Presence of human friends and pet dogs as moderators of autonomic responses to stress in women

Going to the office - What's in it for the dog?

Benefits and challenges of dogs being present at the office were analyzed from three perspectives: the company view, the dog owner (employee) and the dog view. For companies, office dogs may serve as a branding symbol, leading to higher employee satisfaction and productivity, increased stress resilience and fewer turnover intentions. Yet, companies need to apply pet policies, risk management strategies and mitigate nuisance such as barking, loose fur or excrement. Additional breaks to walk the dogs are required and other employees or customers may be irritated. Employees take advantage of stress reduction, social support, higher job satisfaction, not having to leave their animal at home. Still, an office dog is an added responsibility in terms well-being, safety, distraction from work and emotional involvement. Although the animal perspective has not yet been scientifically addressed, we propose potential benefits such as less separation distress by having the owner nearby, higher social engagement and additional walks during breaks. Challenges for dogs may involve unwanted attention, aversive environmental stimulation, being restrained via leash or crate, irritation caused by conspecifics, emotional contagion or individual requirements.

Oxytocin levels and self-reported anxiety during interactions between humans and cows

Introduction

Positive social interactions with farm animals may have therapeutic benefits on humans by increasing brain oxytocin secretion, as inferred from circulating oxytocin levels. The aim of this observational study was to investigate acute changes in human plasma oxytocin levels and state anxiety associated with interactions with dairy cows.

Methods

Data were collected from 18 healthy female nursing students who performed stroking and brushing of an unfamiliar cow for 15 min. Blood samples were drawn before entering the cowshed (T1, baseline), and after 5 (T2) and 15 (T3) min of interaction with a cow. At T1 and T3, the students filled out the Norwegian version of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State Subscale (STAI-SS).

Results

Across participants, no significant changes in average plasma oxytocin concentration were detected between time points (p>0.05). There was, however, a modest decline in the STAI-SS scores between T1 and T3 (p=0.015) and a positive correlation between the change in individual level of state anxiety between T1 and T3 and the change in OT concentration of the same individual between T2 and T3 (p = 0.045).

Discussion

The results suggest that friendly social interactions with cows are beneficial in lowering state anxiety, but any relationship with release of OT into the circulation was complex and variable across individuals. The acute reduction in state anxiety lends support to the value of interacting with farm animals in the context of Green Care for people with mental health challenges.

The role of social support and social identification on challenge and threat cognitive appraisals, perceived stress, and life satisfaction in workplace employees

There is an emergent literature highlighting the positive role of social support and social identification in buffering against the deleterious effects of psychological stressors. Yet, we have limited understanding of how exactly these social factors fit within contemporary stress and coping theory. To advance and gain a greater understanding of these social factors, we explore the associations of social support and social identification on individuals' challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and how this then relates to perceived stress, life satisfaction, turnover intentions, and job performance. A total of 412 workplace employees from private and public sector occupations completed state measures around a recent most stressful experience at work. Results revealed atemporal associations between cognitive resource appraisals with both social support and social identification. Specifically, greater identification with colleagues and lower threat were related to less perceived stress, while having greater social identification (with colleagues and organisation), social support, and lower threat, were related to greater life satisfaction. Greater perceived stress, and lower social identification and life satisfaction, were also related to greater turnover intentions. While greater identification with the organisation and life satisfaction, along with lower perceived stress were related to greater job performance. Taken together, this research provides evidence that social support and social identification play a positive role when trying to promote more adaptive responses to stressful situations.

Age modifies the association between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease

Introduction

Studies examining associations between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease have yielded inconsistent results. These discrepancies may be partially explained by variations in age and sex across study populations. Our study included 6,632 American Gut Project participants who are US residents ≥40 years.

Methods

We first estimated the association of pet ownership with cardiovascular disease risk using multivariable-adjusted logistic regression, and further investigated effect modifications of age and sex.

Results

Cat but not dog ownership was significantly associated with lower cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.56 [0.42, 0.73] and OR: 1.17 [0.88, 1.39], respectively). Cat and dog ownership significantly interacted with age but not sex, indicating that cardiovascular risk varies by the age-by-pet ownership combination. Compared to the reference group (40-64 years, no cat or dog), participants 40-64 years with only a cat had the lowest cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.40 [0.26, 0.61]). Those ≥65 years with no pets had the highest risk (OR: 3.85 [2.85, 5.24]).

Discussion

This study supports the importance of pets in human cardiovascular health, suggesting optimal pet choice is age-dependent. Having both a cat and dog can be advantageous to people ≥65 years, while having only a cat may benefit those 40-64 years. Further studies are needed to assess causality.

Retrospective Examination of Service Dog Training Program Participation and Mental Healthcare Utilization

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between Service Dog Training Program (SDTP) participation and mental health care utilization.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Outpatient rehabilitation clinic at a large military treatment facility.

PARTICIPANTS

Military Health System beneficiaries who attended at least 1 SDTP session at a large military treatment facility (N=597). SDTP program enrollment records identified participants.

INTERVENTION

The SDTP, a unique application of animal-assisted therapy, is intended to improve the mental and cognitive health for individuals with war-related trauma.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Negative binomial regression calculated the associations between the SDTP participation rate and 2 mental health care utilization outcomes: mental health encounter days and psychotropic medication months' supply.

RESULTS

Most of the 597 participants were male, enlisted service members, and aged 25-34 years. Approximately 46% had a posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis, 21% had a traumatic brain injury diagnosis, 47% had an opioid prescription, and 58% had a sleep aid prescription pre-SDTP participation. Participation was categorized into low (≤1 sessions), medium (>1 and ≤2 sessions), and high (>2 sessions) monthly participation. In adjusted analysis, high monthly SDTP participation was associated with 18% fewer post-SDTP mental health encounter days (rate ratio [RR], 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.68-0.96) than low monthly SDTP participation. High monthly SDTP participation was also associated with a 22% fewer post-SDTP psychotropic prescription months' supply (RR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.64-0.95) than low monthly SDTP participation in adjusted analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that participants who attend more than 2 SDTP sessions monthly encounter mental health care differently post SDTP than participants who attended 1 or fewer monthly sessions. Adjunct therapies, such as the SDTP, may offer patients a nonstigmatizing way to engage in mental health care.

Unleashing the Furr-Recovery Method: Interacting with Pets in Teleworking Replenishes the Self's Regulatory Resources: Evidence from a Daily-Diary Study

This study is based on the conservation of resources theory and the recovery step model in order to further explore the furr-recovery method-a mechanism through which workers break their routine by taking micro-moments to interact with their "furry co-workers," thus relieving their fatigue and tension or other negative affective states. Based on this, we argue that this method not only serves the purpose of restoring self-regulatory resources but also ameliorates mental health. Accordingly, this study aims to analyze how daily human-animal interactions during teleworking positively influence teleworkers' mental health, via recovering their self-regulatory resources, at the within-person level. Full-time teleworkers completed multiple online surveys for 5 consecutive workdays (N = 211 × 5 = 1055 daily observations). Multilevel path analysis results showed that on days on which employees had more micro-moments to interact with their "furry co-workers" during the day, they experienced a higher self-regulatory capacity and felt better while working. In sum, the findings give support for the theoretical resource perspective of interacting with pets as an effective energy management strategy while at work. This research extends the theoretical understanding of regulatory resources as a cognitive mechanism that links HAIs to employee mental health. Moreover, the findings outlined here offer practical implications by highlighting the furr-recovery method, a method that teleworkers who own pets may use as a strategy during the working day to restore resources needed to be healthier.

The Lived Experience of Human-Pet Relationships among Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Given the high prevalence and severe consequences of childhood sexual abuse, it is essential to identify ways to support adult survivors. One potential and relatively unexplored resource available to survivors is the human-pet relationship. In the literature, the human-pet relationship is linked to many positive benefits to physiological regulation, mental health, physical health, and social support - areas of functioning where survivors of childhood sexual abuse may be particularly at risk. Despite existing evidence, there is little research on human-pet relationships among survivors of childhood sexual abuse. To help address this gap, this qualitative study explored the lived experience of human-pet relationships among adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Utilizing data collection and analysis methods from Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. The following themes were developed from the data: (a) close bond with pet; (b) idiosyncrasies within the human-pet relationship; (c) moral responsibility; (d) fundamental differences between pets and humans; (e) safety in the human-pet relationship; (f) resource for coping with painful experience; (g) positive impact on well-being; (h) buttress for human-human social interaction; (i) medium for skill and knowledge development; and (j) shortcomings of the human-pet relationship. Findings are discussed in the context of the existing literature, along with considerations for practice and future research with childhood sexual abuse survivors.

Psychophysiological mechanisms underlying the potential health benefits of human-dog interactions: A systematic literature review

While the symbiotic nature of human-dog relationships and perceived benefits to human health have attracted much scientific interest, the mechanisms through which human-dog interactions may confer health benefits to humans are still poorly understood. The aim of this systematic literature review was to synthesize evidence of physiological changes associated with human-dog interactions with relevance to human health. Electronic databases were systematically searched (PubMed, MEDLINE with full text, Scopus, PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, and Web of Science Core Collection) for relevant studies. Of the 13,072 studies identified, 129 met the inclusion criteria, with approximately half being randomized trials (Level 2) based on the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine level system. Measures employed to study human physiological changes associated with human-dog interactions most commonly involved cardiac parameters and hormones, with negligible research of brain activity. The main positive findings were increases in heart rate variability and oxytocin, and decreases in cortisol with human-dog interactions. These physiological indicators are consistent with activation of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and oxytocinergic system (OTS), and down-regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. These results provide evidence of specific pathways through which human-dog contact may confer health benefits, likely through relaxation, bonding, and stress reduction. However, these findings should be interpreted contextually due to limitations and methodological differences. Previous research using other biological variables was limited in quantity and quality, thus impeding firm conclusions on other possible mechanisms. Further research is needed in some psychophysiological domains, particularly electroencephalography, to better understand central nervous system (CNS) effects. The findings of this review have implications for human-dog interactions to positively affect several stress-sensitive physiological pathways and thus confer health benefits. This supports their incorporation in various clinical, non-clinical, and research settings to develop evidence-based interventions and practices for cost-effective and efficacious ways to improve human health.

Shared Reality Can Reduce Stressor Reactivity

When a person faces a stressor alongside someone else, do they get more or less stressed when the other person agrees that the situation is stressful? While an equally stressed partner could plausibly amplify stress by making the situation seem more real and worthy of distress, we find that social validation during co-experienced stressors reduces reactivity. Specifically, the psychological experience of shared reality calms some people down. In Study 1, 70 undergraduate females who jointly faced a stressful event with someone else reported feeling less anxious when the other person felt the same way about the stressor, relative to when the other person appraised the situation in the opposite way or provided no indication of their appraisal. These findings were reflected in participants' physiological reactivity, especially in the parasympathetic nervous system. In Study 2, we generalize these findings to co-experienced stressors in the daily lives of 102 heteronormative romantic couples in the New York City area. In line with tend-and-befriend theory, we found that shared reality during co-experienced stressors reduced anxiety for almost all females (99% of the sample) and for a minority of males (42% of the sample). Together, these findings unify major theories in health and social psychology by implying that shared reality reduces stressor reactivity, and that this effect is partially moderated by sex.

Molecular Biomarkers of Adult Human and Dog Stress during Canine-Assisted Interventions: A Systematic Scoping Review

Simple Summary

Interactions between people and dogs may lower participants’ stress levels. However, this is a fairly new area of research and there has not been a review of what we know across studies. We examined the existing research and found that human–dog interactions consistently improve some indications of human stress levels and don’t seem to negatively affect dogs. However, we need to do more research to gain a better understanding of the impacts on people and dogs with a wider lens that looks at more markers of stress.

Abstract

Positive relationships, including those between humans and other animals, particularly dogs, may be a way to reduce stress in humans. However, research into this area is relatively new, and a comprehensive review of the impacts of these interactions on humans and dogs has not been conducted. A scoping review of the scientific literature was conducted to explore what is known about the impacts of canine-assisted interventions on molecular biomarkers (e.g., cortisol and oxytocin) and associated measures (e.g., heart rate and blood pressure) of human and canine stress. As reported across 27 identified studies, canine-assisted interventions have consistently been demonstrated to elicit positive changes in human stress markers, and typically do not cause negative impacts on the studied canine stress markers. However, results were inconsistent across measures of stress. For example, in humans, it was common for a study to show improvements to cortisol levels but no change to self-reported stress, or vice versa. Many of the reviewed studies also had significant methodological issues, such as not aligning the timing of sample collections to when the analyzed stress biomarkers could be expected to peak. More rigorous research should be conducted on the impacts of canine-assisted interventions on a wider range of stress biomarkers.

Animal-Assisted Intervention and Health Care Workers’ Psychological Health: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Healthcare settings have recently increased the use of companion animals in the workplace to provide emotional support to people with disabilities, but there is limited empirical research on the effects of these programs on healthcare workers. However, it is reasonable to speculate that Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) may have positive effects on health care workers (HCWs) by buffering the negative effects of work-related stress and other occupational psychosocial risk factors. The aim of this review was to examine the beneficial effects of AAIs on the psychological well-being of HCWs. A systematic review was conducted in December 2021 to gain insight into the positive effects of pets on HCWs in the workplace. Searches were conducted in the following databases: Scopus, PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, including studies between 2001 and December 2021, and 12 articles were included in the review. The results indicate that implementing the AAI program in a busy clinic is feasible and that the program is accepted by medical professionals because of the immense psychological benefits it provides. However, the healthcare professionals disliked the experimental design that forced them to leave their workplaces at a certain time.

Evaluation of Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Cardiovascular Disease Among Older Women in the US

IMPORTANCE

Social isolation and loneliness are increasing public health concerns and have been associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among older adults.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the associations of social isolation and loneliness with incident CVD in a large cohort of postmenopausal women and whether social support moderated these associations.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This prospective cohort study, conducted from March 2011 through March 2019, included community-living US women aged 65 to 99 years from the Women's Health Initiative Extension Study II who had no history of myocardial infarction, stroke, or coronary heart disease.

EXPOSURES

Social isolation and loneliness were ascertained using validated questionnaires.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The main outcome was major CVD, which was physician adjudicated using medical records and included coronary heart disease, stroke, and death from CVD. Continuous scores of social isolation and loneliness were analyzed. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for CVD were calculated for women with high social isolation and loneliness scores (midpoint of the upper half of the distribution) vs those with low scores (midpoint of the lower half of the distribution) using multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models adjusting for age, race and ethnicity, educational level, and depression and then adding relevant health behavior and health status variables. Questionnaire-assessed social support was tested as a potential effect modifier.

RESULTS

Among 57 825 women (mean [SD] age, 79.0 [6.1] years; 89.1% White), 1599 major CVD events occurred over 186 762 person-years. The HR for the association of high vs low social isolation scores with CVD was 1.18 (95% CI, 1.13-1.23), and the HR for the association of high vs low loneliness scores with CVD was 1.14 (95% CI, 1.10-1.18). The HRs after additional adjustment for health behaviors and health status were 1.08 (95% CI, 1.03-1.12; 8.0% higher risk) for social isolation and 1.05 (95% CI, 1.01-1.09; 5.0% higher risk) for loneliness. Women with both high social isolation and high loneliness scores had a 13.0% to 27.0% higher risk of incident CVD than did women with low social isolation and low loneliness scores. Social support was not a significant effect modifier of the associations (social isolation × social support: r, -0.18; P = .86; loneliness × social support: r, 0.78; P = .48).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cohort study, social isolation and loneliness were independently associated with modestly higher risk of CVD among postmenopausal women in the US, and women with both social isolation and loneliness had greater CVD risk than did those with either exposure alone. The findings suggest that these prevalent psychosocial processes merit increased attention for prevention of CVD in older women, particularly in the era of COVID-19.

Conserve My Village—Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish Students’ Valued Landscapes and Well-Being

In the context of landscape, both the natural environment and the built environment can be linked with human health and well-being. This connection has been studied among adults, but no research has been conducted on young people. To fill this gap, this case study aimed to elucidate students’ views on landscapes worth conserving and the landscapes that affect and support their well-being. The participants (n = 538) were Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish students from grades 3–6. The students drew the landscapes they wanted to conserve. The drawn landscapes and the welfare-supporting features they contained were analysed using inductive and abductive content analyses. The students from all three countries preferred water, forest and yard landscapes. In the drawings of natural landscapes, the most recurring themes were sunrise or sunset, forest, beach and mountain landscapes. Physical well-being was manifested in the opportunity to jog and walk. Social well-being was reflected in the presence of friends, relatives and animals. Therapeutically important well-being-related spaces—the so-called green (natural areas), blue (aquatic environments) and white (e.g., snow) areas—were also depicted in the participants’ drawings. It can be concluded that the drawn landscapes reflect several values that promote students’ well-being.

Personality factors, depression, anxiety, and stress in pet owners

The study compares personality factors, symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress between owners and non-pet owners. A total of 145 adults participated, between 18 and 78 years (M = 30.96, SD = 12.10). Participants were divided according to the type of pet they had: 1) dogs, 2) cats, 3) dogs and cats. The results suggest that people who do not have pets showed more anxiety symptoms than those who have pets. Dogs and cats owners showed higher scores of conscientiousness personality factor than participants who did not have any pets. The results reveal differences between animals owners and non-owners. There is a need for studies using mediating variables analyzes, as well as longitudinal research that can explore the feasible causal relationship between different characteristics of people who own pets and well-being.

The benefits of giving: Effects of prosocial behavior on recovery from stress

Individuals regularly face stress, and the manner in which they cope with that stress is a crucial component in predicting stress recovery. While many engage in self-rewarding behaviors to feel better, these behaviors can come with a cost. The current study tested the effect of engaging in a different behavior after experiencing stress-prosocial behavior. Given the health benefits associated with giving to others, it is plausible that engaging in prosocial behavior is more successful in reducing the psychological and physiological responses to stress. To test this, participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test and then either sent a gift card to a person of their choosing, received a gift card for themselves, or selected the more aesthetically pleasing gift card. Measures of self-reported mood, heart rate, blood pressure, salivary alpha-amylase, and cortisol were collected throughout the session. While the manipulation did not elicit differences in psychological or hormonal measures, the giving group showed a significantly greater downregulation of their heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure while recovering from the stressor. Additionally, those in the giving group who evidenced greater prosocial sentiment showed a larger reduction in diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure. A follow-up study suggested that these behaviors may be engaging different reward components, as those who gave a gift card reported greater "liking" while those who received a gift card reported greater "wanting". Overall, the findings show that engaging in prosocial behavior following a stressor can help to downregulate physiological stress responses.

Dog Walking and the Social Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Loneliness in Older Adults

Pet ownership can provide important companionship and facilitate social connections, which may be particularly important to socially isolated older adults. Given the significant deleterious impact of loneliness on health and wellbeing in later life, many predicted that public safety measures imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic would greatly increase loneliness, particularly among vulnerable populations like older adults. We investigated whether dog walking buffers loneliness in the context of stressors imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Longitudinal survey data were obtained from a Florida community-based sample of adults (n = 466) aged 60+ years old in September 2018 and October 2020. Using OLS regression models, we tested: a) the association between the social consequences of COVID-19 and changes in loneliness, and b) the buffering effect of dog walking on this relationship. The high social consequences of COVID-19 were related to increases in loneliness. Walking a dog daily buffered the relationship. These results suggest potential therapeutic effects of dog walking for the promotion of mental health in older adults, particularly in the context of stressful situations that accentuate risks for loneliness.

Sustainability and Pet Food: Is There a Role for Veterinarians?

Sustainability has become a watchword for a wide array of resource-intensive goods and services. This is promulgated by an increasing global population and concerns that natural resources and a hospitable climate will not be preserved for future generations. Life-cycle analysis is a tool that provides a framework to determine the magnitude products contribute to carbon emissions and depletion of natural resources. In this review, published research has been summarized to provide an overview of the impacts that pet food production and pet ownership have on the environment and the prospective role of veterinary practitioners in advocating for sustainability.

The effects of facility dogs on burnout, job-related well-being, and mental health in paediatric hospital professionals

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To examine the effect of working with a facility dog on paediatric healthcare professionals' work-related burnout, job perceptions and mental health.

BACKGROUND

Due to their roles caring for ill children and distressed families, paediatric healthcare professionals often experience substantial depression and burnout. According to prior research, facility dogs in children's hospitals may provide significant benefits to paediatric patients. However, their potential effects on healthcare professionals have been minimally explored.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design was used in adherence to the STROBE checklist.

METHOD

Among 130 participants, n = 65 paediatric healthcare professionals working with a facility dog were compared to n = 65 control participants matched on age, gender identity, job position category and pet ownership. Hierarchical regression assessed the effect of working with a facility dog on standardised self-report measures of work-related burnout, job perceptions and mental health.

RESULTS

For work-related burnout, working with a facility dog was associated with higher perceived personal accomplishment, but had no effect on emotional exhaustion. With respect to job perceptions, working with a facility dog was associated with more positive job descriptions and lower intention to quit, but not with perceptions about co-workers or workplace social support. Finally, in relation to mental health, working with a facility dog was associated with more positive emotions, better perceived mental health and less depression, but had no effect on anxiety.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that facility dogs may be related to several benefits for healthcare professionals' work-related burnout, job perceptions and mental health, but that they do not influence all components of these areas.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

The present research functions to inform personnel in paediatric hospitals with existing facility dog programmes on the scope of their effects, in addition to shaping the expectations of hospitals considering the addition of a facility dog programme.

"I Couldn't Have Asked for a Better Quarantine Partner!": Experiences with Companion Dogs during Covid-19

The Covid-19 pandemic has been found to negatively impact the psychological well-being of significant numbers of people globally. Many individuals have been challenged by social distancing mandates and the resultant social isolation. Humans, in our modern world, have rarely been as isolated and socially restricted. Social connectedness and support are critical protective factors for human survival and well-being. Social isolation can lead to loneliness, boredom, and can become a risk factor for physical and mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. The attachments formed with dogs, however, can be as strong or even stronger than human connections, and has been shown to relate to fewer physical health and mental health problems, as well as decrease isolation and loneliness. The purpose of this qualitative research was to examine the thoughts, experiences and concerns of 4105 adults regarding their companion dog during the initial months of Covid-19. Data were collected between March 31st-April 19th, 2020 via online survey and themes were coded by the researchers using directed content analysis. Results highlighted a strong human-animal appreciation, and that dog ownership during this pandemic diminished participants' sense of isolation and loneliness, as well as supported their mental/physical health.

The Experience of Teleworking with Dogs and Cats in the United States during COVID-19

Simple Summary

During Spring 2020, the public health threat created by the novel coronavirus (SAR-CoV-2), commonly referenced as COVID-19, prompted employers across the United States to allow, encourage, or require their employees to work from home. This exploratory, survey-based study compared individuals’ perceptions of working from home and from their employer’s workplace, paying particular attention to how these experiences differed for individuals with and without dogs and/or cats. Participants reported they had more opportunities to socialize with other people and experienced less work-family conflict when they worked at the office. When working from home, participants indicated they spent more quality time with their pets and family members, and compared to those without dogs, dog owners were more likely to report socializing with others and getting a healthy amount of physical activity. Follow-up studies are needed to investigate whether these findings persist after the threat of COVID-19 abates and to see how characteristics of pet owners (e.g., personality, job type) and pets (e.g., species, age, behavior) impact any benefits or costs associated with being in the company of pets while teleworking.

Abstract

In Spring of 2020, the novel coronavirus (SAR-CoV-2) prompted an unprecedented number of individuals across the United States to begin working from home. Prior research has identified both positive and negative impacts of teleworking on employee well-being, and this study built on that research to explore perceptions regarding how companion animals factor into the teleworking experience. Individuals who had experience working from home and from their employer’s office completed an online survey about those experiences. Participants reported spending more quality time with their companion animals and family members when they worked from home. Furthermore, when working from home, individuals with dogs were more likely than those without dogs to report they socialized with other people, got a healthy amount of physical activity, and took at least one 15-min walk during the workday. Some participants, particularly those in households containing both dogs and cats, indicated that their pets created distractions during the workday. Future studies can build on this research by investigating whether the findings persist once the novel coronavirus is no longer a threat, and by paying close attention to the characteristics of pets, owners, and household dynamics that may influence the effects of pet ownership on the teleworking experience.

Variability in Human-Animal Interaction Research

The field of Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) is plagued with mixed results. Some findings appear to indicate that interacting with a companion animal is beneficial for some aspect of human health and well-being, while other research outcomes are inconclusive or even indicate the opposite. The purpose of this paper is to take a closer look at this variability in research outcomes and to provide plausible explanations and potential remedies. Some of the reasons for mixed results are likely due to the wide variety of methodologies implemented, intermittent use of standardized measures and manualized protocols, variability in human and animal participants, and limited quantification of human-animal interactions or definitions of pet ownership. Variability in research outcomes is not unique to HAI and is, in fact, not uncommon in many more established fields such as psychology and medicine. However, the potential reasons for the variability may be linked to the unique nature of HAI in that, in its' simplest form, it involves two complex organisms, a human and an animal, interacting in dynamic ways. We argue that this complexity makes research in this field particularly challenging and requires a broad spectrum of theoretical and methodological considerations to improve rigor while ensuring the validity and reliability of conclusions drawn from study results.

Dogs at the Workplace: A Multiple Case Study

Simple Summary

Pet-friendly policies are becoming more common in the workplace, but little is known about how the presence of dogs influences the work environment. For this reason, the paper includes a study on how dogs influence the work environment and under which circumstances companies can benefit from a pet-friendly policy. An inductive research approach was used for this study. Qualitative data were conducted by interviewing dog-owners who routinely bring their dogs to the office and persons in management positions in the same companies. Finally, the results of the evolving data analysis through successive iterations was formed into a grounded theory. The results of the study generally support the belief that dogs at the workplace can have a positive influence on individual and collective well-being of organizational members in an office environment. However, the study shows that these positive effects of dogs are linked to certain prerequisites that need to be fulfilled in the company. These include flexible hours, autonomy, and open communication. While those requisites are not necessary in order to be able to implement pet-friendly policies, they are highly relevant when companies seek to decrease stress for employees and improve the work atmosphere and social capital.

Abstract

As the work environment is increasing in competitiveness and stressfulness, more and more companies try to increase employee well-being. One option is allowing employees to bring their dogs to work, building on the considerable evidence that dogs have a positive influence on people’s well-being. However, little is known about how a dog’s presence influences the employees and the companies in offices. Therefore, we empirically scrutinize the presence of dogs in organizations and the impact of pet-friendly organizational policies, with multiple case studies with semi-structured interviews as their foundation. Based on an inductive approach for the data analysis, we found that organizational members consider that dogs can lower their stress, improve communication, and foster social cohesion when a flexible organizational culture is in place. This includes the following: Problems in the company are openly addressed; employees have job autonomy, with flexibility to take breaks; and mistakes and errors are allowed to be made by employees and their companions alike, and room to find solutions is given. The inflexible permission of pets at work can, on the contrary, create pressure and stress in employees. For the business world, this implicates that this kind of incentive only leads to success if the right framework and culture is in place, and it cannot only be seen as an instrument to increase employee well-being.

Recovering the Relational Starting Point of Compassion Training: A Foundation for Sustainable and Inclusive Care

The cultivation of compassion through meditation training is of increasing interest to scientists, health-care providers, educators, and policymakers as an approach to help address challenging personal and social issues. Yet people encounter critical inner psychological barriers to compassion that limit the effectiveness of compassion training-including the lack of a secure base, aversion to suffering, feeling alone in suffering, and reductive impressions of others. These barriers emerge, in part, from a lack of relational support and are exacerbated by modernist conceptions that present meditation as an autonomous, self-help practice. This article proposes a solution centered on relationality that is derived from the integration of diverse areas of psychology with contemplative traditions. Theories and findings from social, developmental, and health psychology can inform meditation programs and help recover important relational elements of compassion training from traditional cultures that address common barriers to compassion and thus promote more sustainable and inclusive care. In so doing, this article illustrates the value of psychological theories for translating important contextual elements from contemplative traditions into diverse modern settings.

Critical Review of Research Methods Used to Consider the Impact of Human-Animal Interaction on Older Adults' Health

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Most research on human-animal interaction (HAI) and human health focuses on one of three perspectives: (a) health effects of pet ownership; (b) health effects of contact with a companion animal; or (c) health effects of animal-assisted interventions including animal-assisted therapies, and animal-assisted activities.

METHODS

We reviewed research methods used to address each perspective, within the context of human aging, and identified challenges associated with these methods.

RESULTS

The complex challenges involved in designing studies to address all three perspectives and examples of research design elements that can be used to alleviate issues raised in each type of study are provided.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

We suggest emerging methodologies that may be helpful for answering important questions from all three perspectives about the relationship of HAI to health outcomes for older adults.

Associations among attitudes towards motherhood, pet-keeping, and postpartum depression symptoms

Certain companion animals' relationship to humans is analogous to child-parent attachment. Further, pet-keeping is associated with less physical and psychological health problems and animal-assisted interventions ameliorate depressive symptoms. Accordingly, cognitive representations of pet-keeping and parenthood may be related, and pet-keeping may protect against postpartum depression symptoms (PPDS). To test these hypotheses, we examined cognitive representations of pet-keeping and motherhood as well as various cognitive correlates of those in 715 women in an online questionnaire. Results indicate that among women who perceive maternity as a burdensome role, pet ownership is associated with an increased likelihood of having had PPDS. Among women with children, pet owners perceive maternity as more burdensome than non-owners and pet owners with a more positive attitude towards their pets are more likely to find maternity as a burdensome role. These findings suggest a relationship between women's thoughts regarding pets and motherhood and also that, to some degree, women perceive pets as playing a similar role as children. Importantly, childless women who own a pet perceived motherhood as less difficult; this effect of pet-keeping can be capitalized upon in the treatment of women whose psychological characteristics play a role in their infertility.

A One Health Perspective on the Human-Companion Animal Relationship with Emphasis on Zoonotic Aspects

Over time the human-animal bond has been changed. For instance, the role of pets has changed from work animals (protecting houses, catching mice) to animals with a social function, giving companionship. Pets can be important for the physical and mental health of their owners but may also transmit zoonotic infections. The One Health initiative is a worldwide strategy for expanding collaborations in all aspects of health care for humans, animals, and the environment. However, in One Health communications the role of particularly dogs and cats is often underestimated.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of positive and negative One Health issues of the human-companion animal relationship with a focus on zoonotic aspects of cats and dogs in industrialized countries.

METHOD

Literature review.

RESULTS

Pets undoubtedly have a positive effect on human health, while owners are increasing aware of pet's health and welfare. The changing attitude of humans with regard to pets and their environment can also lead to negative effects such as changes in feeding practices, extreme breeding, and behavioral problems, and anthropozoonoses. For the human, there may be a higher risk of the transmission of zoonotic infections due to trends such as sleeping with pets, allowing pets to lick the face or wounds, bite accidents, keeping exotic animals, the importation of rescue dogs, and soil contact.

CONCLUSIONS

One Health issues need frequently re-evaluated as the close human-animal relationship with pet animals can totally differ compared to decennia ago. Because of the changed human-companion animal bond, recommendations regarding responsible pet-ownership, including normal hygienic practices, responsible breeding, feeding, housing, and mental and physical challenges conforming the biology of the animal are required. Education can be performed by vets and physicians as part of the One Health concept.

Canine-Assisted Interviews Bolster Informativeness for Negative Autobiographical Memories

Humans and animals share a unique bond. Professionals are capitalizing on the human–animal bond by incorporating animals into therapy, forensic interviews, and the courtroom. However, the mnemonic consequence for including dogs in forensic interviews has not been empirically evaluated. In the current study, we examined whether the use of dogs increases the quantity of verbal reports for emotional events. Undergraduate participants were randomly assigned to dog or no dog conditions. Participants were interviewed about positive experienced events and negative experienced events. All interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed for quantity of new information. Participants shared more new information in negative event reports with a dog present than with no dog present. There were no significant differences in the quantity of information disclosed for positive event memories between dog conditions. Canine-assisted interviews may provide comfort to people, resulting in more elaborative autobiographical reports about negative stressful events.

Taking Dogs Into the Office: A Novel Strategy for Promoting Work Engagement, Commitment and Quality of Life

Despite growing interest in “take your dog to work” days and the wellbeing benefits associated with interactions with a friendly dog (e.g., animal-assisted activities), there has been little quantification of the benefits of this. We analyzed responses to work-related (work engagement, turnover intention, work-based friendship acuity, social media use, and work-related quality of life) and dog-related (pet dog attachment and dog general health) scales from 749 employees. The predominantly female sample was comprised of 243 employees who brought their dog to work (167 = “often” brought dog to work; 76 = “sometimes” brought dog to work), the remaining 506 did not bring their dog to work. Employees who “often” took their dog to work reported higher than average work engagement on all factors (vigor, dedication, absorption, total), with significant differences reported in comparison to those who “sometimes” (vigor and total) and “never” (vigor, dedication, absorption, total) took their dog to work. Turnover intention was also significantly lower and work-based friendship acuity higher in the group of employees who “often,” compared to “never,” took their dog to work. Benefits of bringing your dog to work were also observed in terms of work-related quality of life, with higher scores on general wellbeing, home-work interface, job career-satisfaction, control at work, working conditions, and overall work quality of life in those who “often” compared to “never” take their dog to work. Employees who “never” took their dog to work reported lower use of social media during break times. We also identified factors which may be important to consider in developing dogs-in-the-workplace policies; dog-demographics including weight (i.e., size), breed-type, and training may be important to consider in defining the ideal office dog and deserve further research. Given the need to improve employee wellbeing and satisfaction to promote effective business performance and economic gain, these results have important implications for office based businesses considering allowing dogs in the workplace.

The importance of relational support for attachment and exploration needs

In this article, we discuss theory and research on social support and caregiving processes in adult close relationships. We first outline key theoretical principles of attachment theory and of a theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships that builds on attachment theory. We then review empirical research that has tested key theoretical postulates regarding the importance of relational support for both attachment and exploration needs. The empirical review is divided into two components that reflect the two major functions of support/caregiving in close relationships, and that reflect the two different life contexts in which relational support/care is crucial (support in adversity and support for exploration and pursuit of opportunities). We conclude by emphasizing important directions for future research.

Therapy Dogs as a Crisis Intervention After Traumatic Events? - An Experimental Study

Animal-assisted therapy has been proposed as a treatment adjunct for traumatized patients. In animal-assisted crisis response, dogs are used directly after a traumatic event to reduce stress and anxiety. However, to date there are few controlled studies investigating the effects of therapy dogs on PTSD symptoms and to our knowledge there is no study investigating the effects of a therapy dog intervention directly after a traumatic event. In this study, 60 healthy female participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: after exposure to a “traumatic” film clip (trauma-film paradigm), one group of participants interacted with a friendly dog for 15 min, another group of participants watched a film clip showing a person interacting with a friendly dog and the last group was instructed to relax. Participants who had interacted with the dog after the film reported lower anxiety levels, less negative affect, and more positive affect after the intervention as compared to the other two groups. However, the participants who interacted with the dog showed a smaller decrease in physiological arousal after the traumatic film clip compared to both other groups. There were no differences in intrusion symptoms between the three groups. Our results show that dogs are able to lessen subjectively experienced stress and anxiety after a “traumatic” stress situation.

The Relationship between Pet Ownership, Social Support, and Internalizing Symptoms in Students from the First to Fourth Year of College

Internalizing symptoms are prevalent in students as they enter and complete college. Considering research suggesting mental health benefits of pet ownership, this study explores the relationship between pet ownership, social support (SS), and internalizing symptoms (IS) in a cohort of students across their 4-year college experience. With no differences at college entry, students growing up with pets had greater IS through the fourth year, and greater SS through the third year, than those without pets. Currently living with a pet, gender, SS and personality predicted IS in the fourth year. Females experiencing higher IS in their first year are more likely to live with pets in their fourth year, and fourth year females living with pets or greatly missing absent pets have higher IS than females without pets or missing pets less. Findings suggest a unique relationship between IS in female students and their pet relationships not seen in males.

Effect of Canine Play Interventions as a Stress Reduction Strategy in College Students

Forty-eight students engaged with a therapy dog for 15 minutes during finals week to evaluate the effect on stress. Psychological (Perceived Stress Scale, visual analog scales) and physiologic stress (vital signs, salivary cortisol) measures were collected before and after the intervention. Paired t tests showed significant reductions in all psychological and physiologic measures except diastolic blood pressure. This supports animal-assisted therapy as an effective stress management strategy for nursing and other college students.

Interpersonal mechanisms linking close relationships to health

Close relationships play a vital role in human health, but much remains to be learned about specific mechanisms of action and potential avenues for intervention. This article provides an evaluation of research on close relationships processes relevant to health, drawing on themes from major relationship science theories to present a broad conceptual framework for understanding the interpersonal processes and intrapersonal pathways linking relationships to health and disease outcomes. The analysis reveals that both social connection and social disconnection broadly shape biological responses and behaviors that are consequential for health. Furthermore, emerging work offers insights into the types of social dynamics that are most consequential for health, and the potential pathways through which they operate. Following from this analysis, the authors suggest several research priorities to facilitate the translation of discoveries from relationship science into relationship-based interventions and public health initiatives. These priorities include developing finer grained theoretical models to guide research, the systematic investigation of potential mediating pathways such as dyadic influences on health behavior and physiological coregulation, and taking into account individual differences and contextual factors such as attachment style, gender, socioeconomic status, and culture. In addition, a pressing need exists for laboratory and field research to determine which types of interventions are both practical and effective. (PsycINFO Database Record

The design of visitation facilities to engage patients with their own cats and dogs

There are voluminous data acknowledging the validity of the animal/human bond. Pharmacologic, endocrinologic, immunologic, and psychologic studies have clearly documented the impact of the companion animal on the health and well-being of patients and families, especially in the medical setting. Our paper is, to our knowledge, the first study outlining the mechanics, engineering concepts, and background of providing the appropriate facility to connect the hospitalized patient with their companion animal. We have summarized the peer-reviewed research in this critical area.

A Web-Based Study of Dog Ownership and Depression Among People Living With HIV

BACKGROUND

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) are approximately twice as likely to be depressed compared with HIV-negative individuals. Depression is consistently associated with low antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, an important step within the HIV care continuum related to HIV disease progression and overall health. One factor that may have positive psychosocial benefits and promote ART adherence is dog ownership. Research indicates that dog ownership is associated with lower depression, and initial evidence suggests its positive impact on psychosocial outcomes for PLHIV.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of our study was to expand the existing research by examining the relationship between current dog ownership and depression for a sample of PLHIV while controlling for demographic characteristics and other potential confounders.

METHODS

Participants aged 18 years or older and who self-reported an HIV diagnosis were recruited via social media into When Dogs Heal, a cross-sectional Web-based survey to collect data among adult PLHIV. The research visit was conducted via a Web-based survey, and there was no in-person interaction with the participant. Primary outcome measures included demographic questions (age, race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation), pet ownership (type of pet owned and current dog ownership), depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, 10 items), and resilience (Resilience Research Centre Adult Resilience Measure, 28 items).

RESULTS

A total of 252 participants were enrolled into the study in January 2016, with a final analytic sample of 199 participants. Mean age was 49 years, 86.4% (172/199) of participants were male, and 80.4% (160/199) were white. Current dog ownership was prevalent among the sample (68.3%, 136/199). Bivariate analysis indicated that there was no significant relationship between depression and demographic characteristics (age, race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation), with P>.05. The multivariate logistic regression, including age, race, ethnicity, gender, resilience, and current dog ownership, was significant, with P<.001. Of the 6 predictor variables, only 2 were statistically significant: dog ownership and resilience. Noncurrent dog owners had 3 times higher odds of depression in comparison with current dog owners: odds ratio 3.01; 95% CI 1.54-6.21.

CONCLUSIONS

Growing evidence suggests that dog ownership reduces the likelihood of depression and, therefore, may confer long-term health benefits on PLHIV. Future studies should explore whether dog-specific interventions are a feasible and efficacious intervention to improve outcomes among PLHIV.

The Buffer Effect of Therapy Dog Exposure on Stress Reactivity in Undergraduate Students

Stress is an insidious health risk that is commonly reported among university students. While research suggests that dog exposure may facilitate recovery from a stress response, little is known about the buffer effect of dog exposure on the stress response to a future stressor. This study examined whether interaction with a therapy dog could reduce the strength of the physiological stress response when exposed to a subsequent stressor. Sixty-one university students were randomly assigned to either a therapy dog (TD, n = 31) or a no-dog control (C, n = 30) group. The stress response was measured by electrodermal activity (EDA) in response to the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). Participants also completed questionnaires that assessed pet attitude, general stress levels, and affect. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) showed that increase in EDA was significantly more pronounced in the C group than in the TD group (p < 0.01). Pet attitudes did not modulate the buffer effect of therapy dog exposure. Results suggest that therapy dog exposure may buffer the stress response in university students, which has implications for the promotion of a viable stress management program on university campuses.

Comparing the Effect of Animal-Rearing Education in Japan with Conventional Animal-Assisted Education

An increasing number of teachers are introducing animals into their class so that pupils foster cognitive, physiological, and social skills through their interaction with animals. Along with such an educational style termed animal-assisted education (AAE), Japanese formal education has also utilized animals for education. Japanese animal-rearing education is unique regarding the following two points: (1) it takes the form of "education through assisting animals" rather than "animals assisting education" and (2) animal rearing is embedded in formal education. While conventional AAE expects the benefit from the social support of animals, Japanese animal-rearing education expects benefit from nurturing and caring for animals. The present study aims to identify effective methods for using animals for education by highlighting the benefits of Japanese animal-rearing education. An overview of Japanese animal-rearing education is followed by a critical review of empirical studies of conventional AAE and Japanese animal-rearing education. Despite the differences in the educational styles, it was found that both systems commonly help children adapt to school. Additionally, conventional AAE were effective in enhancing cognitive and athletic ability of students and foster social skills, while Japanese animal-rearing education enhanced academic knowledge and skills and cultivated sympathy for animals and other people. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the experience of raising animals affects children's development for a long time even after children stop raising animals. In order to determine the effect of animal presence at school, however, more empirical studies with various viewpoints are necessary for both styles of education. Concerning Japanese animal-rearing education, the effects of the differences such as the amount of exposure to animals, developmental stage or character of individual children, the types of animals need to be controlled for a more sophisticated examination. Empirical studies show that preadolescence is one of the periods in which animal rearing has the greatest impact on children's development. It is suggested that through the program of raising school animals, conventional AAE obtains more a variety of effects in their interaction with animals.

Exploring the Role of Farm Animals in Providing Care at Care Farms

We explore the role of farm animals in providing care to different types of participants at care farms (e.g., youngsters with behavioural problems, people with severe mental problems and people with dementia). Care farms provide alternative and promising settings where people can interact with animals compared to a therapeutic healthcare setting. We performed a literature review, conducted focus group meetings and carried out secondary data-analysis of qualitative studies involving care farmers and different types of participants. We found that farm animals are important to many participants and have a large number of potential benefits. They can (i) provide meaningful day occupation; (ii) generate valued relationships; (iii) help people master tasks; (iv) provide opportunities for reciprocity; (v) can distract people from them problems; (vi) provide relaxation; (vii) facilitate customized care; (viii) facilitate relationships with other people; (ix) stimulate healthy behavior; (x) contribute to a welcoming environment; (xi) make it possible to experience basic elements of life; and (xii) provide opportunities for reflection and feedback. This shows the multi-facetted importance of interacting with animals on care farms. In this study the types of activities with animals and their value to different types of participants varied. Farm animals are an important element of the care farm environment that can address the care needs of different types of participants.

Pet Dogs: Does their presence influence preadolescents' emotional responses to a social stressor?

Despite interest in human-animal interaction, few studies have tested whether the presence of a dog facilitates children's emotional responding. Preadolescents (n = 99) were randomly assigned to complete the Trier Social Stress Test either with or without their pet dog. Children rated their positive and negative affect, and high frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV) was assessed throughout the session. Children reported higher positive affect when they completed the task with their pet dog, although there were no differences for negative affect or HF-HRV. Children who had more physical contact with their dog at baseline reported higher positive affect. The findings suggest contact with pets is associated with enhanced positive affect.

Dogs in the Workplace: A Review of the Benefits and Potential Challenges

Pet dogs, therapy dogs, and service dogs can be seen in workplaces with increasing frequency. Although dogs may provide many benefits to employees and employers, their presence may introduce additional hazards and concerns to the work environment. Therefore, decisions to accept dogs in the workplace may include many considerations including the health, safety, and well-being of employees, legal and cultural sensitivities, and animal welfare. The present paper serves to introduce the issue of dogs in the workplace and outline the potential benefits and challenges to their presence. The legal accommodations afforded to certain types of dogs in workplace settings are discussed, and the research findings pertaining to the potential benefits of dogs on human health and well-being are summarized. The paper concludes with considerations for human resource management personnel in the areas of diversity, employee relations, ethics and corporate responsibility, organizational and employee development, safety and security, and legal considerations, as well as suggested topics for future research.

Contributions of Psychophysiology to Research on Adult Attachment: Review and Recommendations

Despite the increasing use of psychophysiological measures to investigate social and interpersonal phenomena, few studies of adult romantic attachment have taken advantage of this approach. In this article I argue for a biologically-specific, theory-based integration of psychophysiological measures into adult attachment research. This approach would help elucidate the normative psychobiological properties of the attachment system, which have received little study in humans. Specifically, it would allow researchers to test targeted hypotheses regarding affect and arousal regulation in attachment relationships. I provide a general introduction to 2 biological systems that hold particular promise for adult attachment research: the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the endocrine system. I highlight the relevance of these systems for attachment phenomena and review findings from selected social psychophysiological research. I conclude by outlining a tentative theoretical model of the psychobiology of adult attachment and identifying specific directions for future research.

Influence of Animals on Perceived Likability of People

Previous studies have reported positive health and social benefits of pet ownership; however, most of these studies have been correlational in nature, so the directionality of effects remained unclear. The present study attempted to measure likability of pet owners in an experimentally controlled setting and to assess whether likability varies with type of pet. Subjects were 175 college students in introductory psychology classes. Analysis indicated that individuals are perceived as more likable when they are accompanied by a dog than when accompanied by a cat, a bird, or no animal.