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Dionne E, Majnemer A, Beauchamp MH, Brossard-Racine M. Factors associated with mathematical capacity in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2024; 147:104710. [PMID: 38428365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a condition characterized by difficulties in motor planning and coordination and affects 5 to 6% of all school-aged children. Children with DCD frequently present with difficulties with academic activities such as handwriting. However, no study to date has comprehensively described mathematical capacity and its potential associated factors in this high-risk group. AIMS We aimed to describe the frequency and nature of mathematical difficulties of school-aged children with DCD and to evaluate potential factors associated with mathematical performance. METHODS A total of 55 elementary school-aged children with DCD underwent comprehensive standardized assessments of mathematical, visuoperceptual (VP), attentional, visual-motor integration (VMI), and motor skills. The contribution of each factor to mathematical capacity was established using hierarchical multivariate linear regression models. RESULTS Children with DCD (9.1 ± 1.5 years, 44 males) had lower overall mathematical capacity compared to normative data (-0.59 SD) on the KeyMath 3rd edition, with poorer performance in basic concepts and problem-solving. Thirty-eight percent of the sample performed below the 15th percentile in overall mathematical skills. VP skills were the most important factors associated with most mathematical domains. Thirty-four percent of the variance of overall mathematical capacity was explained by VP skills, inattention, VMI and motor impairments while controlling for household income (F [5,49]=5.029, p < .0001). CONCLUSION Children with DCD present with mathematical difficulties in basic concepts and problem-solving, which are partially explained by VP skills. Our findings stress the important of systematically assessing mathematical difficulties children with DCD to ensure they receive the necessary support that leads to academic success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliane Dionne
- Advances in Brain and Child Development Research Laboratory, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Canada; School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Canada
| | - Annette Majnemer
- School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Canada
| | - Miriam H Beauchamp
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Canada; Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Canada
| | - Marie Brossard-Racine
- Advances in Brain and Child Development Research Laboratory, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Canada; School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Canada.
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Gandy K, Castillo H, Kelly M, Bradko V, MacDonald B, Thibadeau J, Queally J, Castillo J. Neurodevelopmental Implications on Urological Self-management Among People Living With Spina Bifida: A Practical Guide for Urology Providers. Urology 2023; 173:17-25. [PMID: 36473589 DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2022.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although folic acid fortification and advances in prenatal repair have reduced Spina Bifida (SB) prevalence and the severity of comorbidities, individuals with SB remain at elevated risk for neurocognitive impairments that studies have shown can negatively impact, among other things, urological self-care. Identifying and addressing these impairments with practical interventions can meaningfully improve long-term outcomes for individuals with SB. We review neurocognitive impairments associated with SB and provide practical solutions to support improvement of long-term urological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellen Gandy
- Department of Epidemiology and Cancer Control, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN
| | - Heidi Castillo
- Department of Pediatrics, Meyer Center for Developmental Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | - Maryellen Kelly
- Department of Urology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Viachaslau Bradko
- Department of Pediatrics, Meyer Center for Developmental Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | - Beatriz MacDonald
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Psychology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | | | - Jennifer Queally
- Department of Psychiatry, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA
| | - Jonathan Castillo
- Department of Pediatrics, Meyer Center for Developmental Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX.
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Lindquist B, Jacobsson H, Strinnholm M, Peny‐Dahlstrand M. A scoping review of cognition in spina bifida and its consequences for activity and participation throughout life. Acta Paediatr 2022; 111:1682-1694. [PMID: 35608513 PMCID: PMC9546308 DOI: 10.1111/apa.16420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Aim The aim of this scoping review was to summarise findings concerning cognitive characteristics in people with spina bifida and explain how cognitive factors influence activities and participation in different areas and stages of life. Methods PubMed, Psych INFO, ERIC, Scopus, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library were searched for English language papers published in 2000–2018. A total of 92 papers were selected and quality was assessed according to the McMaster criteria. The results were presented related to body functions, activity and participation from the International Classification of Function and Health, ICF. Results People with spina bifida tended to have a lower IQ than those without. The majority also had cognitive difficulties manifested in problems with language, perception, memory, executive and attentional functions. Those difficulties affected activity and participation in all life domains in ICF. This may affect medical adherence and responsibility and by extension the prevention of secondary complications. Conclusion It is important for caregivers, professionals and especially individuals with spina bifida themselves to understand and handle both physical and cognitive consequences in all life circumstances. Having insight into one’s own assets and difficulties paves the way to managing life challenges, which could enhance health, self‐management and participation in society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbro Lindquist
- Department of Habilitation Halmstad County Hospital Halmstad Sweden
| | | | - Margareta Strinnholm
- Folke Bernadotte Regional Habilitation Center University Children´s Hospital Uppsala Sweden
| | - Marie Peny‐Dahlstrand
- Regional Rehabilitation Centre Queen Silvia Children´s Hospital Sahlgrenska University Hospital Gothenburg Sweden
- Sweden Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at the Sahlgrenska Academy University of Gothenburg Gothenburg Sweden
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Smith ZR, Del Castillo A, Clark OE, Holmbeck GN. Working memory and cognitive flexibility predict growth trajectories of sluggish cognitive tempo in youth with spina bifida. Child Neuropsychol 2022; 28:1052-1071. [PMID: 35196965 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2022.2042503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
As sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) shows similar inattention and neuropsychological dysfunction as youth with spina bifida (SB), it is important to examine whether neuropsychological functioning may affect the development of SCT in this population. Participants were 140 youth with SB and their parents who participated in five waves of a longitudinal study across eight years (ages 8-15 years at Time 1). At Time 1, teacher-, mother-, and father-report of SCT showed 9%, 8.3%, and 5.3% impairment in SCT respectively compared to other youth in the sample. Growth curves were used to examine changes over time in mother-, father-, and teacher-reported SCT. Four neurocognitive variables were included (attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, plan/organize) as predictor variables of SCT growth and intercepts. Mother, father, and teacher-report of SCT were included in separate models. Age and shunt status were included as covariates in the growth models. Inattentive symptoms were also included as a covariate in working memory, shift, and plan/organize models. Worse working memory at Time 1 predicted an increase in mother-reported SCT symptoms over eight years (β = -.28) and poorer cognitive shifting skills predicted higher rates of teacher-reported SCT over time (β = -.61). All other neurocognitive variables predicted the intercept, but not the slope of SCT symptoms. Results indicate that worse neurocognitive functioning is associated with higher levels of SCT symptoms and that worse working memory and cognitive flexibility at baseline predicted an increase in SCT symptoms as youth with SB age. It may be important for clinicians to monitor and assess levels of SCT in youth with SB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R Smith
- The Psychology Department, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Olivia E Clark
- The Psychology Department, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Peterson RK, Williams S, Janzen L. Cognitive Correlates of Math Performance in School-Aged Children with Sickle Cell Disease and Silent Cerebral Infarcts. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2021; 36:465-474. [PMID: 32890401 DOI: 10.1093/arclin/acaa071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Attention, processing speed, executive functioning, and math difficulties are common in youth with sickle cell disease (SCD) with silent cerebral infarcts (SCI). This study investigated the cognitive underpinnings of math difficulties in children with SCD and SCI. METHOD Youth (n = 68) with SCD and SCI completed measures of attention [Digit Span forward (DSF); Conners Continuous Performance Test-Third Edition/Kiddie Conners Continuous Performance Test-Second Edition (CPT-3/KCPT-2)]; working memory [Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WPPSI-IV, WISC-IV, WISC-V, WAIS-IV), Working Memory Index (WMI), Digit Span backwards (DSB)]; processing speed [WPPSI-IV, WISC-IV, WISC-V, WAIS-IV Processing Speed Index (PSI)]; math reasoning [Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition (WIAT-III) Mathematics composite (MC)]; and math fluency [WIAT-III Math Fluency composite (MF)] as part of a clinical neuropsychological evaluation. Parent ratings of attention and executive functioning were obtained [Behavior Assessment System for Children-Third Edition (BASC-3), Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)]. RESULTS MC was positively correlated with WMI (r = 0.59, p = 0.00), PSI (r = 0.40, p < 0.001), DSF (r = 0.29, p = 0.03), DSB (r = 0.47, p < 0.001), and MF (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). Correlations between MC, sustained attention, and parent ratings were nonsignificant. The linear regression model using correlated variables was significant [F(4,51) = 8.29, R2 = 0.39, p < 0.001]. WMI was the only significant variable within the model (p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS Working memory deficits account for significant variance in untimed mathematical performance in this population-consistent with other populations with white matter dysfunction. Interventions targeting both mathematics and working memory may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel K Peterson
- Department of Neuropsychology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Suzan Williams
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Laura Janzen
- Department of Neuropsychology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Attout L, Noël MP, Rousselle L. Magnitude processing in populations with spina-bifida: The role of visuospatial and working memory processes. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2020; 102:103655. [PMID: 32413584 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
People with Spina Bifida usually experience difficulties with mathematics. In a series of other developmental disorders, a magnitude processing deficit was considered to be the main source of subsequent difficulties in mathematics. The processing of magnitude could be numerical (which is the larger number) or non-numerical such as spatial (e.g., which is the longer?) or temporal (which one last longer?) for instance. However, no study yet has examined directly magnitude processes in a population with Spina Bifida. On the other hand, recent studies in people with genetic syndromes have suggested that visuospatial and working memory processes play an important role in magnitude processing, including number magnitude. Therefore, in this study we explored for the first time magnitude representation using several tasks with different visuospatial and working memory processing requirements, cognitive skills frequently impaired in Spina Bifida. Results showed children with SB presented a global magnitude processing deficit for non-numerical and numerical comparison tasks, but not in symbolic number magnitude tasks compared to controls. Importantly, visuospatial skills and working memory abilities could partially explain the differences between groups in comparison and estimation tasks. This study proposes that magnitude processing difficulties in children with SB could be due to higher cognitive factors such as visuospatial and working memory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Attout
- Research Unit "Enfances", University of Liège, Belgium; Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Marie-Pascale Noël
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Barrocas R, Roesch S, Gawrilow C, Moeller K. Putting a Finger on Numerical Development - Reviewing the Contributions of Kindergarten Finger Gnosis and Fine Motor Skills to Numerical Abilities. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1012. [PMID: 32528379 PMCID: PMC7264267 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The well-documented association between fingers and numbers is not only based on the observation that most children use their fingers for counting and initial calculation, but also on extensive behavioral and neuro-functional evidence. In this article, we critically review developmental studies evaluating the association between finger sensorimotor skills (i.e., finger gnosis and fine motor skills) and numerical abilities. In sum, reviewed studies were found to provide evidential value and indicated that both finger gnosis and fine motor skills predict measures of counting, number system knowledge, number magnitude processing, and calculation ability. Therefore, specific and unique contributions of both finger gnosis and fine motor skills to the development of numerical skills seem to be substantiated. Through critical consideration of the reviewed evidence, we suggest that the association of finger gnosis and fine motor skills with numerical abilities may emerge from a combination of functional and redeployment mechanisms, in which the early use of finger-based numerical strategies during childhood might be the developmental process by which number representations become intertwined with the finger sensorimotor system, which carries an innate predisposition for said association to unfold. Further research is nonetheless necessary to clarify the causal mechanisms underlying this association.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Caterina Gawrilow
- Department of Psychology, LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Korbinian Moeller
- Leibniz-Institut fuer Wissensmedien, Tuebingen, Germany
- Department of Psychology, LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- Centre for Mathematical Cognition, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
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Adrian JA, Bakeman R, Akshoomoff N, Haist F. Cognitive functions mediate the effect of preterm birth on mathematics skills in young children. Child Neuropsychol 2020; 26:834-856. [PMID: 32396760 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2020.1761313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Children born preterm are at risk for cognitive deficits and lower academic achievement. Notably, mathematics achievement is generally most affected. Here, we investigated the cognitive functions mediating early mathematics skills and how these are impacted by preterm birth. Healthy children born preterm (gestational age at birth < 33 weeks; n = 51) and children born full term (n = 27) were tested at ages 5, 6, and 7 years with a comprehensive battery of tests. We categorized items of the TEMA-3: Test for Early Mathematics Abilities Third Edition into number skills and arithmetic skills. Using multiple mediation models, we assessed how the effect of preterm birth on mathematics skills is mediated by spatial working memory, inhibitory control, visual-motor integration, and phonological processing. Both number and arithmetic skills showed group differences, but with different developmental trajectories. The initial performance gap observed in the preterm children decreased over time for number skills but increased for arithmetic skills. Phonological processing, visual-motor integration, and inhibitory control were poorer in children born preterm. These cognitive functions, particularly phonological processing, had a mediating effect on both types of mathematics skills. These findings help define and chart the trajectory of the specific cognitive skills directly influencing math deficit phenotypes in children born very preterm. This knowledge provides guidance for targeted evaluation and treatment implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Anna Adrian
- Department of Cognitive Science, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA.,Center for Human Development, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Roger Bakeman
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University , Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Natacha Akshoomoff
- Center for Human Development, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Frank Haist
- Center for Human Development, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, UC San Diego , San Diego, CA, USA
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Role of Neurocognitive Factors in Academic Fluency for Children and Adults With Spina Bifida Myelomeningocele. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2019; 25:249-265. [PMID: 30864535 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617718001200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Fluency is a major problem for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders, including fluency deficits for academic skills. The aim of this study was to determine neurocognitive predictors of academic fluency within and across domains of reading, writing, and math, in children and adults, with and without spina bifida. In addition to group differences, we expected some neurocognitive predictors (reaction time, inattention) to have similar effects for each academic fluency outcome, and others (dexterity, vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning) to have differential effects across outcomes. METHODS Neurocognitive predictors were reaction time, inattention, dexterity, vocabulary, and nonverbal reasoning; other factors included group (individuals with spina bifida, n=180; and without, n=81), age, and demographic and untimed academic content skill covariates. Univariate and multivariate regressions evaluated hypotheses. RESULTS Univariate regressions were significant and robust (R 2 =.78, .70, .73, for reading, writing, and math fluency, respectively), with consistent effects of covariates, age, reaction time, and vocabulary; group and group moderation showed small effect sizes (<2%). Multivariate contrasts showed differential prediction across academic fluency outcomes for reaction time and vocabulary. CONCLUSIONS The novelty of the present work is determining neurocognitive predictors for an important outcome (academic fluency), within and across fluency domains, across population (spina bifida versus typical), over a large developmental span, in the context of well-known covariates. Results offer insight into similarities and differences regarding prediction of different domains of academic fluency, with implications for addressing academic weakness in spina bifida, and for evaluating similar questions in other neurodevelopmental disorders. (JINS, 2019, 25, 249-265).
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Mano H, Takikawa K, Haga N. Intellectual characteristics using WISC-IV in children with myelomeningocele. COGENT MEDICINE 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/2331205x.2018.1551827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mano
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Kazuharu Takikawa
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Shizuoka Children’s Hospital, 860 Urushiyama, Shizuoka 420-8860, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Haga
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
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Taylor HG, Klein N, Espy KA, Schluchter M, Minich N, Stilp R, Hack M. Effects of extreme prematurity and kindergarten neuropsychological skills on early academic progress. Neuropsychology 2018; 32:809-821. [PMID: 30124312 DOI: 10.1037/neu0000434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The study was designed to investigate the effect of extreme prematurity on growth in academic achievement across the early school years and the validity of kindergarten neuropsychological skills as predictors of achievement. METHOD A 2001-2003 birth cohort of 145 extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight (EPT/ELBW) children from a single medical center, along with 111 normal birth weight (NBW) classmate controls, were recruited during their first year in kindergarten and followed annually across the next 2 years in school. Mixed model analysis was conducted to compare the groups on growth in achievement across years and examine kindergarten neuropsychological skills as predictors of growth. RESULTS The EPT/ELBW group scored significantly below NBW controls on all achievement tests across years and had higher rates of special education placement and grade repetition. Despite limited catch-up of the EPT/ELBW group to the NBW controls in spelling, group differences were generally stable. Differences in spelling and mathematics achievement remained significant when controlling for global intelligence or excluding children who had intellectual or neurosensory impairments or repeated a grade. Higher scores on kindergarten tests of multiple neuropsychological ability domains predicted higher achievement levels and steeper growth in achievement. CONCLUSIONS The findings document persistent academic weaknesses in EPT/ELBW children across the early school years. Results point to the need for preschool interventions to enhance academic readiness and suggest that neuropsychological skills assessed in kindergarten are useful in identifying individual differences in early learning progress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nancy Klein
- Department of Education, Cleveland State University
| | | | - Mark Schluchter
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, Case Western Reserve University
| | - Nori Minich
- Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University
| | | | - Maureen Hack
- Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University
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Hasler HM, Akshoomoff N. Mathematics ability and related skills in preschoolers born very preterm. Child Neuropsychol 2017; 25:162-178. [PMID: 29233080 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2017.1412413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Children born very preterm (VPT) are at risk for academic, behavioral, and/or emotional problems. Mathematics is a particular weakness and better understanding of the relationship between preterm birth and early mathematics ability is needed, particularly as early as possible to aid in early intervention. Preschoolers born VPT (n = 58) and those born full term (FT; n = 29) were administered a large battery of measures within 6 months of beginning kindergarten. A multiple-mediation model was utilized to characterize the difference in skills underlying mathematics ability between groups. Children born VPT performed significantly worse than FT-born children on a measure of mathematics ability as well as full-scale IQ, verbal skills, visual-motor integration, phonological awareness, phonological working memory, motor skills, and executive functioning. Mathematics was significantly correlated with verbal skills, visual-motor integration, phonological processing, and motor skills across both groups. When entered into the mediation model, verbal skills, visual-motor integration, and phonological awareness were significant mediators of the group differences. This analysis provides insights into the pre-academic skills that are weak in preschoolers born VPT and their relationship to mathematics. It is important to identify children who will have difficulties as early as possible, particularly for VPT children who are at higher risk for academic difficulties. Therefore, this model may be used in evaluating VPT children for emerging difficulties as well as an indicator that if other weaknesses are found, an assessment of mathematics should be conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly M Hasler
- a Department of Psychiatry and Center for Human Development , University of California , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Natacha Akshoomoff
- a Department of Psychiatry and Center for Human Development , University of California , San Diego , CA , USA
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