Motivational pathways to alcohol use and abuse among Black and White adolescents

Alcohol-related Consequences: Factor Structure and Associations With Trait Mindfulness and Drinking Motivations

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to determine if motivations to use alcohol (coping and social motivations) mediate the relationship between trait mindfulness and a variety of alcohol-related consequences and to determine if the relationship between motivations to use alcohol and alcohol-related consequences is moderated by alcohol use. We determined the factor structure of positive and negative consequences of alcohol use and used this structure as outcomes across eight moderated mediation models.

METHODS

Data were obtained from 296 undergraduate students to confirm the alcohol-related consequences factor structure and to test eight moderated-mediation models.

RESULTS

Four alcohol-related consequences scales (romantic/sexual, positive, mild negative, and severe negative consequences) were confirmed. The motive of drinking to cope significantly mediated the relationship between trait mindfulness and all four of the alcohol-related consequences scales. Drinking to socialize did not significantly mediate the relationship between trait mindfulness and all of the alcohol-related consequences scales.

CONCLUSIONS

The identified four-factor structure suggests that alcohol-related consequences should be assessed in a more specific manner. Additionally, different motivations for alcohol use relate differentially to trait mindfulness and different alcohol-related consequences; drinking to cope is particularly problematic for this population. Future research on the usefulness of promoting mindfulness to reduce problematic drinking appears warranted.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Alcohol Use among Black College Students: Examining the Mediating Roles of Depression and Coping Drinking Motives

Background: Over the past two decades, research has linked adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) to adult health-risk behaviors such as excessive alcohol use. Yet, few have investigated health-risk behaviors among Black college students. Research suggests that Black college students are at lower risk for hazardous drinking patterns, yet ACEs appear to alter the drinking patterns of Black students. Other studies have also shown depressive symptoms and coping-motivated drinking to predict greater alcohol consumption for this ethnic group. Objective: The current study investigated the relationship between ACEs and hazardous patterns of drinking, including frequency of alcohol use, binge, and heavy drinking episodes, using a sample of 282 Black students attending a historically black college/university (HBCU). Results: Depressive symptoms and coping drinking motives were tested as serial mediators between ACEs and the three drinking patterns. Results revealed a significant indirect effect of ACEs on the frequency of alcohol use, binge, and heavy drinking episodes, through depressive symptoms and coping drinking motives. Depressive symptoms also independently mediated the relationship between ACEs and heavy drinking episodes. Conclusion: The finding suggested that drinking perhaps serves as a maladaptive coping strategy to address underlying early life stress and depression for Black students.

Self-management with alcohol over lifespan: psychological mechanisms, neurobiological underpinnings, and risk assessment

Self-management includes all behavioural measures and cognitive activities aimed at coping with challenges arising throughout the lifespan. While virtually all of these challenges can be met without pharmacological means, alcohol consumption has long been instrumentalized as a supporting tool to help coping with problems arising selectively at adolescence, adulthood, and ageing. Here, we present, to our knowledge, the first systematic review of alcohol instrumentalization throughout lifespan. We searched MEDLINE, Google Scholar, PsycINFO and CINAHL (from Jan, 1990, to Dec, 2022) and analysed consumption patterns, goals and potential neurobiological mechanisms. Evidence shows a regular non-addictive use of alcohol to self-manage developmental issues during adolescence, adulthood, and ageing. Alcohol is selectively used to overcome problems arising from dysfunctional personality traits, which manifest in adolescence. A large range of psychiatric disorders gives rise to alcohol use for the self-management of distinct symptoms starting mainly in adulthood. We identify those neuropharmacological effects of alcohol that selectively serve self-management under specific conditions. Finally, we discuss the adverse effects and associated risks that arise from the use of alcohol for self-management. Even well-controlled alcohol use adversely impacts health. Based on these findings, we suggest the implementation of an entirely new view. Health policy action may actively embrace both sides of the phenomenon through a personalized informed use that allows for harm-controlled self-management with alcohol.

Social Anxiety and Alcohol Use and Related Problems among Black Adults: Differential Roles of Motives by Sex

Background: Black individuals who consume alcohol are at risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems. Psycho-sociocultural models of substance use posit that these individuals may continue to drink despite alcohol-related problems to cope with psychological distress. Emerging data indicate that social anxiety is one type of distress that may play an important role in drinking behavior among Black adults. Objectives: Yet despite evidence that drinking to cope varies as a function of sex among predominantly White samples, this is the first known study to test whether socially anxious Black women are similarly at risk for coping motivated drinking and its negative sequelae. Participants were 257 (75% female) Black undergraduates endorsing current alcohol use. Results: Among women and men, social anxiety was significantly related to more alcoholrelated problems and coping-depression and conformity motives. Among women (but not men), social anxiety was also significantly related to more coping-anxiety and greater typical drinking. Serial mediation analyses among women indicated that social anxiety was indirectly related to more alcohol problems via the serial effect of each of the relevant drinking motives (copinganxiety, coping-depression, conformity) and drinking frequency. Among men, social anxiety was indirectly related to alcohol problems via coping-depression and conformity motives. Conclusions/Importance: Findings highlight the importance of considering sex in research on psychosocial vulnerability factors associated with alcohol-related problems among Black adults.

Posttraumatic Stress, Alcohol Use, and Alcohol Use Motives among Non-Hispanic Black/African American College Students: The Role of Emotion Regulation

OBJECTIVE

The associations between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity, alcohol use, and alcohol use motives are well-established. Emotion regulation difficulties have been implicated in the association between PTSD symptoms and alcohol use. A dearth of empirical work, however, has examined these associations among Black/African American college students, a population with high prevalence of exposure to potentially traumatic events, PTSD symptomatology, and alcohol-related consequences.

METHODS

This study examined PTSD symptoms, emotion regulation difficulties, and alcohol use severity and motives among a sample of Black/African American trauma-exposed college students (N = 282; 77.4% identified as female; M age = 22.36, SD = 4.71).

RESULTS

PTSD symptom severity was related to alcohol use and coping and conformity motives for alcohol use through heightened emotion regulation difficulties. Findings were significant above and beyond the effects of trauma load (i.e., number of potentially traumatic event types experienced).

CONCLUSIONS

This study extends past work to an understudied population and contributes to groundwork for culturally informed interventions.

The effect of impulsivity and drinking motives on alcohol outcomes in college students: a 3-year longitudinal analysis

Objective: Substance use is a public health concern and cross-sectional studies have found that impulsivity and drinking motives influence substance use in emerging adults. Despite these findings, longitudinal studies with nuanced measures of impulsivity and drinking motives are needed. Participants: The current study investigated the three-year relationship between impulsivity-related traits, drinking motives, sex, and drinking outcomes in a sample of 509 college students (47.47% male; 81% White). Methods: The effects of impulsivity traits and drinking motives on problematic drinking outcomes were evaluated using linear mixed effects models. Results: The results confirmed the hypothesized relationship between traits of impulsivity, drinking motives, and alcohol outcomes over time. Further, sex significantly interacted with drinking motives longitudinally in its relationship with alcohol use outcomes. Conclusions: These results indicate that intervention efforts may need to be tailored to specific individual attributes to target direct correlates of alcohol use behavior to increase effectiveness.

Momentary associations between stress and alcohol craving in the naturalistic environment: differential associations for Black and White young adults

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Black drinkers compared with White drinkers experience more alcohol-related problems. Examination of social determinants of inequities in alcohol problems is needed. The current study measured (1) associations between acute stress and alcohol craving in the naturalistic environment for self-identified Black and White individuals who drink alcohol and (2) whether a history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) moderated these associations.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Observational study using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to collect data from participants at six semi-random time-points throughout the day during a 10-day period. A series of three-level multi-level models examined between- and within-person associations for stress and alcohol and tested if these associations differed for Black and White adults.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 229 adult drinkers (aged 21-35 years) who completed a larger study examining alcohol response for Black and White adults with and without a history of childhood ADHD.

MEASUREMENTS

Momentary stress and alcohol craving, ADHD history and socio-demographic characteristics (i.e. racial identity, sex, age, current education level, household income) were assessed. Participants were required to self-identify as either 'African American or Black' or 'European American or White'.

FINDINGS

Significant racial identity × stress interactions indicated that associations between stress and craving were stronger for Black compared with White adults across the 10-day period (between-person: B = 0.14, P = 0.007), concurrently within a given EMA time-point (within-person: B = 0.04, P = 0.001) and prospectively from time-point to time-point (within-person: B = 0.05, P = 0.001). Results remained while accounting for income × stress interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute stress appears to be more strongly related to alcohol craving in self-identified Black compared with self-identified White individuals. This provides support for policy changes to eliminate structural inequities that increase stress exposure and the development of just-in-time culturally responsive interventions focused on coping with acute stress for Black individuals.

Consequences, Motives, and Expectancies of Consumption as Predictors of Binge Drinking in University Women

The increasing presence of women, especially university women, in risky alcohol consumption such as Binge Drinking (BD), which is associated with gender-specific biopsychosocial problems, makes it necessary to analyze the variables underlying BD in order to adjust possible interventions more in line with their reality. The motives and expectancies of this pattern of consumption, as well as the consequences derived from it, are some of the variables that are shown to have the greatest weight in the prediction of BD. In the present study we analyze, on the one hand, the performance of these variables among college women with alcohol use, and on the other hand, which of these variables allow us to classify BD. A total of 501 female university consumers of alcohol (mean age 19.02 years) were assessed. Specifically, they completed a self-report of alcohol consumption (77.1% engage in BD), the Expectancy Questionnaire (EQ), the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ-R) and the Alcohol Consumption Consequences Evaluation (ACCE). BD female students scored significantly higher on these instruments, except for compliance motives. The logistic regression analysis carried out to estimate the probability of performing BD using the social and conformity motives, the ACCE and positive expectancies correctly estimated (χ2 8 = 9.149, p < 0.33) 88.6% of the cases and explained 26.2% of the BD. Thus, young women with a level of consequences classified as high risk (>25 in ACCE) have a 3.55-fold increase in the probability of having BD, compared to women classified as low risk by the ACCE. On the other hand, women classified as moderate risk by the ACCE have a 4.77-fold increase in the probability of having BD. In the case of social motives and positive expectancies, their increase multiplies by 1.165 and 1.024, respectively, the probability of having BD. The results of this study highlight the importance of adapting preventive measures to the consequences experienced by BD university students, especially in relation to the social motives and positive expectancies that modulate decision-making when engaging in this pattern of consumption.

Racial discrimination and substance use among African American youth: Personal and collective self-esteem as mechanisms

Little is known about the mechanisms of the relationship between racial discrimination and substance use among Black youth. The current study examined the role of collective self-esteem and personal self-esteem in this relationship among Black adolescents in grades 5 through 12 (N = 1514; 57% female). Regression analyses estimated direct effects of perceived racial discrimination on substance use and indirect effects of discrimination on substance use through personal and collective self-esteem. Controlling for grade and sex, results revealed significant indirect effects such that experiences of discrimination were positively associated with substance use through lower reports of collective and personal self-esteem. Findings suggest that bolstering personal and race-related esteem may mitigate the deleterious influence of discrimination among Black youth.

Motives for Substance Use in Daily Life: A Systematic Review of Studies Using Ecological Momentary Assessment

The motivational model of substance use posits four motive subtypes (coping, enhancement, social, conformity) dynamically interact with contextual factors to impact decisions about substance use. Yet, prior studies assessing the motivational model have relied on between-person, cross-sectional evaluations of trait motives. We systematically reviewed ecological momentary assessments (EMA) studies (N=64) on motives for substance use to examine: methodological features of EMA studies examining the motivational model, support for the motivational model between and within individuals, and associations between trait motives and daily processes. Results of the reviewed studies provide equivocal support for the motivational model, and suggest that EMA measures and trait measures of motives might not reflect the same construct. The reviewed body of research indicates most studies have not examined the momentary and dynamic nature of the motivational model and more research is needed to inform interventions that address heterogeneous reasons for substance use in daily life.

Making the "C-ACE" for a Culturally-Informed Adverse Childhood Experiences Framework to Understand the Pervasive Mental Health Impact of Racism on Black Youth

The high prevalence and psychological impact of childhood exposure to potentially traumatic events (PTE) is a major public health concern in the United States. Considerable evidence has demonstrated the significant racial disparities that exist with respect to PTE exposure, indicating that Black youth are particularly burdened by these harmful experiences. Racism may serve a unique role in explaining why Black youth are disproportionately exposed to PTEs, and why mental health disparities are more likely to occur following such experiences. Despite clear evidence acknowledging racism as a major life stressor for Black youth, theoretical models of early childhood adversity have largely neglected the multifaceted influence of racism on mental health outcomes. Inspired by bourgeoning literature highlighting the potentially traumatic nature of racism-related experiences for Black youth, we present a culturally-informed Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) model, or "C-ACE", to understand the pervasive and deleterious mental health impact of racism on Black youth. This model extends the ACE framework by noting the significance of racism as an ACE exposure risk factor, a distinct ACE category, and a determinant of post-ACE mental health outcomes among Black youth. The model acknowledges and supports the advancement of ACEs research that takes a culturally informed approach to understanding the intergenerational and multilevel impact of racism on the mental health of Black youth. Future research utilizing the proposed C-ACE model is essential for informing clinical and public health initiatives centered on reducing the mental health impact of racism-related experiences and health disparities in the United States.

Alcohol and Neural Dynamics: A Meta-analysis of Acute Alcohol Effects on Event-Related Brain Potentials

BACKGROUND

An understanding of alcohol's acute neural effects could augment our knowledge of mechanisms underlying alcohol-related cognitive/motor impairment and inform interventions for addiction. Focusing on studies employing event-related brain potential methods, which offer a direct measurement of neural activity in functionally well-characterized brain networks, we present the first meta-analysis to explore acute effects of alcohol on the human brain.

METHODS

Databases were searched for randomized laboratory alcohol-administration trials assessing brain activity using event-related potentials. Hedges' g coefficients were pooled using 3-level random-effects meta-regression.

RESULTS

Sixty independent randomized controlled trials met inclusion (total N = 2149). Alcohol's effects varied significantly across neural systems, with alcohol leading to reductions in event-related potential components linked with attention (P3b), g = -0.40, 95% CI (-0.50, -0.29), automatic auditory processing (mismatch negativity), g = -0.44, 95% CI (-0.66, -0.22), and performance monitoring (error-related negativity), g = -0.56, 95% CI (-0.79, -0.33). These effects were moderated by alcohol dose, emerging as significant at doses as low as 0.026% blood alcohol concentration and increasing to moderate/large at 0.12%. In contrast, irrespective of dose, relatively small or nonsignificant alcohol effects emerged in other processing domains, including those linked to executive control (N2b responses) and stimulus classification (N2c responses).

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to traditional conceptualizations of alcohol as a "dirty drug" with broad central nervous system depressant effects, results instead support accounts positing targeted alcohol effects in specific processing domains. By identifying alcohol effects on brain systems involved in performance monitoring and attention, results move toward the identification of mechanisms underlying alcohol-related impairment as well as factors reinforcing addiction.

Vicarious racial discrimination, racial identity, and alcohol-related outcomes among Black young adults: An experimental approach

Objective: Racial discrimination is a known risk factor for alcohol-related outcomes among young Black American adults. However, vicarious racial discrimination's associations with alcohol-related outcomes and the role of racial identity in these associations remain unknown. This within-subject experiment study tested whether associations of vicarious racial discrimination with alcohol craving and attentional bias differed by three components of racial identity (centrality, private regard, and public regard). Method: Black young adult, at-risk drinkers (N = 51; Mage = 21 [SD = 3.02]; 60% female) completed two vicarious racial discrimination conditions (manipulated by video) followed by alcohol craving and attentional bias tasks. Results: Associations of vicarious discrimination with alcohol craving were exacerbated by high centrality and buffered by high private regard, but did not differ by public regard. No associations of vicarious discrimination with alcohol attention bias were found. Conclusion: Findings highlight the important role of Black racial identity in within-group differences in the impact of vicarious racial discrimination on select implicit indicators of alcohol risk among Black young adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Discrimination and Substance Use: Examining the Moderating Role of Impulsivity among Racial-Ethnic Minority Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Research on substance use among racial-ethnic minority populations notes that discrimination experiences predict substance use outcomes. Individual-level factors, such as impulsivity, are also known risk factors for substance use. However, little is known about the direct and interaction effects between discrimination experiences and impulsivity among racial-ethnic minority youth. The current study examines the effects of perceived experiences of discrimination on alcohol and marijuana use among racial-ethnic minority youth, and whether individual differences in impulsivity traits help to further understand potential risk for substance use.

METHODS

Participants were 112 racial-ethnic minority adolescents (Mage = 15.27; African American, Hispanic, Multiracial, Native American/Alaskan Native, or Other). Adolescents completed self-report measures of perceived experiences of discrimination, alcohol and marijuana use (past year occurrence and problematic use), and five impulsivity traits (i.e., sensation seeking, lack of planning, lack of perseverance, negative urgency, and positive urgency).

RESULTS

A significant main effect of perceived discrimination on problem marijuana use was found, as well as a significant main effect of lack of premeditation on current marijuana use. Several marginally significant main effects emerged for alcohol use and problem alcohol use (i.e., positive urgency and sensation seeking, respectively).

CONCLUSION

While no significant moderation effects emerged, marginal findings suggest a potential interactive effect of discrimination and impulsivity traits on problem alcohol and marijuana use among racial-ethnic minority youth. Further research is needed in this area to replicate findings, which is critical to informing effective intervention and prevention efforts for this population of youth.

Depression, Environmental Reward, Coping Motives and Alcohol Consumption During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: Increases in the incidence of psychological distress and alcohol use during the COVID-19 pandemic have been predicted. Behavioral theories of depression and alcohol self-medication theories suggest that greater social/environmental constraints and increased psychological distress during COVID-19 could result in increases in depression and drinking to cope with negative affect. The current study had two goals: (1) to examine self-reported changes in alcohol use and related outcomes after the introduction of COVID-19 social distancing requirements, and; (2) to test hypothesized mediation models to explain individual differences in self-reported changes in depression and alcohol use during the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: Participants (n = 833) were U.S. residents recruited for participation in a single online survey. The cross-sectional survey included questions assessing environmental reward, depression, COVID-19-related distress, drinking motives, and alcohol use outcomes. Outcomes were assessed via retrospective self-report for two timeframes in the single survey: the 30 days prior to state-mandated social distancing ("pre-social-distancing"), and the 30 days after the start of state-mandated social distancing ("post-social-distancing"). Results: Depression severity, coping motives, and some indices of alcohol consumption (e.g., frequency of binge drinking, and frequency of solitary drinking) were significantly greater post-social-distancing relative to pre-social-distancing. Conversely, environmental reward and other drinking motives (social, enhancement, and conformity) were significantly lower post-social distancing compared to pre-social-distancing. Behavioral economic indices (alcohol demand) were variable with regard to change. Mediation analyses suggested a significant indirect effect of reduced environmental reward with drinking quantity/frequency via increased depressive symptoms and coping motives, and a significant indirect effect of COVID-related distress with alcohol quantity/frequency via coping motives for drinking. Discussion: Results provide early cross-sectional evidence regarding the relation of environmental reward, depression, and COVID-19-related psychological distress with alcohol consumption and coping motives during the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results are largely consistent with predictions from behavioral theories of depression and alcohol self-medication frameworks. Future research is needed to study prospective associations among these outcomes.

Development of emotion regulation across the first two years of college

INTRODUCTION

Emotion regulation is thought to develop substantially from late adolescence into early adulthood; further, the rate of development purportedly varies based on personal and contextual characteristics. However, little research has explicitly documented this maturation in young adulthood or identified its determinants. We aimed to (1) characterize how adaptive (positive reappraisal, emotional social support-seeking) and maladaptive (suppression, substance use coping) emotion regulation strategies changed over time and (2) predict change in each strategy based on baseline personal, social, and motivational characteristics.

METHODS

We followed a sample of 1578 students entering university in the northeastern United States across their first two years, assessing them four times.

RESULTS

As expected, social support-seeking increased and suppression decreased. However, contrary to expectations, cognitive reappraisal declined over time while substance use coping increased. Women generally used more adaptive emotion regulation strategies than did men; social engagement and connection and eudaimonic well-being were generally predictive of using more adaptive coping over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, students did not consistently demonstrate maturation to more adaptive emotion regulation and in fact exhibited decrements over the first two years of college. Students' baseline characteristics accounted for substantial degrees of change in emotion regulation. These findings suggest potentially fruitful directions for interventions to assist college students in developing more adaptive emotion regulation skills.

Comparing cannabis use motive item performance between American Indian and White youth

OBJECTIVE

There is limited research on the motives for engaging in cannabis use for American Indian (AI) youth. The purpose of this study was to explore the differences in cannabis use motives between White and AI youth.

METHOD

This study used data from youth living on or near reservations who currently use cannabis and identify as White (n = 156) or AI (n = 922). Students completed a survey containing a measure of cannabis use motives that included coping, recreation, and expansion motives. Eight items, four coping and four recreational/expansion, were evaluated using Item Response Theory. Multi-group analyses were conducted to assess the differences in item functioning between White and AI youth.

RESULTS

Three of the four items in the four-item coping model and four items in the recreational/enhancement model exhibited meaningful differential item functioning (DIF). Results suggest that AI youth were more likely to endorse coping reasons for use while White youth were more likely to endorse recreational/expansion reasons for use.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary evidence that AI and White youth meaningfully differ in their likelihood to endorse coping, recreational, and expansion reasons for cannabis use. These findings highlight the importance of attending to differences between AI and White youth substance use motives, especially when developing culturally competent intervention and prevention strategies.

The role of affect, emotion management, and attentional bias in young adult drinking: An experience sampling study

RATIONALE

Coping with negative affect is central to several prominent etiological models of alcohol use. These models posit that alcohol use becomes negatively reinforced due to its ability to alleviate negative affect. However, there have been mixed findings when testing this association at the event-level.

OBJECTIVES

The current experience sampling study sought to clarify this by testing if (1) within-person changes in the perceived difficulty of managing emotional distress is a significant predictor of alcohol consumption, over and above levels negative and positive affect and (2) whether acute changes in affective experiences give rise to increased attentional bias toward alcohol-related cues in the environment and if attentional bias mediates the association between difficulty managing emotions and alcohol consumption. Participants were 92 college students aged 18-25, who drink alcohol at least moderately.

METHODS

Participants completed 28 days of experiencing sampling measures on their mood, difficulty managing emotions, alcohol-related attentional biases, and drinking.

RESULTS

Findings showed that neither negative affect nor difficult managing emotions had significant effects on alcohol use. However, positive affect exhibited the expected associations with both attentional biases and drinking. State positive affect predicted acute increases in attentional biases and drinking, whereas trait positive affect was inversely associated with trait attentional biases and alcohol use. Alcohol-related attentional biases exhibited significant within-person variance; however, its relationship with drinking was only significant when the constructs were assessed concurrently at night and did not mediate the relationship between affect and alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the importance of positive affect in this population.

Black First-Year College Students' Alcohol Outcome Expectancies

Background

Alcohol outcome expectancies (AOEs) are associated with college students' varied alcohol consumption. Existing research on AOEs focuses primarily on heterosexual White students. Thus, it is important to explore how the intersection of multiple identities such as race, gender, and sexual orientation influence the endorsement of specific AOEs.

Purpose

This paper examines AOEs among Black first-year college students, with specific attention to the influence of gender and sexual orientation.

Methods

Participants were 307 Black students from four universities in the United States. We conducted bivariate analyses using the 2-factor and 4-factor B-CEOA scale.

Results

Most students did not hold positive AOEs such as tension reduction and sexual enhancement. They were more likely to endorse negative AOEs such as behavioral and cognitive impairment and social risk.

Discussion

Black first-year college students reported more negative expectations associated with alcohol use, including those related to negative social risks and consequences. Thus, AOEs may serve as a protective factor against alcohol use among Black college students.

Translation to Health Education Practice

Alcohol interventions should be tailored to focus on the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation. Culturally relevant alcohol interventions have the potential to reduce the immediate and long-term consequences of alcohol use.

A multimodal, longitudinal investigation of alcohol's emotional rewards and drinking over time in young adults

Theories of alcohol use disorder (AUD) have long suggested that alcohol's emotional rewards play a key role in reinforcing problematic drinking. Studies employing survey methods, in which participants recall and aggregate their experiences with alcohol in a single questionnaire, indicate that self-reported expectancies and motivations surrounding alcohol's emotional rewards predict problematic drinking trajectories over time. The current study is the first to combine laboratory alcohol-administration, ambulatory methods, and longitudinal follow-ups to assess whether alcohol's ability to enhance positive mood and reduce negative mood predicts later drinking problems. Sixty young heavy social drinkers (50% female) participated in laboratory-based alcohol-administration, attending both alcohol (target blood alcohol concentration [BAC] .08%) and no-alcohol laboratory sessions. Forty-eight of these participants also wore transdermal alcohol monitors and completed mood surveys outside the laboratory for 7 days. Participants reported on their drinking at 18-month follow-up (90% compliance). Controlling for baseline drinking, greater negative mood reduction from alcohol at baseline predicted more drinking problems at follow-up, an effect that emerged as consistent across methods capturing alcohol's emotional rewards in the laboratory, b = -.24, p = .02, as well as via ambulatory methods, b = -3.14, p = .01. Greater positive mood enhancement from alcohol, captured via laboratory methods, also predicted drinking problems, b = .16, p = .03, and binge drinking, b = 3.22, p = .02, at follow-up. Models examining drinking frequency/quantity were nonsignificant. Results provide support for emotional reward as a potential factor in the development of problematic drinking. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Downward Spiral: Socioeconomic Causes and Consequences of Alcohol Dependence among Men in Late Young Adulthood, and Relations to Racial/Ethnic Disparities

BACKGROUND

While young adults are generally at highest risk for alcohol problems, not all age out of problem drinking. Evidence suggests that Blacks and Latinos age out more slowly than Whites, particularly among men. Targeting men, we investigated whether differences in lifecourse SES might explain racial/ethnic disparities in alcohol dependence in late young adulthood, along with how experiencing alcohol dependence at that life stage relates to subsequent SES.

METHODS

We used longitudinal, national data to (i) describe racial/ethnic disparities in late young adult alcohol dependence criteria (LYADC), (ii) examine whether income trajectory in early young adulthood contributes to these racial/ethnic disparities, and (iii) test whether LYADC reciprocally predicts income trajectory in early midlife. Data were from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 3,993), which measured LYADC in 1994 (mean age = 33). Income trajectory classes were derived for early young adulthood (mean ages = 21 to 31) and, separately, early midlife (mean ages = 35 to 45). Analyses included negative binomial regressions and multinomial regressions.

RESULTS

Both Black and US-born Latino men reported more LYADC than White men. Further, membership in the persistently low and slow increase (vs. stable middle) early young adult income trajectory classes was associated with more LYADC. Multivariate analyses suggested that Black-White disparities in LYADC were explained by early young adult income trajectories, whereas Latino-White disparities in the same were explained by both early young adult income trajectories and early education. In controlled models, more LYADC predicted a higher likelihood of membership in the persistently low (vs. stable middle) income trajectory class in early midlife.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that poorer SES in early adulthood contributes to alcohol dependence, which reciprocally contributes to poorer SES in early midlife. This cycle appears particularly likely to affect Black and US-born Latino men. Results underline the need to address socioeconomic factors in addressing racial/ethnic disparities in alcohol problems.

Racial discrimination, binge drinking, and negative drinking consequences among black college students: serial mediation by depressive symptoms and coping motives

Objectives: Experiences of racial discrimination have been associated with diverse negative health outcomes among racial minorities. However, extant findings of the association between racial discrimination and alcohol behaviors among Black college students are mixed. The current study examined mediating roles of depressive symptoms and coping drinking motives in the association of perceived racial discrimination with binge drinking and negative drinking consequences. Design: Data were obtained from a cross-sectional study of Black college students attending a predominantly White institution in the northeastern US (N = 251, 66% female, mean age = 20 years). Results: Results from path analysis showed that, when potential mediators were not considered, perceived racial discrimination was positively associated with negative drinking consequences but not frequency of binge drinking. Serial multiple mediation analysis showed that depressive symptoms and in turn coping drinking motives partially mediated the associations of perceived racial discrimination with both binge drinking frequency and negative drinking consequences (after controlling for sex, age, and negative life events). Conclusions: Perceived racial discrimination is directly associated with experiences of alcohol-related problems, but not binge drinking behaviors among Black college students. Affective responses to perceived racial discrimination experiences and drinking to cope may serve as risk mechanisms for alcohol-related problems in this population. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts are discussed.

Internalizing symptoms and cannabis and alcohol use: Between- and within-person risk pathways with coping motives

OBJECTIVE

To test reciprocal associations among internalizing symptoms (depression and social anxiety), using alcohol and cannabis to cope, and use-related problems.

METHOD

The study utilized a community sample (N = 387, 55% female; majority non-Hispanic Caucasian (83.1%) or African American (9.1%) and a longitudinal design that spanned 17 to 20 years of age, and distinguished within- and between-person associations using latent curve models with structured residuals.

RESULTS

Reciprocal prospective within-person associations were supported for alcohol, such that elevated depression symptoms were associated with increased alcohol coping motivates 1 year later, which, in turn, was associated with subsequent increased depression symptoms. Bidirectional associations were not supported for social anxiety, although high levels of social anxiety were associated with elevated levels of coping drinking 1 year later. Cannabis coping motives were associated with exacerbation of depression, but not social anxiety symptoms, 1 year later. Between- and within-person contemporaneous associations suggested that depression and social anxiety were more strongly associated with coping than social/enhancement motives, and that coping motives were associated with use-related problems.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that alcohol coping motivates exacerbate rather than ameliorate depression symptoms, which, in turn, leads to greater reliance on alcohol to cope. There was more consistent support for associations with substance use-related problems for depression than for social anxiety. Both between- and within-person associations may be useful for identifying targets and timing of coping-oriented interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Demographic Moderation of the Prediction of Adolescent Alcohol Involvement Trajectories

Several school- and family-based preventive interventions target and effectively reduce adolescent alcohol misuse. However, whether demographic groups achieve equal success with these interventions is unclear. In particular, most interventions target younger adolescents, and program effectiveness tends to be measured with majority White samples; subgroup analyses are rarely reported. We analyze longitudinal data from a sample of N = 6189 adolescents (40% Black, 60% White; 50% female) in 6th through 12th grade to quantify the degree to which age, race, and gender moderate the associations between seven well-known risk and protective factors (RPFs) that serve as common intervention targets. The RPFs that we study are drawn from social learning theory, problem behavior theory, and social control theory, including individual factors (positive alcohol expectancies and deviant behavior), family context (perceived parental involvement, perceived parent alcohol use, and access to alcohol), and peer context (descriptive and injunctive norms). Multilevel growth models allow us to conduct the demographic subgroup moderation analysis. Results suggest that these well-studied RPFs explain alcohol involvement to varying degrees, but they explain substantially more variation in alcohol involvement by White adolescents compared with Black adolescents. We find differential patterns of significance and of leading predictors of alcohol involvement as a function of age, race, and gender and the interactions thereof. These results indicate that the prevention field needs to better understand the RPFs affecting minority and high school youth in order to provide a stronger basis for alcohol prevention efforts.

In-the-Moment Drinking Characteristics: An Examination Across Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder History and Race

BACKGROUND

Adults with a history of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Black drinkers are at elevated risk for alcohol problems and alcohol use disorder. Processes that increase risk for these distinct populations have not focused on in-the-moment behaviors that occur while drinking. The present study examined in-the-moment drinking characteristics (i.e., location, social context, day, time, drink type, speed of consumption) that may differ for individuals with and without ADHD histories or for Black and White drinkers. We also examined the interplay among these in-the-moment drinking characteristics to further understanding of contexts when risk may be momentarily increased.

METHODS

As part of a larger study, 135 individuals (M_age  = 27.81, 69.6% male, 45.9% ADHD, 69.6% White) completed a 10-day ecological momentary assessment protocol that included self-initiated reports following consumption of an alcoholic drink. Hypotheses were tested using multilevel modeling.

RESULTS

Controlling for multiple demographic covariates, Black drinkers drank significantly more quickly than White drinkers and were more likely to consume hard liquor-containing beverages. Differences in drinking speed remained significant when adjusting for Black drinkers' greater likelihood to consume liquor-containing beverages and momentary experience of discrimination; however, Black drinkers' increased likelihood to consume liquor-containing beverages was no longer significant when adjusting for momentary experience of discrimination. Individuals with ADHD histories did not differ from those without ADHD histories in any in-the-moment drinking characteristics. ADHD and race did not interact to predict any drinking characteristic.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in speed of alcohol consumption and propensity to consume liquor-containing beverages may contribute to increased risk for alcohol problems experienced by Black drinkers compared to White drinkers.

Do Drinking Motives Mediate the Relationship between Neighborhood Characteristics and Alcohol Use among Adolescents?

Adolescents not only vary in their alcohol use behavior but also in their motivations for drinking. Young people living in different neighborhoods may drink for different reasons. The aims of this study were to determine if neighborhood characteristics were associated with adolescent drinking motives, and whether drinking motives mediate the relationship between neighborhood context and regular alcohol use. Data from the Scottish Health Behaviours in School-aged Children 2010 survey of students in their 4th year of secondary school were used. The study included 1119 participants who had data on neighborhood characteristics and had used alcohol in the past year. Students were asked questions about the local area where they lived, their alcohol use, and their motives for drinking alcohol, based on the Drinking Motives Questionnaire Revised Short Form (DMQR-SF). Multilevel multivariable models and structural equation models were used in this study. Coping motives showed significant variation across neighborhoods. Structural equation models showed coping motives mediated the relationships between neighborhood deprivation, living in an accessible small-town, and neighborhood-level disorder with regular alcohol use. Public health policies that improve neighborhood conditions and develop adaptive strategies, aimed at improving alcohol-free methods for young people to cope better with life's stresses, may be particularly effective in reducing inequalities in adolescent alcohol use if targeted at small towns and areas of increased deprivation.

Associations of perceived drinking motives of parents and friends on adolescents' own drinking motives

Adolescents form perceptions of why their parents and friends drink alcohol that may impact adolescents' own drinking motives. This study tested whether perceived drinking motives of parents and friends are associated with adolescents' own drinking motives. Participants included community-recruited adolescents 14-17 years (N = 105; 63.8% female) who drank alcohol in the past year. Perceived parent and friend motives both related to adolescent drinking motives at the bivariate level; however, only friend motives remained statistically significant in the final hierarchical regression models controlling for relevant covariates (e.g., alcohol frequency). Findings support a social-cognitive modeling pathway in the development of adolescents' own drinking motives and highlight the perception of why others drink as a potential intervention target.

Posttraumatic stress, alcohol use, and alcohol use reasons in firefighters: The role of sleep disturbance

BACKGROUND

Firefighters are at elevated risk for posttraumatic stress and alcohol use, with research indicating that individuals with posttraumatic stress are likely to use alcohol as a coping strategy. A behavioral mechanism of clinical relevance to these associations is sleep disturbance. Thus, it was hypothesized that higher posttraumatic stress and sleep disturbance would be associated with higher alcohol use and alcohol use coping reasons; and sleep disturbance would moderate the association between posttraumatic stress and alcohol use and alcohol use coping reasons.

PROCEDURE

Participants included 639 urban career firefighters (93.6% male; 77.9% White; Mage = 38.5). Covariates included fire department years and occupational stress. Structural equation models were tested.

RESULTS

Posttraumatic stress severity was significantly, positively associated with alcohol use severity and alcohol use coping reasons. Similarly, sleep disturbance severity was significantly, positively associated with alcohol use severity and alcohol use coping reasons. After accounting for covariates and main effects, the interaction of PTSD severity and sleep disturbance was significantly associated with alcohol use severity, with the model accounting for 23.6% of variance, and alcohol use coping reasons, with the model accounting for 37.6% of variance. As predicted, the interaction of posttraumatic stress severity and sleep disturbance was not significantly associated with alcohol use enhancement, conformity, or social reasons.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that posttraumatic stress severity is related to heightened alcohol use severity and alcohol use coping reasons, and this association is markedly stronger when firefighters' levels of sleep disturbance are heightened. Clinical and research implications are to be discussed.

Protective Factors as an Explanation for the "Paradox" of Black-White Differences in Heavy Drinking

BACKGROUND

African Americans are generally known to have lower heavy drinking prevalence than Whites despite often greater individual and community risk factors. While it is supposed that their protective resources explain this "paradox," studies have not explicitly examined this.

OBJECTIVE

Assess the contribution of protective resources to Black-White differences in heavy drinking, and (secondarily) whether protective resources operate by reducing heavy drinking and/or increasing abstinence.

METHODS

Using data from the 2009-2010 U.S. National Alcohol Survey (N = 3,133 Whites and 1,040 Blacks ages 18+), we applied propensity score (PS) weighting to estimate racial differences in heavy drinking and abstinence under hypothetical conditions in which Whites are similar to Blacks in: (1) age and marital status; (2) socioeconomic position and unfair treatment; (3) neighborhood socioeconomic conditions and alcohol outlet density; and (4) protective resources (proscriptive religiosity, area-level religiosity, "drier" network drinking norms and patterns, and family social support).

RESULTS

The Black-White gap in male and female drinkers' baseline heavy drinking increased after weighting adjustments for demographics. In women, this gap was reduced after weighting on disadvantage and eliminated after adjusting for protective resources. In men, adjustment for disadvantage increased the racial gap, and protective resources reduced it. Protective resources had a stronger effect on Black-White differences in men's abstinence than heavy drinking, but similar effects on these outcomes in women.

CONCLUSION

Protective resources help explain Black-White differences in men's and particularly women's heavy drinking. Future research is needed to elucidate mechanisms of action and additional factors underlying racial differences in men's heavy drinking.

Tension reduction and affect regulation: An examination of mood indices on drinking and non-drinking days among university student drinkers

Several theories posit problematic alcohol use develops through mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement. However, the literature on these mechanisms remains inconsistent. This may be due to a number of issues including a failure to disaggregate negative mood or a failure to account for mood functioning (i.e., stability in mood). Alternatively, there may be differences in typical postdrinking/evening mood on drinking and nondrinking days, however, this has yet to be fully explored. We examined multiple indices of distinct mood states prior to and after typical drinking onset times on drinking and nondrinking days using ecological momentary assessment. College student drinkers (n = 102) carried personal data devices for 15 days. They reported on mood and alcohol use several times per day. Tonic positive mood was higher on drinking days than nondrinking days prior to typical drinking initiation. After typical drinking times, positive mood was higher on drinking days than nondrinking days. Similarly, negative moods (anxiety, stress, anger, and stress instability) indicated a pattern of lower levels relative to both predrinking mood on drinking days, and matched mood time-points on nondrinking days; though, not all of these differences were statistically different. Results suggest positive and negative reinforcing mechanisms may be at play-though the negative reinforcement effects may manifest through subjectively "better" mood on drinking versus nondrinking days. (PsycINFO Database Record

The crossover effect: A review of racial/ethnic variations in risk for substance use and substance use disorder across development

Purpose of Review

The "crossover" effect, a phenomenon by which some minority groups switch from low to high risk for substance use as a function of age, was first documented 25 years ago. However, rigorous methodological research examining the crossover effect has only recently emerged. The current paper reviews the past 25 years of research on the crossover effect, which has primarily examined the shift from low to high substance use risk among Blacks relative to Whites.

Recent Findings

Although findings regarding the crossover effect vary based on gender, socioeconomic status, and substance, Blacks and Hispanics appear to be at lower risk for some substance use- particularly binge drinking and cigarette smoking-than Whites during adolescence and early adulthood, but at higher risk for use in later life. Research regarding the crossover effect of substance use disorder and related problems is limited but more consistent with a similar pattern of effects observed.

Summary

Due to significant limitations of the extant literature examining the crossover effect, it requires additional research clarifying sociodemographic differences in the, identifying its mechanisms, and determining its clinical implications. Such research may have important implications for preventing racial/ethnic disparities in the consequences associated with disordered substance use.

Adolescent precursors of young adult drinking motives

INTRODUCTION

Numerous cross-sectional and shorter-term longitudinal studies have supported the role of drinking motives as potent proximal predictors of alcohol phenotypes (e.g., alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking). However, missing from this literature is a focus both on the stability of drinking motives across young adulthood and on adolescent precursors of drinking motives.

METHODS

We investigated the adequacy of using a latent trait-state model (LTSM) to investigate three-wave data on social, enhancement, and coping motives for drinking with a community sample of young adults (N = 1004) at the mean ages of 23.8 years, 28.9 years, and 33.5 years. We further investigated adolescent (M age = 16.73 years) predictors of young adult drinking motives using data collected on the sample approximately seven years prior to the first young adult data collection.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that all three drinking motives across young adulthood were modeled adequately via the LTSM, and that drinking motives manifested high stability (i.e., rank order) across individuals. Significant common (e.g., being male, alcohol-using peers, stressful life events, boredom susceptibility) and specific (e.g., depressive symptoms for coping motives; heavy episodic drinking for enhancement motives) adolescent precursors of young adult drinking motives were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Common and unique adolescent factors predicted trait-like drinking motives during young adulthood. These findings suggest the utility of intervening during the teen years to prevent or interrupt the development of cognitive motivations that encourage alcohol use for the purpose of affect regulation.

The Effects of Mothers' Protective Parenting and Alcohol Use on Emerging Adults' Alcohol Use: Testing Indirect Effects Through Prototype Favorability Among African American Youth

BACKGROUND

We examined how mothers' protective parenting and alcohol use influenced changes in offspring's heavy drinking among a sample of African American youth. The conceptual model also tested indirect effects of mothers' behaviors, through changes in the youths' social images (i.e., prototypes) of heavy drinkers, derived from the prototype willingness (PW) model.

METHODS

Participants were 686 emerging adults (55% female) from the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS), an ongoing prospective study of African American families. Three waves of FACHS data were used as follows: T3 during 10th grade (M age = 16.3 years), T4 shortly after high school (M age = 19.4 years), and T5 3 years later (M age = 22.1 years). Mothers' self-reports of protective parenting and alcohol use were assessed at T4. Two separate path models tested the study hypotheses. The first model specified direct and indirect effects of mothers' protective parenting and alcohol use. The second model added interaction terms between the protective parenting behaviors and mothers' alcohol use. The analyses were first conducted using the full sample and then repeated separately for female and male participants.

RESULTS

Maternal alcohol use had a positive and direct effect on offspring's alcohol use. Mothers' endorsement of alcohol-related rules inhibited normative increases in the favorability of the offspring's social image of heavy drinkers (prototype) while her warmth was positively related to these increases. Maternal alcohol use amplified the positive association between mothers' warmth and the daughters' increased drinking. For sons, maternal alcohol use increased the positive association between alcohol-related rules and increased prototype favorability.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicated clear gender differences in how mothers' behaviors influence her offspring's alcohol use during the transition to emerging adulthood. Interventions that target culturally specific risk and protective factors within the family environment are needed to reduce health disparities among this vulnerable population of youth.

Psychometric Properties of Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R) in Spanish Adolescents

Abstract. The Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R; Cooper, 1994 ) is the most widely used questionnaire to assess drinking motives. This research aimed to adapt and study the validity and reliability of the Spanish DMQ-R and its short form in a sample of adolescents. We assessed 504 drinkers at Time 1 (T1, Mage = 14.15, SD = 0.60, 52.38% female), of whom 238 participated in a 1-year follow-up (T2, Mage = 15.05, SD = 0.54, 58.82% female). They completed the DMQ-R at T1, the alcohol use measure at T1 and T2, and the alcohol-related problems questionnaire at T2. We performed Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFAs) to test the structure validity of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alphas to test the internal consistencies of the scales, and path analyses to test the concurrent and predictive validity of motives on alcohol outcomes. CFA indicated that the short form of the 4-factor model best fitted the data. Cronbach’s alphas were .70 or higher. Direct effects of the path analysis showed that social motives cross-sectionally predicted alcohol use, while coping motives prospectively predicted alcohol-related problems. Indirect effects showed that social motives prospectively predicted alcohol use and problems. To conclude, the DMQ-R short form appears to be reliable and valid to assess drinking motives among Spanish adolescents.

Racial differences in college-student drinking

Racial differences in drinking motives, protective behavioral strategies (PBSs), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems were examined among college student drinkers (N = 443: 296 [66.8%] White, 147 [33.3%] Black). Survey participants were recruited from large undergraduate sociology classes and residence halls at the university. Key differences between Black and White college students in drinking behaviors, reasons for drinking (i.e., motives), and the use of PBSs were observed. These racial differences have implications for the implementation of prevention/intervention programs intending to reduce alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems among college students.

Age-Related Changes in Associations Between Reasons for Alcohol Use and High-Intensity Drinking Across Young Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Analyses focus on whether self-reported reasons for drinking alcohol change in their associations with high-intensity drinking across the transition to adulthood.

METHOD

Self-report data on high-intensity drinking (10+ drinks) collected from the national Monitoring the Future study in 2005 to 2014 from those ages 18-26 were used (N = 2,664 [60% women] for all drinkers and 1,377 for heavy episodic [5+] drinkers; up to 6,541 person-waves). Time-varying effect modeling examined changes in the direction and magnitude of associations between eight reasons for drinking and high-intensity alcohol use across continuous age.

RESULTS

Four reasons to drink showed quite stable associations with high-intensity drinking across age: drinking to get away from problems, to get high, to relax, and to sleep. Associations between two reasons and high-intensity drinking decreased with age: anger/frustration and to have a good time. The association between drinking because of boredom and high-intensity drinking increased with age. Drinking because it tastes good had a weak association with high-intensity drinking. Among heavy episodic drinkers, reasons for use also differentiated high-intensity drinking, with two exceptions: drinking to have a good time and to relax did not distinguish drinking 10+ drinks from drinking 5-9 drinks.

CONCLUSIONS

Reasons for drinking are differentially associated with high-intensity drinking, compared with any other drinking and compared with lower intensity heavy drinking, across age during the transition to adulthood. Intervention programs seeking to mitigate alcohol-related harms should focus on reasons for use when they are the most developmentally salient.

Are Drinking Motives Universal? Characteristics of Motive Types in Alcohol-Dependent Men from Two Diverse Populations

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Since alcohol use disorders are among the most prevalent and destructive mental disorders, it is critical to address factors contributing to their development and maintenance. Drinking motives are relevant driving factors for consumption. Identifying groups of drinkers with similar motivations may help to specialize intervention components and make treatment more effective and efficient. We aimed to identify and describe distinct motive types of drinkers in dependent males from two diverse cultures (Uganda and Germany) and to explore potential differences and similarities in addiction-related measures. Moreover, we investigated specific links between motive types and childhood maltreatment, traumatic experiences, and symptoms of comorbid psychopathologies.

METHODS

To determine distinct drinking motive types, we conducted latent class analyses concerning drinking motives (Drinking Motive Scale) in samples of treatment-seeking alcohol-dependent men (N = 75). Subsequently we compared the identified motive types concerning their alcohol consumption and alcohol-related symptoms (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test), history of childhood maltreatment (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), trauma exposure (Violence, War and Abduction Exposure Scale), psychopathology (Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale, Depression-section of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, and Brief Symptom Inventory) and deficits in emotion regulation (Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale).

RESULTS

We found two congruent drinking motive types in both contexts. Reward-oriented drinking motives like the generation of positive feelings and enhancing performance were endorsed almost equally by both motive types, whereas high relief motive endorsement characterized one group, but not the other. The relief motive type drank to overcome aversive feelings, withdrawal, and daily hassles and was characterized by higher adversity in general. Emotional maltreatment in childhood and psychopathological symptoms were reported to a significantly greater extent by relief drinkers (effect sizes of comparisons ranging from r = 0.25 to r = 0.48). However, the motive types did not differ significantly on alcohol consumption or alcohol-related symptoms and traumatic experiences apart from childhood maltreatment.

CONCLUSION

The chronology of addiction development and patterns of drinking motivation seem to be similar across cultures, i.e., that motive targeting interventions might be applicable cross-culturally. Addressing comorbid symptomatology should be a key treatment component for relief drinkers, whereas finding alternatives for the creation of positive feelings and ways to counteract boredom and inactivity should be a general treatment element.

Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The goal of the study was to examine differential mediation of long-term effects of discrimination on health behaviour and health status by internalising (anxiety and depression) and externalising (hostility and anger), and to explore moderation of these effects, specifically, by the presence of support networks and coping tendencies.

DESIGN

The current analyses employed structural equation modelling of five waves of data from Black female participants of the Family and Community Health Study over 11 years (M age 37-48).

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

The main outcome variables were health status and alcohol use (frequency and problematic consumption).

RESULTS

Perceived racial discrimination was associated with increases in internalising and externalising. In addition, internalising reactions to discrimination were associated with deterioration in health status and increases in problematic drinking; externalising reactions were associated with increases in frequency of drinking. These relations were attenuated by availability of support networks, and exacerbated by use of avoidance coping.

CONCLUSION

The current study (a) replicated previous research suggesting that two different types of affective reactions mediate the relations between perceived racial discrimination and physical health status vs. health-impairing behaviours: internalising and externalising, and (b) revealed moderation of these effects by coping mechanisms.

Reciprocal Influences of Drinking Motives on Alcohol Use and Related Consequences: A Full Cross-Lagged Panel Study Among Young Adult Men

Using a full cross-lagged model, this study investigates the extent to which drinking motives predict alcohol use and related consequences, and vice versa. At baseline and 15 months later, 4575 men (mean age = 19.4 years) in Switzerland completed a questionnaire assessing drinking motives, average weekly consumption, risky single-occasion drinking, and alcohol-related consequences. Results indicated that social and enhancement motives more strongly influenced alcohol use over time than the other way round. Coping motives predicted an increase in alcohol-related consequences, and vice versa. Higher social motives predicted an increase in coping motives while higher coping motives predicted a decrease in enhancement motives. These results suggest that social and enhancement motives amplify each other in early adulthood and predict increases in risky drinking. Structural measures aimed at reducing opportunities to engage in heavy drinking are recommended. Additionally, the detection of young adult men vulnerable to maladaptive coping behaviors appears important for alcohol prevention strategies.

Associated factors of readiness to change in young adult risky drinkers

BACKGROUND

Readiness to change alcohol use has been associated with a number of predictors including emotional distress, drinking severity, and consequence severity, as well as with static demographic factors such as gender and race/ethnicity.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationships among these variables and readiness to change alcohol use in young adults.

METHODS

Structural equation modeling was used to test pathways of readiness to change in 1,256 young adult patients (78% male/22% female) ages 18-29 who were provided screening, brief intervention and referral to treatment (SBIRT) as part of a Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Treatment Capacity Expansion Project.

RESULTS

The strongest relationships were between emotional distress, drinking severity, and consequence severity with readiness to change. Results indicated that participants with more severe alcohol problems demonstrated higher levels of readiness to change alcohol use and therefore, may be more amenable to behavior change. Additionally, females, Hispanic/Latino, and Black non-Hispanic (Black) participants demonstrated higher levels of readiness to change when compared to other groups.

CONCLUSION

These results lend support to the concept that young adults are using alcohol to modulate their emotions. Furthermore, resultant severity of consequences from drinking may play an important role in their readiness to change risky drinking. This may be especially true for females, who reported greater emotional distress, and for Hispanic/Latinos and Blacks, who reported greater drinking severity with greater emotional distress. Caregivers may be better equipped to address young adult alcohol use with this added understanding.

Impact of alcohol use motives and internalizing symptoms on mood changes in response to drinking: An ecological momentary assessment investigation

BACKGROUND

Theory implies that individuals who use alcohol to cope with negative emotions experience the acute mood-altering effects they desire. However, no study to date has directly tested whether alcohol coping motives map onto alcohol-induced changes in mood in real-time or how co-occurring internalizing symptoms (i.e., depression and anxiety) impact the relation between coping motives and alcohol-induced changes in mood.

METHOD

The current study tested the unique and interactive effects of alcohol coping motives and internalizing symptoms on mood changes during drinking using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in a sample of young adults (n=257). Participants completed a battery of questionnaires and a 7-day EMA assessment protocol.

RESULTS

In general, alcohol use was associated with greater positive mood and reduced negative mood while drinking. However, individuals who reported that they use alcohol to cope with anxiety, but not depression, experienced less mood benefits from alcohol relative to those without mood coping motives. In contrast, individuals with high internalizing symptoms experienced greater mood benefits while drinking relative to those with low levels of internalizing symptoms; and at high levels of anxiety, alcohol consumption was reinforcing for everyone regardless of coping motives. Only at low levels of anxiety symptoms, did coping with anxiety motives attenuate alcohol's acute reinforcing effects.

CONCLUSIONS

These results together confirm that alcohol has a robust impact on real-time mood in young adults and sheds light on the processes that may contribute to repeated alcohol use within individuals who do, and do not, use alcohol as a means of coping.

Racial differences in the link between alcohol expectancies and adolescent drinking

INTRODUCTION

Alcohol expectancies are important determinants and predictors of adolescent alcohol use. Research with African Americans has shown that the endorsement of positive alcohol expectancies differs from that of Whites during childhood and predicts different alcohol outcomes during young adulthood. However, limited research has explored racial differences in the relationship between expectancy endorsement and alcohol use in school-aged adolescents. The current study examines the effect of White or African American race on the relationship between positive alcohol expectancies and alcohol use.

METHODS

Participants were 104 adolescents ages 12-18 who identified as either non-Hispanic White or non-Hispanic African American. Participants completed self-report measures of alcohol consumption and positive social alcohol expectancies.

RESULTS

Preliminary analyses revealed no racial differences in alcohol expectancies or consumption. However, race moderated the relationship between alcohol expectancies and alcohol use such that more positive expectancies predicted alcohol use among White youth, but not African American youth.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that alcohol expectancies, which were thought to be important mediators of the relationship between social and personality factors and adolescent alcohol use may not be as impactful for African Americans. Future research should focus on identifying factors posing unique risk for alcohol consumption in this population.

Drinking High Amounts of Alcohol as a Short-Term Mating Strategy: The Impact of Short-Term Mating Motivations on Young Adults' Drinking Behavior

Previous research indicates that drinking large quantities of alcohol could function as a short-term mating strategy for young adults in mating situations. However, no study investigated whether this is actually the case. Therefore, in this article, the link between short-term mating motivations and drinking high amounts of alcohol is tested. First, a survey study ( N = 345) confirmed that young adults who engage in binge drinking are more short-term oriented in their mating strategy than young adults who never engage in binge drinking. Also, the more short-term-oriented young adults were in their mating strategy, the more often binge drinking behavior was conducted. In addition, an experimental study ( N = 229) empirically verified that short-term mating motivations increase young adults' drinking behavior, more so than long-term mating motivations. Results of the experiment clearly showed that young men and young women are triggered to drink more alcoholic beverages in a short-term mating situation compared to a long-term mating situation. Furthermore, the mating situation also affected young adults' perception of drinking behavior. Young adults in a short-term mating context perceived a higher amount of alcoholic beverages as heavy drinking compared to peers in a long-term mating context. These findings confirm that a high alcohol consumption functions as a short-term mating strategy for both young men and young women. Insights gained from this article might be of interest to institutions aimed at targeting youth alcohol (ab)use.

Racial/ethnic differences in 30-year trajectories of heavy drinking in a nationally representative U.S. sample

BACKGROUND

Racial/ethnic minorities bear a disproportionate burden of alcohol-related problems in the U.S. It is unknown whether this reflects harmful patterns of lifecourse heavy drinking. Prior research shows little support for the latter but has been limited to young samples. We examine racial/ethnic differences in heavy drinking trajectories from ages 21 to 51.

METHODS

Data on heavy drinking (6+ drinks/occasion) are from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N=9468), collected between 1982 and 2012. Sex-stratified, generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to model heavy drinking frequency trajectories as a function of age with a cubic curve, and interactions of race with age terms were tested to assess racial/ethnic differences. Models adjusted for time-varying socioeconomic status and marital and parenting status; predictors of trajectories were examined in race- and sex-specific models.

RESULTS

White men and women had similarly steep declines in heavy drinking frequency throughout the 20s, contrasting with slower declines (and lower peaks) in Black and Hispanic men and women. During the 30s there was a Hispanic-White crossover in men's heavy drinking curves, and a Black-White female crossover among lifetime heavy drinkers; by age 51, racial/ethnic group trajectories converged in both sexes. Greater education was protective for all groups.

CONCLUSION

Observed racial/ethnic crossovers in heavy drinking frequency following young adulthood might contribute to disparities in alcohol-related problems in middle adulthood, and suggest a need for targeted interventions during this period. Additionally, interventions that increase educational attainment may constitute an important strategy for reducing heavy drinking in all groups.

Understanding Associations Between Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and Negative Consequences of Drinking: a Moderated Mediation Analysis

We explored how neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) is related to negative consequences of drinking to explain why racial/ethnic minority group members are more at risk than Whites for adverse alcohol outcomes. We tested direct and indirect effects of neighborhood SES on alcohol problems and examined differences by gender and race. We used data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys (N = 7912 drinkers aged 18 and older; 49 % female) linked with data from the 2000 Decennial Census in multivariate path models adjusting for individual demographics. In the full sample, neighborhood disadvantage had a significant direct path to increased negative consequences, with no indirect paths through depression, positive affect or pro-drinking attitudes. Neighborhood affluence had significant indirect paths to increased negative consequences through greater pro-drinking attitudes and increased heavy drinking. Subgroup analyses showed the indirect path from affluence to consequences held for White men, with no effects of neighborhood disadvantage. For racial/ethnic minority men, significant indirect paths emerged from both neighborhood disadvantage and affluence to increased consequences through greater pro-drinking attitudes and more heavy drinking. For minority women, there was an indirect effect of neighborhood affluence through reduced depression to fewer drinking consequences. There were limited neighborhood effects on alcohol outcomes for White women. Interventions targeting pro-drinking attitudes in both affluent and disadvantaged areas may help reduce alcohol-related problems among men. Initiatives to improve neighborhood conditions could enhance mental health of minority women and reduce alcohol-related health disparities.

The Association between Alcohol and Sexual Risk Behaviors among College Students: A Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Alcohol use is prevalent among college students and may contribute to sexual risk behavior engagement. A narrative review of the recent empirical literature examining the association between alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors among college student samples was conducted. The purpose of this review was to: (a) review studies examining the association between alcohol use and risky sexual behaviors; and (b) overview research investigating alcohol expectancies and partner characteristics as factors that may influence the alcohol-risky sex relation among college students.

RECENT FINDINGS

Findings regarding the direct link between alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors were mixed. Results suggest a more nuanced association between alcohol and risky sexual behaviors that is influenced by alcohol expectancies and partner characteristics.

SUMMARY

Results highlight the importance of considering additional factors that may influence the alcohol-risky sex relation. Future interventions targeting alcohol-related sexual risk behavior engagement among college students are needed.

Social anxiety, disengagement coping, and alcohol-use behaviors among adolescents

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although research indicates that social anxiety (SA) is associated with problematic drinking, few studies have examined these relations among adolescents, and all alcohol-related assessments have been retrospective. Socially anxious youth may be at risk to drink in an effort to manage negative affectivity, and a proclivity toward disengagement coping (e.g. avoidance of aversive stimuli) may enhance the desire to drink and learning of coping-related use.

DESIGN

Adding to research addressing adolescent SA and alcohol use, the current study examined (1) proportional drinking motives (subscale scores divided by the sum of all subscales), (2) current desire to drink in a socially relevant environment (introduction to research laboratory), and (3) the indirect effect of retrospectively reported disengagement in social stress contexts on proportional coping motives and desire to drink.

METHOD

Participants were 70 community-recruited adolescents who reported recent alcohol use. Level of SA, disengagement coping, drinking motives, and desire to drink following laboratory introduction were assessed.

RESULTS

Proclivity toward disengagement in prior socially stressful contexts accounted for significant variance in the positive relations between SA and both proportional coping motives and current desire to drink.

CONCLUSIONS

These data complement existing work. Continued efforts in building developmentally sensitive models of alcohol use are needed.

Interactions Between Drinking Motives and Friends in Predicting Young Adults' Alcohol Use

While drinking motives are well-established proximal predictors of alcohol use, less is known about their role in event-level drinking behavior. The present study examines whether the interaction between individuals' drinking motives and the number of friends present at a given moment can predict alcohol consumption over the course of the evening. Using the Internet-based cell phone-optimized assessment technique (ICAT), 183 young adults (53.0 % female, mean age = 23.1) in French-speaking Switzerland completed cell phone questionnaires every Thursday, Friday, and Saturday evening over five weekends. A total of 7205 questionnaires completed on 1441 evenings were analyzed. Drinking motives and gender were assessed at baseline, while the hourly alcohol consumption rate and number of friends present were assessed at 8 p.m., 9 p.m., 10 p.m., 11 p.m., and midnight. Multilevel growth curve models with time-invariant and time-varying covariates were estimated for men and women separately. Among women, enhancement motives were associated with an increase in the hourly alcohol consumption rate over the course of the evening (b = .025; p < .05). The impact of the number of friends present on the hourly consumption rate was stronger among those women who scored high on coping motives at baseline (b = .028; p < .05). Among men, drinking motives were found to have no moderating effects. Results highlight the role of drinking motives and their interactions with situational characteristics in determining event-level drinking, especially among women. Strategies to prevent risky weekend drinking should focus on both the social environment in which drinking takes place (e.g., the drinking group) and individual drinking motives.

Should Parents Allow Their Adolescent Children to Drink at Home? Family Factors as Predictors of Alcohol Involvement Trajectories Over 15 Years

OBJECTIVE

The present study examined familial risk and protective factors as moderators of parents allowing their adolescent children to drink at home on longitudinal alcohol involvement trajectories.

METHOD

A total of 772 community adolescents and their parents provided data beginning in 1989 and at four subsequent time points over 15 years; Black adolescents were intentionally oversampled (50% at baseline).

RESULTS

Outcomes related to allowing adolescents to drink at home depended on family structure: Adolescents from intact families who were allowed to drink at home showed the lowest levels of alcohol use and problems over time, whereas those from nonintact families who were allowed to drink at home showed the highest levels of involvement. These results controlled for family history of alcohol problems, consistent parenting styles, and demographic characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that allowing adolescents to drink at home is neither inherently protective nor risky but depends on the family context. Implications for the development of adolescent alcohol involvement are discussed.