A naturalistic study of the impact of acute physical activity on feeling states and affect in women

Within-Person Temporal Associations Among Self-Reported Physical Activity, Sleep, and Well-Being in College Students

OBJECTIVE

A holistic understanding of the naturalistic dynamics among physical activity, sleep, emotions, and purpose in life as part of a system reflecting wellness is key to promoting well-being. The main aim of this study was to examine the day-to-day dynamics within this wellness system.

METHODS

Using self-reported emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, anxiousness) and physical activity periods collected twice per day, and daily reports of sleep and purpose in life via smartphone experience sampling, more than 28 days as college students ( n = 226 young adults; mean [standard deviation] = 20.2 [1.7] years) went about their daily lives, we examined day-to-day temporal and contemporaneous dynamics using multilevel vector autoregressive models that consider the network of wellness together.

RESULTS

Network analyses revealed that higher physical activity on a given day predicted an increase of happiness the next day. Higher sleep quality on a given night predicted a decrease in negative emotions the next day, and higher purpose in life predicted decreased negative emotions up to 2 days later. Nodes with the highest centrality were sadness, anxiety, and happiness in the temporal network and purpose in life, anxiety, and anger in the contemporaneous network.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the effects of sleep and physical activity on emotions and purpose in life may be shorter term, a sense of purpose in life is a critical component of wellness that can have slightly longer effects, bleeding into the next few days. High-arousal emotions and purpose in life are central to motivating people into action, which can lead to behavior change.

Effect of Aerobic Exercise on the Levels of Pain, Quality of Life, and Alexithymia in Alexithymic Individuals With Chronic Pain: A Single-Blinded Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on pain, degree of alexithymia, and quality of life in individuals with alexithymia and chronic pain.

METHODS

A total of 40 participants who scored 61 or higher on the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20) were included in the study. The sample was subdivided into 2 groups using a computerized randomization program: an aerobic exercise group (n = 20) and a control group (n = 20). Participants in the aerobic exercise group underwent a 30-minute jogging protocol at 60% to 90% of maximum heart rate 3 days per week for 8 weeks under the supervision of a physiotherapist. Participants in the control group continued their daily physical activities. Outcome measures were the TAS-20, visual analog scale, Graded Chronic Pain Scale, and 36-Item Short Form Health Survey.

RESULTS

There was no statistically significant difference between the demographics of the 2 groups (P > .05). There was a statistically significant improvement in TAS-20, Graded Chronic Pain Scale, visual analog scale, and 36-Item Short Form Health Survey scores of the participants in the aerobic exercise group compared to the control group (P ˂ .05).

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise had a positive effect on pain, quality of life, and degree of alexithymia in individuals with alexithymia and chronic pain.

The Role of the Context of Physical Activity for Its Association with Affective Well-Being: An Experience Sampling Study in Young Adults

Physical activity and being outdoors both improve affective well-being. However, little is known about the synergistic effects between them and the influences of contextual factors such as the life domain of physical activity (work-, chores-, leisure, or sports-related) or the type of the outdoor environment (green space, blue space, or city area) on mood. This study investigates the synergistic effects of physical activity and being outdoors as well as the potential role of contextual factors on mood. A total of 158 individuals aged 18-25 years (133 females) participated in a 14-day experience sampling study. Participants received seven prompts per day and answered questions about their physical activity, contextual factors, and affective well-being. Physical activity and being outdoors were associated with concurrent higher levels of positive and lower levels of negative affect compared to being physically inactive or being indoors, respectively. However, no synergistic effects were found. Being outdoors in a city area was associated with a less positive and more negative affect than being in nature. Work- and chores-related physical activity was associated with less positive affect and more negative affect compared to sports- or leisure-related physical activity. To foster positive affect, people should schedule leisure-related physical activity in nature.

The dynamical association between physical activity and affect in the daily life of individuals with ADHD

Exercise interventions in mental disorders have evidenced a mood-enhancing effect. However, the association between physical activity and affect in everyday life has not been investigated in adult individuals with ADHD, despite being important features of this disorder. As physical activity and affect are dynamic processes in nature, assessing those in everyday life with e-diaries and wearables, has become the gold standard. Thus, we used an mHealth approach to prospectively assess physical activity and affect processes in individuals with ADHD and controls aged 14-45 years. Participants wore accelerometers across a four-day period and reported their affect via e-diaries twelve times daily. We used multilevel models to identify the within-subject effects of physical activity on positive and negative affect. We split our sample into three groups: 1. individuals with ADHD who were predominantly inattentive (n = 48), 2. individuals with ADHD having a combined presentation (i.e., being inattentive and hyperactive; n = 95), and 3. controls (n = 42). Our analyses revealed a significant cross-level interaction (F(2, 135.072)=5.733, p = 0.004) of physical activity and group on positive affect. In details, all groups showed a positive association between physical activity and positive affect. Individuals with a combined presentation significantly showed the steepest slope of physical activity on positive affect (slope_inattentive=0.005, p<0.001; slope_combined=0.009, p<0.001; slope_controls=0.004, p = 0.008). Our analyses on negative affect revealed a negative association only in the individuals with a combined presentation (slope=-0.003; p = 0.001). Whether this specifically pronounced association in individuals being more hyperactive might be a mechanism reinforcing hyperactivity needs to be empirically clarified in future studies.

Acute electroencephalography responses during incremental exercise in those with mental illness

INTRODUCTION

Depression is a mental illness (MI) characterized by a process of behavioral withdrawal whereby people experience symptoms including sadness, anhedonia, demotivation, sleep and appetite change, and cognitive disturbances. Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) differs in depressive populations and may signify affective responses, with left FAA corresponding to such aversive or withdrawal type behavior. On an acute basis, exercise is known to positively alter affect and improve depressive symptoms and this has been measured in conjunction with left FAA as a post-exercise measure. It is not yet known if these affective electroencephalography (EEG) responses to exercise occur during exercise or only after completion of an exercise bout. This study therefore aimed to measure EEG responses during exercise in those with MI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty one participants were allocated into one of two groups; those undergoing management of a mental health disorder (MI; N = 19); or reporting as apparently healthy (AH; N = 12). EEG responses at rest and during incremental exercise were measured at the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the motor cortex (MC). EEG data at PFC left side (F3, F7, FP1), PFC right side (F4, F8, FP2), and MC (C3, Cz, and C4) were analyzed in line with oxygen uptake at rest, 50% of ventilatory threshold (VT) (50% VT) and at VT.

RESULTS

EEG responses increased with exercise across intensity from rest to 50% VT and to VT in all bandwidths (P < 0.05) for both groups. There were no significant differences in alpha activity responses between groups. Gamma responses in the PFC were significantly higher in MI on the left side compared to AH (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Alpha activity responses were no different between groups at rest or any exercise intensity. Therefore the alpha activity response previously shown post-exercise was not found during exercise. However, increased PFC gamma activity in the MI group adds to the body of evidence showing increased gamma can differentiate between those with and without MI.

The Effects of Interrupting Sitting Time on Affect and State Anxiety in Children of Healthy Weight and Overweight: A Randomized Crossover Trial

PURPOSE

Sedentary time relates to higher anxiety and more negative affect in children. This study assessed whether interrupting sitting over 3 hours is sufficient to influence state anxiety, positive affect, or negative affect, and tested weight status as a moderator.

METHODS

Analyses were the second (preplanned) purpose of a larger study. Children (N = 61; age: mean [SD] = 9.5 [1.3]; 43% healthy weight) completed 2 experimental conditions: continuous sitting for 3 hours and sitting for 3 hours interrupted with walking for 3 minutes in every 30 minutes. State anxiety, positive affect, and negative affect were reported at pretest and posttest. Multilevel models for repeated measures assessed whether experimental condition predicted posttest scores.

RESULTS

Experimental condition was unrelated to posttest state anxiety or positive affect. Weight status moderated how experimental condition influenced posttest negative affect (P = .003). Negative affect was lower in the children of healthy weight after interrupted sitting (vs continuous sitting; β = -0.8; 95% confidence interval, -1.5 to 0.0, P = .05), but it was higher in the children with overweight/obesity after interrupted sitting (vs continuous sitting; β = 0.6; 95% confidence interval, 0.0 to 1.2, P = .06).

CONCLUSIONS

Interrupting sitting acutely reduced negative affect in children of healthy weight, but not in children with overweight. Further research is needed to better understand the potential emotional benefits of sitting interruptions in youth.

Physical exercise in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - evidence and implications for the treatment of borderline personality disorder

A growing body of literature indicates a potential role for physical exercise in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Suggested effects include the reduction of ADHD core symptoms as well as improvements in executive functions. In the current review, we provide a short overview on the neurophysiological mechanisms assumed to underlie the beneficial effects of exercise. Further, we review the current evidence from experimental studies regarding both acute exercise and long-term interventions in ADHD. While the positive effects observed after acute aerobic exercise are promising, very few well-designed long-term intervention studies have been conducted yet. Moreover, although exercise effects have not yet been studied in borderline personality disorder (BPD), in the end of this paper we derive hypotheses why exercise could also be beneficial for this patient population.

Does Physical Activity during Alpine Vacations increase Tourists' Well-Being?

Physical activities have been proven to have an impact on general well-being in everyday life; however, literature lacks an analysis of the effects of physical activities in vacation settings. Thus, the study aimed at assessing the impacts of physical activity on well-being during vacation by taking a longitudinal approach. We utilized a pre-post within-subject design (n = 101) by testing vacationers prior to, during, and after their vacation in an alpine environment. Therefore, a series of eight linear mixed model analyses of co-variance was performed. The results suggested that the duration of a vacation and the amount of physical activity have a positive impact on the components of well-being, which was expressed by changes in the activation, elation, excitement, and calmness subscales of the Mood Survey Scale. Demographic patterns did not reveal any influences. Physical activity might be a marker for well-being, which influences people's everyday life and leisure time behavior by motivating them to engage in more physical activity. This research extends the existing literature by (1) proving the effects of vacations on well-being, (2) pointing out the effects of demographic predeterminations, and (3) gathering in-depth knowledge about the role of physical activity in changes to well-being.

Functional Resistance Training and Affective Response in Female College-Age Students

INTRODUCTION

Although resistance training (RT) can lead to acute improvements in psychological, physiological and psychosocial outcomes, prevalence rates remain low in college-age females likely due to perceived barriers. This study compared the effects of an acute bout of both a functional RT (FRT) and traditional RT (TRT) session on affect, state anxiety enjoyment and physiological measures.

METHODS

Females (n = 34, mean age = 27 ± 4.5 yr) not currently meeting American College of Sports Medicine RT guidelines completed four sessions (2 FRT, 2 TRT) within 4 wk in a randomized crossover design. Session 1 familiarized participants to the RT exercises. Session 2 consisted of 2 × 10 moderate intensity repetitions. Outcome measures included affect and state anxiety (preexercise, postexercise, and 15 min postexercise); enjoyment (post), and manipulation measures of session RPE and HR).

RESULTS

Between-condition comparisons indicate change scores in state anxiety pre- to post-15 (P = 0.028) and enjoyment levels post- (P = 0.02) were significantly greater in FRT than TRT. Within-condition analyses revealed pre- to post-15 changes in affect were positive and greater in FRT (d = 0.79) than TRT (d = 0.53, P = 0.47), and greater in decreases in state anxiety (FRT, d = -0.58; TRT, d = -0.37, P = 0.028). Mean session RPE was not significantly different between conditions (FRT 6 ± 1.2 units; TRT 6.3 ± 1.1 units; P = 0.11), though average percent of age-predicted maximum HR (FRT 68.7 ± 7.6; TRT 57.1 ± 8.4) was significantly different (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that compared with TRT, FRT is associated with higher acute positive psychological states, higher levels of enjoyment, and greater energy expenditure. Future studies are recommended to examine additional measures of affect and in-task timepoints to determine how these responses relate to maintenance and adherence, thereby potentially increasing the proportion of college females meeting American College of Sports Medicine RT and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity guidelines.

Associations of Affective Responses During Free-Living Physical Activity and Future Physical Activity Levels: an Ecological Momentary Assessment Study

PURPOSE

Affective response during physical activity may influence motivation to perform future physical activity behavior. However, affective response during physical activity is often assessed under controlled laboratory conditions. The current study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to capture affective responses during free-living physical activity performed by adults, and determined whether these affective responses predict future moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels after 6 and 12 months.

METHOD

At baseline, electronic EMA surveys were randomly prompted across 4 days asking about current activities and affective states (e.g., happy, stressed, energetic, tired). Affective response during physical activity was operationalized as the level of positive or negative affect reported when concurrent physical activity (e.g., exercise or sports) was also reported. Data were available for 82 adults. Future levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were measured using accelerometers, worn for seven consecutive days at 6 and 12 months after the baseline assessment.

RESULTS

Feeling more energetic during physical activity was associated with performing more minutes of daily MVPA after both 6 and 12 months. Feeling less negative affect during physical activity was associated with engaging in more daily MVPA minutes after 12 months only.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated how EMA can be used to capture affective responses during free-living physical activity. Results found that feelings more energetic and less negative during physical activity were associated with more future physical activity, suggesting that positive emotional benefits may reinforce behavior.

The relationships between exercise and affective states: a naturalistic, longitudinal study of recreational runners

BACKGROUND

Although people generally feel more positive and more energetic in the aftermath of exercise than before, longitudinal research on how exercise relates to within-person fluctuations in affect over the course of everyday life is still relatively limited. One constraint on doing such research is the need to provide participants with accelerometers to objectively record their exercise, and pagers to capture affective reports.

AIMS

We aimed to develop a methodology for studying affect and exercise using only technology that participants already possess, namely GPS running watches and smartphones. Using this methodology, we aimed to characterize within-individual fluctuations in affective valence and arousal in relation to bouts of exercise, and explore possible moderators of these fluctuations.

METHODS

We recruited a sample of 38 recreational runners. Participants provided daily affective reports for six weeks using their smartphones. Information on their runs was harvested from their own GPS devices via an online platform for athletes.

RESULTS

Average valence and arousal were higher on days when the person had run than on the next day, and higher the day after a run than on the days after that. Over the course of the day of a run, valence and arousal declined significantly as the time since the run increased. Physically fitter participants had more positive valence overall, and this was particularly true when they had not run recently. There was some evidence of higher-dose (i.e., longer and faster) runs being associated with lower arousal on the next and subsequent days. Gender did not moderate associations between running and valence or arousal.

DISCUSSION

Our study demonstrated the potential for studying the associations between affect and exercise in a way that is precise, undemanding for participants, and convenient for researchers, using technologies that participants already own and use.

Immediate Mood Scaler: Tracking Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Novel Mobile Mood Scale

BACKGROUND

Mood disorders are dynamic disorders characterized by multimodal symptoms. Clinical assessment of symptoms is currently limited to relatively sparse, routine clinic visits, requiring retrospective recollection of symptoms present in the weeks preceding the visit. Novel advances in mobile tools now support ecological momentary assessment of mood, conducted frequently using mobile devices, outside the clinical setting. Such mood assessment may help circumvent problems associated with infrequent reporting and better characterize the dynamic presentation of mood symptoms, informing the delivery of novel treatment options.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of our study was to validate the Immediate Mood Scaler (IMS), a newly developed, iPad-deliverable 22-item self-report tool designed to capture current mood states.

METHODS

A total of 110 individuals completed standardized questionnaires (Patient Health Questionnaire, 9-item [PHQ-9]; generalized anxiety disorder, 7-Item [GAD-7]; and rumination scale) and IMS at baseline. Of the total, 56 completed at least one additional session of IMS, and 17 completed one additional administration of PHQ-9 and GAD-7. We conducted exploratory Principal Axis Factor Analysis to assess dimensionality of IMS, and computed zero-order correlations to investigate associations between IMS and standardized scales. Linear Mixed Model (LMM) was used to assess IMS stability across time and to test predictability of PHQ-9 and GAD-7 score by IMS.

RESULTS

Strong correlations were found between standard mood scales and the IMS at baseline (r=.57-.59, P<.001). A factor analysis revealed a 12-item IMS ("IMS-12") with two factors: a "depression" factor and an "anxiety" factor. IMS-12 depression subscale was more strongly correlated with PHQ-9 than with GAD-7 (z=1.88, P=.03), but the reverse pattern was not found for IMS-12 anxiety subscale. IMS-12 showed less stability over time compared with PHQ-9 and GAD-7 (.65 vs .91), potentially reflecting more sensitivity to mood dynamics. In addition, IMS-12 ratings indicated that individuals with mild to moderate depression had greater mood fluctuations compared with individuals with severe depression (.42 vs .79; P=.04). Finally, IMS-12 significantly contributed to the prediction of subsequent PHQ-9 (beta=1.03, P=.02) and GAD-7 scores (beta =.93, P=.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these data suggest that the 12-item IMS (IMS-12) is a valid tool to assess momentary mood symptoms related to anxiety and depression. Although IMS-12 shows good correlation with standardized scales, it further captures mood fluctuations better and significantly adds to the prediction of the scales. Results are discussed in the context of providing continuous symptom quantification that may inform novel treatment options and support personalized treatment plans.

Examining acute bi-directional relationships between affect, physical feeling states, and physical activity in free-living situations using electronic ecological momentary assessment

Current knowledge about the relationship of physical activity with acute affective and physical feeling states is informed largely by lab-based studies, which have limited generalizability to the natural ecology. This study used ecological momentary assessment to assess subjective affective and physical feeling states in free-living settings across 4 days from 110 non-physically active adults (Age M = 40.4, SD = 9.7). Light physical activity (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were measured objectively by an accelerometer. Multilevel modeling was used to test the bi-directional associations between affective and physical feeling states and LPA/MVPA minutes. Higher positive affect, lower negative affect and fatigue were associated with more MVPA over the subsequent 15 min, while higher negative affect and energy were associated with more LPA over the subsequent 15 and 30 min. Additionally, more LPA and MVPA were associated with feeling more energetic over the subsequent 15 and 30 min, and more LPA was additionally associated with feeling more negative and less tired over the subsequent 15 and 30 min. Positive and negative affective states might serve as antecedents to but not consequences of MVPA in adults' daily lives. Changes in LPA may be predicted and followed by negative affective states. Physical feeling states appear to lead up to and follow changes in both LPA and MVPA.

The Bidirectional Effect between Momentary Affective States and Exercise Duration on a Day Level

Despite the well-documented positive effect of exercise on health outcomes, most people do not succeed in exercising regularly. In addition to several other influences, affective states seem to support exercise participation. Associations between exercise and affect have been shown in the laboratory. However, the dynamic relation between affect and exercise in daily life is not yet well-understood. The objective of this study was to investigate the bi-directional effect of momentary affective states on naturally occurring exercise and vice versa in healthy participants in real-life environments by applying an ecological momentary assessment design. We hypothesized that (1) exercise duration is positively associated with affective states on a day level, (2) affective states in the morning predict subsequent exercise duration, and (3) exercise duration predicts affective states in the evening on that respective day. Data from N = 60 students aged between 19 and 32 years were analyzed. Affect and exercise duration were assessed daily over a period of 20 days via an electronic diary. Multilevel analysis revealed that positive affective valence was positively associated with exercise duration (p = 0.003) on a day level. In addition, the more the participants exercised that respective day, the better and more content they felt in the evening (p = 0.009). Energetic arousal in the morning significantly predicted subsequent exercise duration (p = 0.045). The findings indicate that it would be worthwhile to focus more on within-subject analyses when analyzing the dynamic relation between affect and exercise. Furthermore, affective states should be taken into account in creating effective interventions to foster exercise behavior and enhance maintenance.

Factors contributing to depressive mood states in everyday life: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Although accumulated evidence suggests that fluctuations in depressed mood are common among individuals with depression, and may be associated with onset, duration, and severity of illness, a systematic appraisal of putative predictors of depressed mood is lacking.

METHODS

A systematic search for relevant studies in the literature was conducted using PsycInfo and PubMed databases via EbscoHost in February 2016. The search was limited to articles using the experience sampling method, an approach suitable for capturing in situ fluctuations in mood states.

RESULTS

Forty-two studies met inclusion criteria for the review, from which three key risk factors (poor sleep, stress, and significant life events) and two protective factors (physical activity and quality of social interactions) were identified. The majority of papers supported concurrent and lagged associations between these putative protective/risk factors and depressed mood.

LIMITATIONS

Despite support for each of the proposed protective/risk factors, few studies evaluated multiple factors in the same study. Moreover, the time course for the effects of these predictors on depressed mood remains largely unknown.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review identified several putative risk and protective factors for depressed mood. A review of the literature suggests that poor sleep, negative social interactions, and stressful negative events may temporally precede spikes in depressed mood. In contrast, exercise and positive social interactions have been shown to predict subsequent declines in depressed mood. However, the lack of multivariate models in which the unique contributions of various predictors could be evaluated means that the current state of knowledge prevents firm conclusions about which factors are most predictive of depressed mood. More complex modeling of these effects is necessary in order to provide insights useful for clinical treatment in daily life of the depressed mood component of depressive disorders.

The Effects of Low and Moderate Intensity Exercise on Subjective Experiences in a Naturalistic Health and Fitness Club Setting

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of participation in low and moderate intensity exercise on subjective exercise experiences in a naturalistic health club setting. Thirty physically active members of a community health and fitness club participated in low and moderate intensity cycle ergometry for 20 minutes. Subjective exercise experiences were measured before, during and after exercise. Participants reported significant increases in Positive Well-being and Fatigue scores across time in the moderate but no change in the low exercise intensity condition. The results suggest that exercising for 20 minutes at moderate intensity in a health club environment provides some measure of psychological benefit for a general population, although exercise at the higher intensity could have negative implications by increasing feelings of fatigue during and after exercise.

The Curse of Inactivity

This laboratory experiment used random digit dialing procedures to recruit a community sample of physically inactive participants into a study that was designed to examine the impact of different intensities of acute aerobic exercise on feeling states. Sedentary men ( n 5 36) and women ( n 5 36) were randomly assigned to experience a single bout of aerobic exercise at one of three intensities (30%, 50%, 70% of HRR). Each participant attended two counterbalanced laboratory sessions, one involving an attention-control manipulation and the other involving aerobic exercise. Before and after each session, they completed a feeling state questionnaire. Data suggested that there were neither widespread mood-enhancing effects of acute exercise nor evidence for a strong dose-response relationship.

Adherence to exercise and affective responses: comparison between outdoor and indoor training

OBJECTIVE

Postmenopausal women, despite their increased cardiovascular risk, do not meet physical activity recommendations. Outdoor exercise bouts induce more positive affective responses than the same indoor exercise. Outdoor training could therefore increase exercise adherence. This study aims to compare the long-term effects of outdoor and indoor training on affective outcomes and adherence to exercise training in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

In a 12-week randomized trial, 23 healthy (body mass index, 22-29 kg/m) postmenopausal women (aged 52-69 y) were assigned to either outdoor training or indoor training and performed three weekly 1-hour sessions of identical aerobic and resistance training. Adherence, affective valence (Feeling Scale), affective states (Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory), and rating of perceived exertion were measured during exercise sessions, whereas depression symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory) and physical activity level (Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly) were assessed before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

After 12 weeks of training, exercise-induced changes in affective valence were higher for the outdoor training group (P ≤ 0.05). A significant group-by-time interaction was found for postexercise tranquility (P ≤ 0.01), with a significant increase outdoors and a significant decrease indoors (both P ≤ 0.05). A time effect was revealed for positive engagement, which decreased across time in the indoor group (P ≤ 0.05). Adherence to training (97% vs 91%) was significantly higher outdoors (P ≤ 0.01). Between baseline and week 12, depression symptoms decreased and physical activity level increased only for the outdoor group (P ≤ 0.01 and P ≤ 0.05, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Outdoor training enhances affective responses to exercise and leads to greater exercise adherence than indoor training in postmenopausal women.

Characterizing exercise-induced feelings after one bout of exercise among adolescents with and without bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Exercise may be a practical, non-pharmacological strategy for symptom and health management for adolescents with bipolar disorder (BD). The purpose of this study was to determine if adolescents with BD experience changes in exercise-induced feelings from one bout of exercise similar to their otherwise healthy peers.

METHODS

Thirty-two adolescents with BD (Age (SD)=16.91 (1.4)) and 31 healthy adolescents (Age (SD)=15.68 (1.76)) completed the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI) before and after a 20-min bout of moderate intensity exercise (heart rate goal of 60-80% of the age estimated maximum [220 - 0.7*age]) on a cycle ergometer. Repeated-Measures ANCOVA was conducted on the four EFI subscales, controlling for age and BMI.

RESULTS

There were no significant between-group differences on any subscales. An increase in Physical Exhaustion was of negligible effect size in both groups (BD: d=0.05;

CONTROL

d=0.16). There was an improvement in Revitalization (BD: d=0.49;

CONTROL

d=0.61) and a reduction in Tranquility (BD: d=-0.33;

CONTROL

d=-0.29) post-exercise of moderate and small effect size, respectively. The control group reported an increase in Positive Engagement that was of small-to-medium effect size, (d=0.41) with negligible change in the BD group (d=0.17). Healthy adolescents reported a significantly greater tolerance for high intensity exercise than adolescents with BD.

LIMITATIONS

Emotions were only assessed at two time points.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents with BD experience similar exercise-induced emotional benefits as their healthy peers. Experimental research is needed to examine the role of exercise as a strategy to regulate mood-related symptoms.

The Acute Relationships Between Affect, Physical Feeling States, and Physical Activity in Daily Life: A Review of Current Evidence

Until recently, most studies investigating the acute relationships between affective and physical feeling states and physical activity were conducted in controlled laboratory settings, whose results might not translate well to everyday life. This review was among the first attempts to synthesize current evidence on the acute (e.g., within a few hours) relationships between affective and physical feeling states and physical activity from studies conducted in free-living, naturalistic settings in non-clinical populations. A systematic literature search yielded 14 eligible studies for review. Six studies tested the relationship between affective states and subsequent physical activity; findings from these studies suggest that positive affective states were positively associated with physical activity over the next few hours while negative affective states had no significant association. Twelve studies tested affective states after physical activity and yielded consistent evidence for physical activity predicting higher positive affect over the next few hours. Further, there was some evidence that physical activity was followed by a higher level of energetic feelings in the next few hours. The evidence for physical activity reducing negative affect in the next few hours was inconsistent and inconclusive. Future research in this area should consider recruiting more representative study participants, utilizing higher methodological standards for assessment (i.e., electronic devices combined with accelerometry), reporting patterns of missing data, and investigating pertinent moderators and mediators (e.g., social and physical context, intensity, psychological variables). Knowledge gained from this topic could offer valuable insights for promoting daily physical activity adoption and maintenance in non-clinical populations.

Does a 20-week aerobic exercise training programme increase our capabilities to buffer real-life stressors? A randomized, controlled trial using ambulatory assessment

PURPOSE

The cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis suggests that regular exercise leads to adaptations in the stress response systems that induce decreased physiological responses to psychological stressors. Even though an exercise intervention to buffer the detrimental effects of psychological stressors on health might be of utmost importance, empirical evidence is mixed. This may be explained by the use of cross-sectional designs and non-personally relevant stressors. Using a randomized controlled trial, we hypothesized that a 20-week aerobic exercise training does reduce physiological stress responses to psychological real-life stressors in sedentary students.

METHODS

Sixty-one students were randomized to either a control group or an exercise training group. The academic examination period (end of the semester) served as a real-life stressor. We used ambulatory assessment methods to assess physiological stress reactivity of the autonomic nervous system (heart rate variability: LF/HF, RMSSD), physical activity and perceived stress during 2 days of everyday life and multilevel models for data analyses. Aerobic capacity (VO2max) was assessed pre- and post-intervention via cardiopulmonary exercise testing to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention.

RESULTS

During real-life stressors, the exercise training group showed significantly reduced LF/HF (β = -0.15, t = -2.59, p = .01) and increased RMSSD (β = 0.15, t = 2.34, p = .02) compared to the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Using a randomized controlled trial and a real-life stressor, we could show that exercise appears to be a useful preventive strategy to buffer the effects of stress on the autonomic nervous system, which might result into detrimental health outcomes.

Changes in work affect in response to lunchtime walking in previously physically inactive employees: A randomized trial

Physical activity may regulate affective experiences at work, but controlled studies are needed and there has been a reliance on retrospective accounts of experience. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of lunchtime walks on momentary work affect at the individual and group levels. Physically inactive employees (N = 56; M age = 47.68; 92.86% female) from a large university in the UK were randomized to immediate treatment or delayed treatment (DT). The DT participants completed both a control and intervention period. During the intervention period, participants partook in three weekly 30-min lunchtime group-led walks for 10 weeks. They completed twice daily affective reports at work (morning and afternoon) using mobile phones on two randomly chosen days per week. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze the data. Lunchtime walks improved enthusiasm, relaxation, and nervousness at work, although the pattern of results differed depending on whether between-group or within-person analyses were conducted. The intervention was effective in changing some affective states and may have broader implications for public health and workplace performance.

Beyond emotional benefits: physical activity and sedentary behaviour affect psychosocial resources through emotions

Physical activity is known to improve emotional experiences, and positive emotions have been shown to lead to important life outcomes, including the development of psychosocial resources. In contrast, time spent sedentary may negatively impact emotional experiences and, consequently, erode psychosocial resources. Two studies tested whether activity independently influenced emotions and psychosocial resources, and whether activity indirectly influenced psychosocial resources through emotional experiences. Using cross-sectional (Study 1a) and longitudinal (Study 1b) methods, we found that time spent physically active independently predicted emotions and psychosocial resources. Mediation analyses suggested that emotions may account for the relation between activity and psychosocial resources. The improved emotional experiences associated with physical activity may help individuals build psychosocial resources known to improve mental health. Study 1a provided first indicators to suggest that, in contrast, sedentary behaviour may reduce positive emotions, which could in turn lead to decrements in psychosocial resources.

How to Investigate Within-Subject Associations between Physical Activity and Momentary Affective States in Everyday Life: A Position Statement Based on a Literature Overview

Several meta-analyses have investigated the association between physical activity and affective states and have found evidence suggesting that exercise exerts a positive effect on affective state. However, in this field of research, most studies have conducted between-subject analyses. Nonetheless, there is more and more interest in the within-subject associations between physical activity and momentary affective states in everyday life. This position statement pertains to this up-and-coming field of research and provides methodological recommendations for further studies. The paper is divided into three parts: first, we summarize and evaluate three methodological requirements necessary for the proper evaluation of within-subject associations between physical activity and momentary affective states in everyday life. We propose that the following issues should be considered: (a) to address the dynamic nature of such relationships, repeated assessments are necessary; (b) as activities performed in everyday life are mostly spontaneous and unconscious, an objective assessment of physical activity is useful; (c) given that recall of affective states is often affected by systematic distortions, real-time assessment is preferable. In sum, we suggest the use of ambulatory assessment techniques, and more specifically the combination of accelerometer-assessment of physical activity with an electronic diary assessment of the momentary affective state and additional context information. Second, we summarize 22 empirical studies published between 1980 and 2012 using ambulatory assessment to investigate within-subject associations between momentary affective states and physical activity in everyday life. Generally, the literature overview detects a positive association, which appears stronger among those studies that were of high methodological quality. Third, we propose the use of ambulatory assessment intervention (AAIs) strategies to change people’s behavior and to enable people to be active as often as possible during the day (e.g., reducing sitting time, taking more steps per day).

The Association between Short Periods of Everyday Life Activities and Affective States: A Replication Study Using Ambulatory Assessment

Regularly conducted exercise programs effectively influence affective states. Studies suggest that this is also true for short bouts of physical activity (PA) of 10 min or less. Accordingly, everyday life activities of short duration might be used to regulate affective states. However, this association has rarely been studied in reference to unstructured activities in ongoing real-life situations. The current study examined the influence of various everyday life activities on three dimensions of mood (valence, calmness, energetic arousal) in a predominantly inactive sample. Ambulatory Assessment (AA) was used to investigate the association between actual PA and affective states during the course of 1 day. Seventy-seven students ages 19–30 participated in the study. PA was assessed with accelerometers, and affective state assessments were conducted hourly using an e-diary with a six-item mood scale that was specially designed for AA. Multilevel analyses indicated that the mood dimensions energetic arousal (p = 0.001) and valence (p = 0.005) were positively influenced by the intensity of the activity carried out in the 10-min prior to the assessment. As their activity increased, the participants’ positive feelings and energetic arousal increased. However, the students’ calmness was not affected by their activity levels. The findings highlight the importance of integrating short activity intervals of 10 min or less into everyday life routines to improve affective states.

Affective responses to exercise in overweight women: Initial insight and possible influence on energy intake

It is unclear how exercise influences affect in overweight and obese individuals.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effect of a single exercise session on positive and negative affect and examine whether pre- to post-exercise changes in affect influence subsequent energy intake (EI).

METHODS

Nineteen sedentary, overweight/obese women walked for ~40 minutes at a moderate-intensity on one day and rested for a similar duration on a separate day. Positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) were assessed pre-testing, post-testing, 60, and 120 minutes post-testing using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Energy intake was determined by measuring food intake before and after a buffet meal 1-2 hours post-exercise/rest.

RESULTS

For PA, the time x condition interaction was significant (p<0.05). There was a trend for those subjects with improved PA from pre to post-exercise (58%) to consume fewer calories post-exercise (524 ± 260.9 kcal) compared to post-rest (566.1 ± 303.0 kcal), while those who had a worsening or no change in PA (42%) had a higher EI following exercise (588.0 ± 233.7 kcal) compared to rest (524.6 ± 281.7 kcal; p=0.08). NA was not significantly altered by exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Some overweight/obese individuals appear to experience an increase in positive affect with exercise; however, there is a high degree of individual variability in responses that warrants further examination. This study also provides initial evidence that a worsening in affect following exercise may unfavorably impact eating behaviors. These preliminary findings have the potential to enhance our understanding of factors mediating the relationship between exercise and EI.

Walk on the bright side: physical activity and affect in major depressive disorder

Although prescribed exercise has been found to improve affect and reduce levels of depression, we do not know how self-initiated everyday physical activity influences levels of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) in depressed persons. Fifty-three individuals diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and 53 never-depressed controls participated in a seven-day experience sampling study. Participants were prompted randomly eight times per day and answered questions about their physical activity and affective state. Over the week, the two groups of participants did not differ in average level of physical activity. As expected, participants with MDD reported lower average PA and higher average NA than did never-depressed controls. Both participants with MDD and controls reported higher levels of PA at prompts after physical activity than at prompts after inactive periods; moreover, for both groups of participants, PA increased from a prompt after an inactive period to a subsequent prompt at which activity was reported. Depressed participants in particular showed a dose-response effect of physical activity on affect: longer duration and/or higher intensity of physical activity increased their PA significantly more than did short duration and/or lower intensity physical activity. Physical activity did not influence NA in either group. In contrast to previous treatment studies that examined the effects of prescribed structured exercise, this investigation showed that self-initiated physical activity influences PA. These findings also underscore the importance of distinguishing between PA and NA to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of physical activity on affect in MDD.

Differential effects of acute and regular physical exercise on cognition and affect

The effects of regular exercise versus a single bout of exercise on cognition, anxiety, and mood were systematically examined in healthy, sedentary young adults who were genotyped to determine brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) allelic status (i.e., Val-Val or Val66Met polymorphism). Participants were evaluated on novel object recognition (NOR) memory and a battery of mental health surveys before and after engaging in either (a) a 4-week exercise program, with exercise on the final test day, (b) a 4-week exercise program, without exercise on the final test day, (c) a single bout of exercise on the final test day, or (d) remaining sedentary between test days. Exercise enhanced object recognition memory and produced a beneficial decrease in perceived stress, but only in participants who exercised for 4 weeks including the final day of testing. In contrast, a single bout of exercise did not affect recognition memory and resulted in increased perceived stress levels. An additional novel finding was that the improvements on the NOR task were observed exclusively in participants who were homozygous for the BDNF Val allele, indicating that altered activity-dependent release of BDNF in Met allele carriers may attenuate the cognitive benefits of exercise. Importantly, exercise-induced changes in cognition were not correlated with changes in mood/anxiety, suggesting that separate neural systems mediate these effects. These data in humans mirror recent data from our group in rodents. Taken together, these current findings provide new insights into the behavioral and neural mechanisms that mediate the effects of physical exercise on memory and mental health in humans.

Changes in cortisol release and heart rate and heart rate variability during the initial training of 3-year-old sport horses

Based on cortisol release, a variety of situations to which domestic horses are exposed have been classified as stressors but studies on the stress during equestrian training are limited. In the present study, Warmblood stallions (n=9) and mares (n=7) were followed through a 9 respective 12-week initial training program in order to determine potentially stressful training steps. Salivary cortisol concentrations, beat-to-beat (RR) interval and heart rate variability (HRV) were determined. The HRV variables standard deviation of the RR interval (SDRR), RMSSD (root mean square of successive RR differences) and the geometric means standard deviation 1 (SD1) and 2 (SD2) were calculated. Nearly each training unit was associated with an increase in salivary cortisol concentrations (p<0.01). Cortisol release varied between training units and occasionally was more pronounced in mares than in stallions (p<0.05). The RR interval decreased slightly in response to lunging before mounting of the rider. A pronounced decrease occurred when the rider was mounting, but before the horse showed physical activity (p<0.001). The HRV variables SDRR, RMSSD and SD1 decreased in response to training and lowest values were reached during mounting of a rider (p<0.001). Thereafter RR interval and HRV variables increased again. In contrast, SD2 increased with the beginning of lunging (p<0.05) and no changes in response to mounting were detectable. In conclusion, initial training is a stressor for horses. The most pronounced reaction occurred in response to mounting by a rider, a situation resembling a potentially lethal threat under natural conditions.

Exercise as a Treatment to Enhance Sleep

The prevalence of sleep-related complaints and the limited efficacy of pharmacological treatments make nonpharmacological alternatives essential. Physical exercise is one such alternative that is inexpensive and affects numerous health systems simultaneously. This article reviews putative mechanisms that have guided exercise and sleep research, including exercise’s antidepressant effects, restorative functions, and circadian effects, and concludes that a number of mechanisms are plausible and likely active in explaining the effects of exercise on sleep. The empirical literature is reviewed, with special emphasis given to randomized controlled trials and experimental studies that help to inform for whom (eg, age, fitness characteristics), under what conditions (eg, light exposure, time of day), and by what means (eg, type, intensity, duration) exercise optimally affects sleep. The review also includes the emerging research using exercise as a treatment of obstructive sleep apnea and restless legs syndrome. The current literature indicates that moderate amounts of exercise, which can be obtained through a variety of means such as brisk walking and resistance training, are sufficient to improve sleep quality. Additional research is warranted in this area, particularly randomized controlled trials that target subgroups at risk for poor sleep such as older adults and persons with sleep disorders.

The effects of exercise on body satisfaction and affect

This research used ecological momentary assessment to examine the effects of exercise on state body dissatisfaction and affect in 33 undergraduate females with high trait body dissatisfaction and 28 with low trait body dissatisfaction who exercised at least three times weekly. Trait body dissatisfaction was investigated as a moderator of the effects of exercise as well as different motivations for exercise. Results indicated all participants experienced lower state body dissatisfaction and negative affect and greater positive affect post-exercise. Trait body dissatisfaction moderated the association between motivations and exercise effects. Appearance and weight motivations were related to higher state body dissatisfaction for all individuals. Fitness and health motivations were related to higher state body dissatisfaction for high trait body dissatisfied individuals and lower state body dissatisfaction for low trait body dissatisfied individuals. Thus, although exercise has positive effects on body dissatisfaction and affect for high frequency exercisers, their exercise motivations impact these effects.

Using ecological momentary assessment to examine antecedents and correlates of physical activity bouts in adults age 50+ years: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

National recommendations supporting the promotion of multiple short (10+ minute) physical activity bouts each day to increase overall physical activity levels in middle-aged and older adults underscore the need to identify antecedents and correlates of such daily physical activity episodes.

PURPOSE

This pilot study used Ecological Momentary Assessment to examine the time-lagged and concurrent effects of empirically supported social, cognitive, affective, and physiological factors on physical activity among adults age 50+ years.

METHODS

Participants (N = 23) responded to diary prompts on a handheld computer four times per day across a 2-week period. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), self-efficacy, positive and negative affect, control, demand, fatigue, energy, social interactions, and stressful events were assessed during each sequence.

RESULTS

Multivariate results showed that greater self-efficacy and control predicted greater MVPA at each subsequent assessment throughout the day (p < 0.05). Also, having a positive social interaction was concurrently related to higher levels of MVPA (p = 0.052).

CONCLUSION

Time-varying multidimensional individual processes predict within daily physical activity levels.

Brief walks in outdoor and laboratory environments: effects on affective responses, enjoyment, and intentions to walk for exercise

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of brief walks completed in outdoor and laboratory environments on affective responses, enjoyment, and intention to walk for exercise. Thirty-five active young women (M age = 22.14 years, SD = 1.73) walked for 10 min at a self-selected intensity in outdoor and laboratory environments. Affective responses were assessed before, during, and following each brief walk. Enjoyment and intention also were assessed following each walk. Results revealed that although both walks resulted in improvements in affective responses, participants reported greater pleasant affective states, enjoyment, and intention for future participation with outdoor walking. Results of correlation analyses also revealed that affective responses were only consistently related to enjoyment in the outdoor environment. These findings suggest that the environment influences the affective responses to brief walks and show that affective states experienced during walking are related to theoretical determinants of physical activity.

Postnatal women's feeling state responses to exercise with and without baby

OBJECTIVE

Health research has demonstrated that physical activity during the postnatal period may play a crucial role in managing the physical and psychological challenges that women face during these times of transition. To promote physical activity during the postnatal period, mother-and-baby exercise classes are offered through several health and fitness organizations. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a moderate aerobic exercise session on feeling states when women exercised with their baby present compared to without their baby present.

METHODS

Postnatal women (N = 23) participated in two 45-min exercise sessions: one with baby present and one without baby present. Exercise sessions were counterbalanced. The State Scale of the State-trait Anxiety Inventory and the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory were used to assess feeling states pre- and post-exercise. To examine changes in feeling states during the exercise sessions and whether the changes differed between conditions, five separate mixed model ANCOVAs were conducted.

RESULTS

There were no differences (P > .05) in feeling states when women exercised with or without their babies. However, both exercise conditions, showed significant improvements in feeling states from pre- to post-exercise session (P < or = .001) on the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory subscales and the State Scale of the State-trait Anxiety Inventory.

CONCLUSION

Exercising with baby present may be an effective option that allows mothers to balance care duties and a physically active lifestyle, while achieving psychological benefits associated with exercise participation.

Effects of abstinence from habitual involvement in regular exercise on feeling states: an ecological momentary assessment study

Regular exercise was experimentally reduced to determine its effects on positive feeling states. Using ecological momentary assessments, 40 participants maintained their regular exercise routine on 3 days and were deprived of their scheduled exercise on 3 other days. They recorded their feeling states, using the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory, four times daily as well as prior to and following exercise. Multi-level modelling analyses controlling for diurnal variations in feeling states revealed that positive feeling states were elevated on days when exercise deprivation occurred compared with non-exercise days and when no deprivation manipulation occurred. People with lower exercise dependence symptoms felt better on days when they were deprived from exercise compared with non-exercise days, whereas people with higher exercise dependence symptoms felt about the same when they were deprived from exercise compared with non-exercise days. These findings demonstrate that positive feeling states occur following an acute bout of exercise and that exercise deprivation had a positive impact on feeling states, with the level of exercise dependence symptoms moderating this effect.

Stress, fatigue, health, and risk of road traffic accidents among professional drivers: the contribution of physical inactivity

Strategies to achieve ambitious targets for reducing road accidents ( 34 ) have largely focused on engineering and technological advancements, the modification of occupational demands, and, to a lesser extent, human factors. These factors include stress and psychological states; sleep, fatigue, and alertness; and health status. Physical activity appears to influence all these human factors but has not previously been systematically considered as a direct or indirect risk factor for driver accidents. This chapter provides an overview, within an evidence-based framework, of the impact each of these human factors has on driver performance and risk of at-work road traffic accidents and then examines how physical (in)activity may moderate and mediate these relationships. Finally, we consider practical implications for work site interventions. The review aims to offer an evidence base for the deployment of resources to promote physical activity, manage stress, facilitate sleep, reduce fatigue, and enhance alertness to improve physical and psychological health among professional drivers.