers. Quartz sample containers lower the Δ(17)O values of designer sulfate reference materials and USGS35 nitrate by 15% relative to gold or silver sample containers for quantities of 2-10 µmol O(2).

CONCLUSIONS

Previous Δ(17)O measurements of sulfate that rely on pyrolysis in a quartz cup have been affected by oxygen exchange. These previous results can be corrected using a simple linear equation (Δ(17)O(gold) = Δ(17)O(quartz) * 1.14 + 0.06). Future pyrolysis of silver sulfate should be conducted in gold capsules or corrected to data obtained from gold capsules to avoid obtaining oxygen isotope exchange-affected data.

Measurement of the 17O-excess (Δ17O) of tropospheric ozone using a nitrite-coated filter

RATIONALE

The (17)O-excess (Δ(17)O) of tropospheric ozone (O(3)) serves as a useful marker in studies of atmospheric oxidation pathways; however, due to the complexity and expense of currently available analytical techniques, no systematic sampling campaign has yet been undertaken and natural variations in Δ(17)O(O(3)) are therefore not well constrained.

METHODS

The nitrite-coated filter method is a new technique for O(3) isotope analysis that employs the aqueous phase NO(2)(-) + O(3) → NO(3)(-) + O(2) reaction to obtain quantitative information on O(3) via the oxygen atom transfer to nitrate (NO(3)(-)). The triple-oxygen isotope analysis of the NO(3)(-) produced during this reaction, achieved in this study using the bacterial denitrifier method followed by isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), directly yields the Δ(17)O value transferred from O(3). This isotope transfer process was investigated in a series of vacuum-line experiments, which were conducted by exposing coated filters to O(3) of various known Δ(17)O values and then determining the isotopic composition of the NO(3)(-) produced on the filter.

RESULTS

The isotope transfer experiments revealed a strong linear correlation between the Δ(17)O of the O(3) produced and that of the oxygen atom transferred to NO(3)(-), with a slope of 1.55 for samples with bulk Δ(17)O(O(3)) values in the atmospheric range (20-40‰). This finding is in agreement with theoretical postulates that place the (17) O-excess on only the terminal oxygen atoms of ozone. Ambient measurements yield average Δ(17)O(O(3))(bulk) values in agreement with previous studies (22.9 ± 1.9‰).

CONCLUSIONS

The nitrite-coated filter technique is a sufficiently robust, field-deployable method for the determination of the triple-oxygen isotopic composition of tropospheric O(3). Further ambient measurements will undoubtedly lead to an improved quantitative view of natural Δ(17)O(O(3)) variation and transfer in the atmosphere.

Microorganisms in dry polar snow are involved in the exchanges of reactive nitrogen species with the atmosphere

The snowpack is a complex photochemical reactor that emits a wide variety of reactive molecules to the atmosphere. In particular, the photolysis of nitrate ions, NO(3)(-), produces NO, NO(2), and HONO, which affects the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. We report measurements in the European High Arctic where we observed for the first time emissions of NO, NO(2), and HONO by the seasonal snowpack in winter, in the complete or near-complete absence of sunlight and in the absence of melting. We also detected unusually high concentrations of nitrite ions, NO(2)(-), in the snow. These results suggest that microbial activity in the snowpack is responsible for the observed emissions. Isotopic analysis of NO(2)(-) and NO(3)(-) in the snow confirm that these ions, at least in part, do not have an atmospheric origin and are most likely produced by the microbial oxidation of NH(4)(+) coming from clay minerals into NO(2)(-) and NO(3)(-). These metabolic pathways also produce NO. Subsequent dark abiotic reactions lead to NO(2) and HONO production. The snow cover is therefore not only an active photochemical reactor but also a biogeochemical reactor active in the cycling of nitrogen and it can affect atmospheric composition all year round.