The changing signs in the relationships among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance

Preserving the placebo effect after disclosure: A new perspective on non-deceptive placebos

The present study explores whether a particular style of placebo disclosure could serve as a tool to foster a renewed trust in one's own inherent resources and elicit a meaningful placebo effect. In a motor performance task, two placebo groups received inert transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) in each of four sessions along with information on its force-enhancing properties. Before the final session, one of the placebo groups was informed about the placebo, which was portrayed as a means to unleash an inherent potential. Along with force, we systematically monitored task-specific self-efficacy to test whether this variable would be differentially modulated in the two placebo groups. Compared to two control groups, placebo groups showed higher force and self-efficacy in the last session. No differences in self-efficacy were observed in the placebo groups even after revealing the placebo procedure, suggesting that the disclosure was effective in 'safeguarding' individuals' self-efficacy. These findings may have important implications, paving the way for the use of placebos that not only are ethically permissible but also support individuals' self-efficacy.

Unveiling Consumer Preferences and Intentions for Cocreated Features of a Combined Diet and Physical Activity App: Cross-Sectional Study in 4 European Countries

BACKGROUND

Numerous mobile health apps are marketed globally, and these have specific features including physical activity tracking, motivational feedback, and recipe provision. It is important to understand which features individuals prefer and whether these preferences differ between consumer groups.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to identify consumers' most preferred features and rewards for a mobile app that targets healthy eating and physical activity and to reduce the number of individual mobile health app features to a smaller number of key categories as perceived by consumers. In addition, we investigated the impact of differences in consumers' BMI and self-efficacy on their intention to use and willingness to pay for such an app. Finally, we identified the characteristics of different target groups of consumers and their responses toward app features via cluster analysis.

METHODS

A total of 212 participants from France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Germany were recruited via the web to answer questions about app features, motivation, self-efficacy, demographics, and geographic factors. It is important to note that our study included an evenly distributed sample of people in the age range of 23 to 50 years (23-35 and 35-50 years). The app features in question were generated from a 14-day cocreation session by a group of consumers from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.

RESULTS

"Home work out suggestions," "exercise tips," and "progress charts" were the most preferred app features, whereas "gift vouchers" and "shopping discounts" were the most preferred rewards. "Connections with other communication apps" was the least preferred feature, and "charitable giving" was the least preferred reward. Importantly, consumers' positive attitude toward the "social support and connectedness and mindfulness" app feature predicted willingness to pay for such an app (β=.229; P=.004). Differences in consumers' health status, motivational factors, and basic demographics moderated these results and consumers' intention to use and willingness to pay for such an app. Notably, younger and more motivated consumers with more experience and knowledge about health apps indicated more positive attitudes and intentions to use and willingness to pay for this type of app.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicated that consumers tend to prefer app features that are activity based and demonstrate progress. It also suggested a potential role for monetary rewards in promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors. Moreover, the results highlighted the role of consumers' health status, motivational factors, and socioeconomic status in predicting their app use. These results provide up-to-date, practical, and pragmatic information for the future design and operation of mobile health apps.

Deadlines make you productive, but what do they do to your motivation? Trajectories in quantity and quality of motivation and study activities among university students as exams approach

Introduction

Recent research has emphasized that achievement motivation is context-sensitive and varies within individual students. Ubiquitous temporal landmarks such as exams or deadlines are evident contextual factors that could systematically explain variation in motivation. Indeed, research has consistently found that university students increase their study efforts as exams come closer in time, indicating increasing study motivation. However, changes in study motivation for a specific exam as it comes closer have rarely been investigated. Instead, research on developmental changes in expectancy and value beliefs has consistently founds that achievement motivation declines over a semester. Surprisingly, declining motivation thus apparently coincides with increasing study efforts for end-of-semester exams.

Methods

The present research investigates this apparent contradiction by assessing how exam-specific motivation and study behavior change under equal methodological conditions as an exam draws closer. Using parallel growth curve models, we examine changes in expectancy-value beliefs, performance approach and avoidance motivation and study behavior as well as motivational want- and should-conflicts among 96 students over eight weekly measurement points.

Results and discussion

Results show that students study more for their exam as it comes closer and increase their use of surface learning strategies more rapidly than their use of deep learning strategies. However, even exam-specific expectancy and attainment value beliefs decline while performance-avoidance motivation increases over time, indicating that students increasingly study out of fear to fail as exams come closer. Consistent with these findings, students' experience of should conflicts decreases while their want conflicts increase over time. We discuss several possible mechanisms underlying our findings in addition to potential theoretical consequences and suggest future research opportunities to better understand students' changes in situative motivation and study behavior in the context of temporal landmarks.

Self-Efficacy and Well-Being in Professionals Working in Intimate Partner Violence: Recovery Experiences and Burnout as Associated Variables

The negative consequences of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) are observed not only in the victims but also in the professionals who work in this field. Self-efficacy has been observed as a significant variable in the perception of work efficiency and general well-being, and in coping with work-related stress and burnout syndrome. Thus, we performed a correlational study (N = 200) to examine the mediating role of recovery experiences and emotional exhaustion in the relationship between self-efficacy and psychological well-being in these professionals. The mediating analyses revealed that self-efficacy was related to higher levels of well-being through its effects on the increase in recovery experiences and the decrease in burnout levels. These findings emphasize the need to develop intervention programs aimed at improving self-efficacy these professionals. This is necessary to improve their employment situations, increase their health, and optimize both institutional resources and the quality of the services offered.

Understanding the role of social media usage and health self-efficacy in the processing of COVID-19 rumors: A SOR perspective

Apart from the direct health and behavioral influence of the COVID-19 pandemic itself, COVID-19 rumors as an infodemic enormously amplified public anxiety and cause serious outcomes. Although factors influencing such rumors propagation have been widely studied by previous studies, the role of spatial factors (e.g., proximity to the pandemic) on individuals' response regarding COVID-19 rumors remain largely unexplored. Accordingly, this study, drawing on the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) framework, examined how proximity to the pandemic (stimulus) influences anxiety (organism), which in turn determines rumor beliefs and rumor outcomes (response). Further, the contingent role of social media usage and health self-efficacy were tested. The research model was tested using 1246 samples via an online survey during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. The results indicate that: (1)The proximity closer the public is to the pandemic, the higher their perceived anxiety; (2) Anxiety increases rumor beliefs, which is further positively associated rumor outcomes; (3) When the level of social media usage is high, the relationship between proximity to the pandemic and anxiety is strengthened; (4) When the level of health self-efficacy is high, the effect of anxiety on rumor beliefs is strengthened and the effect of rumor beliefs on rumor outcomes is also strengthened. This study provides a better understanding of the underlying mechanism of the propagation of COVID-19 rumors from a SOR perspective. Additionally, this paper is one of the first that proposes and empirically verifies the contingent role of social media usage and health self-efficacy on the SOR framework. The findings of study can assist the pandemic prevention department in to efficiently manage rumors with the aim of alleviating public anxiety and avoiding negative outcomes cause by rumors.

Socio-economic status moderates within-person associations of risk factors and smoking lapse in daily life

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Individuals of lower socio-economic status (SES) display a higher prevalence of smoking and have more diffxiculty quitting than higher SES groups. The current study investigates whether the within-person associations of key risk (e.g. stress) and protective (self-efficacy) factors with smoking lapse varies by facets of SES.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Observational study using ecological momentary assessment to collect data for a 28-day period following a smoking quit attempt. Multi-level mixed models (i.e. generalized linear mixed models) examined cross-level interactions between lapse risk and protective factors and indicators of SES on smoking lapse.

PARTICIPANTS

A diverse sample of 330 adult US smokers who completed a larger study examining the effects of race/ethnicity and social/environmental influences on smoking cessation.

MEASUREMENTS

Risk factors included momentary urge, negative affect, stress; protective factors included positive affect, motivation, abstinence self-efficacy; SES measures: baseline measures of income and financial strain; the primary outcome was self-reported lapse.

FINDINGS

Participants provided 43 297 post-quit observations. Mixed models suggested that income and financial strain moderated the effect of some risk factors on smoking lapse. The within-person association of negative [odds ratio (OR) = 0.967, 95% CI= 0.945, 0.990, P < 0.01] and positive affect (OR = 1.023, 95% CI = 1.003, 1.044, P < 0.05) and abstinence self-efficacy (OR = 1.020, 95% CI = 1.003, 1.038, P < 0.05) on lapse varied with financial strain. The within-person association of negative affect (OR = 1.005, 95% CI = 1.002, 1.008, P < 0.01), motivation (OR = 0.995, 95% CI = 0.991, 0.999, P < 0.05) and abstinence self-efficacy (OR = 0.996, 95% CI = 0.993, 0.999, P < 0.01) on lapse varied by income. The positive association of negative affect with lapse was stronger among individuals with higher income and lower financial strain. The negative association between positive affect and abstinence self-efficacy with lapse was stronger among individuals with lower financial strain, and the negative association between motivation and abstinence self-efficacy with lapse was stronger among those with higher income. The data were insensitive to detect statistically significant moderating effects of income and financial strain on the association of urge or stress with lapse.

CONCLUSION

Some risk factors (e.g. momentary negative affect) exert a weaker influence on smoking lapse among lower compared to higher socio-economic status groups.

Causality of the satisfaction–performance relationship: A task experiment

Despite the common belief among practitioners that a happy worker is a productive worker, researchers have been struggling to understand the causality between satisfaction and performance for decades. This study attempts to bring clarity to current understanding through an experiment with repeated measures of satisfaction and performance. A total of 143 participants repeatedly performed a task based on the Stroop test, with their objective performance and task satisfaction measured each time. Two different types of feedback (high/low performance) were randomly assigned to participants in order to manipulate perceived performance. The data were analyzed using a path analysis. The results support the hypothesized influence of task satisfaction on task performance and of perceived task performance on task satisfaction.

Investigating the effect of an mHealth coaching intervention on health beliefs, adherence and blood pressure of patients with hypertension: A longitudinal single group pilot study

Background

Mobile health technologies have shown promise as delivery platforms for digital health coaching for chronic conditions. However, the impacts of such strategies on users' health beliefs, intentions and ultimately clinical outcomes are understudied.

Objective

This study sought (1) to evaluate the effects of a digital health coaching intervention on participants' belief constructs; and (2) to assess relationships between these belief constructs and intentions to utilize the technological intervention, actual adherence metrics and clinical outcomes related to hypertension.

Methods

Thirty-four participants with hypertension were recruited from a university community from January to May 2021. They self-measured weight and blood pressure (BP) for 30 days followed by digital coaching delivered via a mobile application for 30 days. Surveys assessed constructs from the Health Belief Model and Technology Acceptance Model, compared to intention, health belief, BP self-monitoring adherence and BP outcomes. A path analysis model was used to assess the relationships between constructs and intention, adherence metrics and clinical outcomes. A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to identify changes in beliefs.

Results

Participant health beliefs significantly improved after coaching, including self-efficacy (H(1) = 15.12, p < 0.001), cues to action (H(1) = 5.33, p = 0.02), attitude (H(1) = 10.35, p = 0.002), perceived usefulness (H(1) = 15.02, p < 0.001) and decreased resistance to change (H(1) = 4.05, p = 0.04). Adherence to BP measurements positively correlated with perceived health threat (β = .033, p = 0.007) and perceived ease of use (β = .0277, p < 0.001). Self-efficacy (β = -2.92, p = 0.02) and perceived usefulness (β = -3.75, p = 0.01) were linked with a decrease in diastolic BP.

Conclusions

A mobile health coaching intervention may help participants improve beliefs regarding hypertension self-management.

When Does Group Efficacy Deteriorate Group Performance? Implications of Group Competency

While the social cognitive theory suggests that a group’s efficacy belief enhances its performance, emerging evidence indicates that this relationship is more complex than it appears to be. This study explores the boundary conditions of this relationship using the data of 389 employees from 41 work groups in a manufacturing company in South Korea. The results show that group efficacy is positively related to group performance and that this relationship is stronger when members are generally incompetent than competent. We also found that a bottleneck, which is operationalized as a group’s minimum competency, in an efficacious group is at least one condition that forms a negative relationship between group efficacy and its performance.

Young Adults’ Self-Regulatory Responses to Positive Career Goal Discrepancies: Testing Cross-Lagged Relationships

Researchers have assessed young people’s outcomes when they do not meet their career goals, but little is known about the consequences when they do better than expected (positive discrepancies). We (a) tested the cross-lagged relationships between positive career goal discrepancies and the career-related outcomes of upward goal revision, career exploration, and career coasting, and (b) assessed the indirect relationships between positive career goal discrepancy and outcomes through self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Using a sample of 314 young adults (76% female, Mage 19.13 years), we found that the standard causation model was the most parsimonious. Positive discrepancies predicted more upward goal revision and exploration and less coasting after a 6-month time lag, both directly and indirectly through outcome expectations. The findings highlight the importance of positive career goal appraisals in career goal setting, exploration, management and clarify the roles of agency (self-efficacy and outcome expectations) as explanatory mechanisms in these relationships.

The Assessment Rationale of Postgraduate Medical Trainees With Incongruent Self and Faculty Assigned Entrustment Scores

Background

Self-assessment is a central skill in competency-based medical education (CBME) and should be fostered in order to promote life-long learning. One measure that will guide the development of self-assessment is the alignment between it and external expert assessment. In this study, we explored the qualitative themes in the self-assessment rationale among trainees with incongruent self and faculty-assigned entrustment scores.

Methods

A total of 40 postgraduate medical trainees completed a four-scenario summative objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) as part of a simulation-based resuscitation curriculum in December 2017. After each scenario, an assessment involving an entrustment score and narrative rationale was completed by both trainee (self) and faculty. The differences between the trainee and faculty scores were calculated for each scenario and summed to give a single “incongruence score”. Trainees who consistently scored themselves higher than the faculty were said to have a “positive-incongruence score” and those scoring below the faculty were said to have a “negative-incongruence” score. Through this method, 10 trainees with the highest and lowest scores were assigned to each group and their narrative rationales were coded and thematically analyzed.

Results

The content of the self-assessment narrative rationale differed between the two groups. Trainees in the positive-incongruence group focused on the concepts of speed and situational management, while trainees in the negative-incongruence group commented on lack of support, and a need to improve communication, diagnosis, and code blue management. The quality of the self-assessment rationale also differed between groups. Trainees in the negative-incongruence group provided higher-quality comments that were more detailed and granular.

Conclusion

We found differences in the content and quality of the self-assessment rationale between trainees whose self and faculty-assigned assessment is incongruent. This provides insight into how these groups differ and has valuable implications for the development of curricula targeting self-assessment skills.

Discrepancies Between Clinician and Participant Intervention Adherence Ratings Predict Percent Weight Change During a Six-Month Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention

BACKGROUND

Individuals receiving behavioral weight loss treatment frequently fail to adhere to prescribed dietary and self-monitoring instructions, resulting in weight loss clinicians often needing to assess and intervene in these important weight control behaviors. A significant obstacle to improving adherence is that clinicians and clients sometimes disagree on the degree to which clients are actually adherent. However, prior research has not examined how clinicians and clients differ in their perceptions of client adherence to weight control behaviors, nor the implications for treatment outcomes.

PURPOSE

In the context of a 6-month weight-loss treatment, we examined differences between participants and clinicians when rating adherence to weight control behaviors (dietary self-monitoring; limiting calorie intake) and evaluated the hypothesis that rating one's own adherence more highly than one's clinician would predict less weight loss during treatment.

METHODS

Using clinician and participant-reported measures of self-monitoring and calorie intake adherence, each assessed using a single item with a 7- or 8-point scale, we characterized discrepancies between participant and clinician adherence and examined associations with percent weight change over 6 months using linear mixed-effects models.

RESULTS

Results indicated that ratings of adherence were higher when reported by participants and supported the hypothesis that participants who provided higher adherence ratings relative to their clinicians lost less weight during treatment (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that participants in weight loss treatment frequently appraise their own adherence more highly than their clinicians and that participants who do so to a greater degree tend to lose less weight.

The boomerang effect of tuberculosis knowledge and self-efficacy on Chinese parents' intention to seek timely treatment and adhere to doctors' regimens

OBJECTIVE

The present study tested the level of tuberculosis (TB) knowledge of Chinese parents whose children attended kindergarten, primary school, and middle school, and examined whether their TB knowledge and self-efficacy in TB management exhibited a curvilinear relationship with their intention to seek timely TB treatment and adhere to doctors' regimens if their children are infected with TB.

METHODS

An online cross-sectional survey (N = 1129) was conducted. TB knowledge was assessed based on the manual provided by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Hierarchical polynomial regression was conducted to test the proposed curvilinear relationships.

RESULTS

Chinese parents lacked knowledge about risks of TB and how to prevent TB. TB knowledge and self-efficacy in TB management motivated Chinese parents to seek timely TB treatment and adhere to doctors' regimens, but too much knowledge and self-efficacy predicted both intentions negatively.

CONCLUSION

Excessive levels of self-efficacy in self-management and health knowledge could backfire.

PRACTICE IMPLICATION

Practitioners should elevate Chinese parents' perceptions of severity of TB and susceptibility to TB. Additionally, health education should not be limited to providing medical facts but offer guidance on how to access professional medical resources. Self-efficacy in self-management should not be elevated.

Vain or able? Strong inference and the efficacy debate

Purpose

This study aims to address the efficacy debate by exploring the nature of how prior team level performance affects future performance. That is, the purpose of this study is to understand whether or not the boost of efficacy associated with success leads to overconfidence that harms performance or to motivation that enhances performance.

Design/methodology/approach

This study used a quantitative approach to test competing hypotheses derived from both social cognitive theory and control theory. Specifically, the study made use of archival National Football League data, containing 5,120 longitudinal team level observations. This paper uses multi-level modeling to analyze how prior team level performance affected future performance episodes.

Findings

The findings of this study suggest that prior success leads to overconfidence which ultimately harms future team performance. Therefore, the findings support control theory in favor of the social cognitive theory. However, this study finds that the detrimental effects of overconfidence could be offset by monitoring and work breaks.

Research limitations/implications

Due to the nature of the archival data source, it was not possible to directly measure efficacy. Thus, efficacy is inferred based on past performance outcomes.

Practical implications

This study suggests that it is important for managers and team leaders to pay careful attention to their team after successful performances. Specifically, team leaders may want to monitor their members or give them a break after successful performance episodes to avoid the negative effects of overconfidence.

Originality/value

This paper provides a direct test of the efficacy debate at the team level.

Understanding the effects of personality traits on solver engagement in crowdsourcing communities: a moderated mediation investigation

Purpose

Crowdsourcing communities enable companies to post challenges that are completed by solvers (workers); their success depends on engagement, requiring both creativity and effort. This study explores solver engagement in online crowdsourcing communities, advancing the theory of trait engagement by investigating the mediating roles of: (a) task-related self-efficacy in linking conscientiousness, neuroticism and extraversion, with solver engagement, and (b) task complexity in influencing the mediation.

Design/methodology/approach

215 valid responses were obtained from solvers engaged in the popular Chinese crowdsourcing community, Epwk.com, using an online questionnaire. PLS was then used to analyze the data.

Findings

Results show that self-efficacy mediates the relationships for conscientiousness, neuroticism and extraversion, with solver engagement. Moderated mediation analysis revealed that self-efficacy mediates the relationships for: (a) conscientiousness and extraversion, for only solvers with high task complexity; and (b) neuroticism, for only solvers with low task complexity.

Originality/value

The authors’ findings underscore the importance of accounting for solvers' situational contexts when examining the relationships between personality, self-efficacy and solver engagement in online crowdsourcing communities.

Developing an Instrument for Assessing Self-Efficacy in Data Mining and Analysis

With the continuous progress and penetration of automated data collection technology, enterprises and organizations are facing the problem of information overload. The demand for expertise in data mining and analysis is increasing. Self-efficacy is a pivotal construct that is significantly related to willingness and ability to perform a particular task. Thus, the objective of this study is to develop an instrument for assessing self-efficacy in data mining and analysis. An initial measurement list was developed based on the skills and abilities about executing data mining and analysis, and expert recommendations. A useful sample of 103 university students completed the online survey questionnaire. A 19-item four-factor model was extracted by exploratory factor analysis. Using the partial least squares-structural equation modeling technique (PLS-SEM), the model was cross-examined. The instrument showed satisfactory reliability and validity. The proposed instrument will be of value to researchers and practitioners in evaluating an individual's abilities and readiness in executing data mining and analysis.

Robotic technology quantifies novel perceptual-motor impairments in patients with chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Neurocognitive impairment is commonly reported in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The precise nature of this impairment is unclear, due to the lack of objective and quantitative assessment tools used. The feasibility of using robotic technology to precisely quantify neurocognitive impairment in patients with CKD is unknown.

METHODS

Patients with stage 4 and 5 CKD with no previous history of stroke or neurodegenerative disease were eligible for study enrollment. Feasibility was defined as successful study enrollment, high data capture rates (> 90%), and assessment tolerability. Our assessment included a traditional assessment: The Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS), and a robot-based assessment: Kinarm.

RESULTS

Our enrollment rate was 1.6 patients/month. All patients completed the RBANS portion of the assessment, with a 97.8% (range 92-100%) completion rate on Kinarm. Missing data on Kinarm were mainly due to time constraints. Data from 49 CKD patients were analyzed. Kinarm defined more individuals as impaired, compared to RBANS, particularly in the domains of perceptual-motor function (17-49% impairment), complex attention (22-49% impairment), and executive function (29-37.5% impairment). Demographic features (sex and education) predicted performance on some, but not all neurocognitive tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

It is feasible to quantify neurocognitive impairments in patients with CKD using robotic technology. Kinarm characterized more patients with CKD as impaired, and importantly identified novel perceptual-motor impairments in these patients, when compared to traditional assessments.

Fighting Coronavirus One Personality at a Time: Need for Structure, Trait Victimhood, and Adherence to COVID-19 Health Guidelines

Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, authorities have issued several guidelines to curb the pandemic's disastrous effects. However, measures' effectiveness is dependent upon people's adherence to them. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the potential factors that explain guideline adherence. In the present brief research report, we investigated need for structure and trait victimhood, i.e., the tendency to feel like a victim, and their effect on fear of the pandemic, which in turn, predicted guideline adherence. Furthermore, the association between fear and guideline adherence was shaped by participants' global self-efficacy: higher levels of self-efficacy predicted more guideline adherence regardless of fear levels. The present findings may be relevant to health messaging endeavors aiming to improve compliance with guidelines.

Well Done! Effects of Positive Feedback on Perceived Self-Efficacy, Flow and Performance in a Mental Arithmetic Task

Self-efficacy is a well-known psychological resource, being positively associated with increased performance. Furthermore, results from field studies suggest a positive impact of self-efficacy on flow experience, which has not yet been tested experimentally. In this study, we manipulated self-efficacy by means of positive feedback and investigated whether self-efficacy serves as a mediator in the relationship between positive feedback and flow and in the relationship between positive feedback and performance. Our sample consisted of 102 participants (63 female, 39 male). The experimental group received positive feedback after completing 5 min of mental arithmetic tasks on a computer, whereas the control group received no feedback. A second session of a mental arithmetic task was then completed for 5 min. Mediation analyses confirmed that specific self-efficacy mediated a positive effect of positive feedback on flow as well as on both performance measures (quality and quantity) in a subsequent task. However, direct effects of feedback on flow and on performance were not significant, which suggests the presence of other mechanisms that remain to be investigated.

Brain condition may mediate the association between training and work engagement

Over the past two decades, the number of studies on work engagement has increased rapidly. Work engagement refers to a positive, affective-motivational state of high energy combined with high levels of dedication and a strong focus on work, leading to various work-related outcomes, including higher work performance. Several studies have indicated that training or coaching may increase work engagement, but other studies have shown contradicting results. These inconsistencies may be due to the indirectness between training/coaching and work engagement. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between training and brain structure as well as between brain structure and work engagement in cognitively normal participants. Brain structure was assessed using neuroimaging-derived measures, including the gray-matter brain healthcare quotient (GM-BHQ) and the fractional-anisotropy brain healthcare quotient (FA-BHQ), which are approved as the international standard (H.861.1) by ITU-T. Work engagement was assessed using the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale. To validate and enrich the analysis, we employed another two representative questionnaires, which are known to be close to but different from work engagement: The Social interaction Anxiety Scale and the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey to gauge the levels of human relation ineffectiveness and burnout. The latter scale is subdivided into three variables including "Exhaustion," "Cynicism," and "Professional Efficacy." The results of the present study indicate that training is associated with an increase of FA-BHQ scores, and that an increase of the FA-BHQ scores is associated with an increase in Work Engagement and a decrease in Cynicism. On the other hand, the training with coaching was associated with a decrease in Interaction Anxiety. However, no correlation was observed for training with Work Engagement or the subscales of Burnout. Likewise, no correlation was observed for FA-BHQ with Exhaustion, Professional Efficacy, and Interaction Anxiety. The results of the current research provide the possibility to use brain information to evaluate training effectiveness from the viewpoint of neuroscience.

Age as Moderator of the Relationship Between Self-efficacy and Effort in Occupational Teams

Demographic changes increase the age range in occupational teams, which has potential consequences for collaboration not only at the team level (age diversity) but also at the individual level regarding how much effort workers expend. By integrating a life span perspective into theories on effort expenditure in teams, we assumed that workers’ chronological age moderates the relationship between task-specific self-efficacy beliefs and effort expenditure in organizational teamwork. More specifically, we assumed that task-specific self-efficacy beliefs are more strongly related with effort for older as compared with younger team members. Hypotheses were tested in 2 online studies (N = 209 and 271 workers, respectively) using the event reconstruction method. Participants were instructed to reexperience specific work events from the last few days (Study 1: 2 teamwork events; Study 2: 1 teamwork event and 1 working-alone event) and to indicate their self-efficacy and effort expenditure in each event. Results of both studies showed the expected age moderation of the self-efficacy–effort link in team settings, whereas no such moderation was observed in working-alone settings in Study 2. Finally, Study 2 also showed a stronger age moderation effect in unfamiliar as compared with familiar tasks.

Motor Performance, Mental Workload and Self-Efficacy Dynamics during Learning of Reaching Movements throughout Multiple Practice Sessions

The human capability to learn new motor skills depends on the efficient engagement of cognitive-motor resources, as reflected by mental workload, and psychological mechanisms (e.g., self-efficacy). While numerous investigations have examined the relationship between motor behavior and mental workload or self-efficacy in a performance context, a fairly limited effort focused on the combined examination of these notions during learning. Thus, this study aimed to examine their concomitant dynamics during the learning of a novel reaching skill practiced throughout multiple sessions. Individuals had to learn to control a virtual robotic arm via a human-machine interface by using limited head motion throughout eight practice sessions while motor performance, mental workload, and self-efficacy were assessed. The results revealed that as individuals learned to control the robotic arm, performance improved at the fastest rate, followed by a more gradual reduction of mental workload and finally an increase in self-efficacy. These results suggest that once the performance improved, less cognitive-motor resources were recruited, leading to an attenuated mental workload. Considering that attention is a primary cognitive resource driving mental workload, it is suggested that during early learning, attentional resources are primarily allocated to address task demands and not enough are available to assess self-efficacy. However, as the performance becomes more automatic, a lower level of mental workload is attained driven by decreased recruitment of attentional resources. These available resources allow for a reliable assessment of self-efficacy resulting in a subsequent observable change. These results are also discussed in terms of the application to the training and design of assistive technologies.

Reciprocal Relationships Between Efficacy and Performance in Athlete Dyads: Self-, Other-, and Collective Constructs

This study's purpose was to evaluate the unique contributions of self-, other-, and collective constructs in the efficacy-performance reciprocal relationship for athlete dyads involving low- and high-dependence roles. Data were obtained from 74 intact cheerleading pairs on self-, other-, and collective efficacy and subjective performance evaluations for each of 5 successive trials. Objective assessments of dyad performances were obtained from digital recordings. Across path models involving a single efficacy construct, similar reciprocal relationships between objective dyad performance and self-, other-, or collective efficacy were observed. In path models composed of multiple efficacy or performance constructs, unique efficacy contributions were observed in the prediction of objective dyad performance, and unique subjective performance contributions were observed in the prediction of efficacy beliefs. Partner effects were observed more often for athletes in the high-dependence role than for those in the low-dependence role. Findings support how self-, other-, and collective beliefs are processed by team athletes.

From Data to Causes II: Comparing Approaches to Panel Data Analysis

This article compares a general cross-lagged model (GCLM) to other panel data methods based on their coherence with a causal logic and pragmatic concerns regarding modeled dynamics and hypothesis testing. We examine three “static” models that do not incorporate temporal dynamics: random- and fixed-effects models that estimate contemporaneous relationships; and latent curve models. We then describe “dynamic” models that incorporate temporal dynamics in the form of lagged effects: cross-lagged models estimated in a structural equation model (SEM) or multilevel model (MLM) framework; Arellano-Bond dynamic panel data methods; and autoregressive latent trajectory models. We describe the implications of overlooking temporal dynamics in static models and show how even popular cross-lagged models fail to control for stable factors over time. We also show that Arellano-Bond and autoregressive latent trajectory models have various shortcomings. By contrasting these approaches, we clarify the benefits and drawbacks of common methods for modeling panel data, including the GCLM approach we propose. We conclude with a discussion of issues regarding causal inference, including difficulties in separating different types of time-invariant and time-varying effects over time.

Why Residuals Are Important in the Self-Efficacy-Performance Relationship Analysis: A Study Across 12 Cycling Sessions

Background: The positive role of self-efficacy in directing a wide range of health-related interventions has been well documented, including those targeting an increase in physical activity. However, rarely do researchers control the influence of past performance and past self-efficacy perception ratings when exploring the interaction of self-efficacy and performance, allowing for a refined understanding of this relationship and the unique contribution of each factor. Methods: A residualized past performance, residualized self-efficacy hierarchical regression model was used to examine the effect of prior past performance and pre-exercise self-efficacy on performance with a health-related task (12 aerobic exercise cycling sessions). Results: The previous day's residualized performance was a significant predictor of performance, as was same-day residualized self-efficacy (P < .001). However, residualized self-efficacy became a stronger predictor over time. Conclusions: While maintaining a consistent level of moderate-vigorous physical activity over 12 exercise sessions, participants increased their ratings of task self-efficacy, explaining an increasing portion of the variance in the self-efficacy-performance relationship days 9 to 12.

Experience Sampling Methods: A Discussion of Critical Trends and Considerations for Scholarly Advancement

In the organizational sciences, scholars are increasingly using experience sampling methods (ESM) to answer questions tied to intraindividual, dynamic phenomenon. However, employing this method to answer organizational research questions comes with a number of complex—and often difficult—decisions surrounding: (1) how the implementation of ESM can advance or elucidate prior between-person theorizing at the within-person level of analysis, (2) how scholars should effectively and efficiently assess within-person constructs, and (3) analytic concerns regarding the proper modeling of interdependent assessments and trends while controlling for potentially confounding factors. The current paper addresses these challenges via a panel of seven researchers who are familiar not only with implementing this methodology but also related theoretical and analytic challenges in this domain. The current paper provides timely, actionable insights aimed toward addressing several complex issues that scholars often face when implementing ESM in their research.

Television Is Still "Easy" and Print Is Still "Tough"? More Than 30 Years of Research on the Amount of Invested Mental Effort

We provide a literature overview of 30 years of research on the amount of invested mental effort (AIME, Salomon, 1984), illuminating relevant literature in this field. Since the introduction of AIME, this concept appears to have vanished. To obtain a clearer picture of where the theory of AIME has diffused, we conducted a literature search focusing on the period 1985-2015. We examined scientific articles (N = 244) that cite Salomon (1984) and content-analyzed their keywords. Based on these keywords, we identified seven content clusters: affect and motivation, application fields, cognition and learning, education and teaching, media technology, learning with media technology, and methods. We present selected works of each content cluster and describe in which research field the articles had been published. Results indicate that AIME was most commonly (but not exclusively) referred to in the area of educational psychology indicating its importance regarding learning and education, thereby investigating print and TV, as well as new media. From a methodological perspective, research applied various research methods (e.g., longitudinal studies, experimental designs, theoretical analysis) and samples (e.g., children, college students, low income families). From these findings, the importance of AIME for further research is discussed.

Translating Informal Theories Into Formal Theories: The Case of the Dynamic Computational Model of the Integrated Model of Work Motivation

Theories are the core of any science, but many imprecisely stated theories in organizational and management science are hampering progress in the field. Computational modeling of existing theories can help address the issue. Computational models are a type of formal theory that are represented mathematically or by other formal logic and can be simulated, allowing theorists to assess whether the theory can explain the phenomena intended as well as make testable predictions. As an example of the process, Locke’s integrated model of work motivation is translated into static and dynamic computational models. Simulations of these models are compared to the empirical data used to develop and test the theory. For the static model, the simulations revealed largely strong associations with robust empirical findings. However, adding dynamics created several challenges to key precepts of the theory. Moreover, the effort revealed where empirical work is needed to further refine or refute the theory. Discussion focuses on the value of computational modeling as a method for formally testing, pruning, and extending extant theories in the field.

A Fitting Approach to Construct and Measurement Alignment

Many phenomena of interest to management and psychology scholars are dynamic and change over time. One of the primary impediments to the examination of dynamic phenomena has been challenges associated with collecting data at a sufficient frequency and duration to accurately model such changes. Emerging technologies that produce nearly continuous streams of big data offer great promise to address those challenges; however, they introduce new methodological challenges and construct validity concerns. We seek to integrate the emerging big data technologies into the existing repertoire of measurement techniques and advance an iterative process to enhance their measurement fit. First, we provide an overview of dynamic constructs and temporal frameworks, highlighting their measurement implications. Second, we discuss different data streams and feature emerging technologies that leverage big data as a means to index dynamic constructs. Third, we integrate the previous sections and advance an iterative approach to achieving measurement fit, highlighting factors that make some measurement choices more suitable and viable than others. In so doing, we hope to accelerate the advancement of dynamic theories and methods.