1
|
Young MW, Virga JQ, Kantounis SJ, Lynch SK, Chernik ND, Gustafson JA, Cannata MJ, Flaim ND, Granatosky MC. How Pendular Is Human Brachiation? When Form Does Not Follow Function. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091438. [PMID: 37174475 PMCID: PMC10177241 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Brachiation is a form of suspensory locomotion observed only in Primates. The non-human hominoids (e.g., gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees, and gorillas) are considered specialized brachiators, yet peculiar among the living apes are anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens), who have forgone this locomotor mode in favor of bipedal striding. Humans can, however, brachiate and seem to have retained the locomotor capabilities of their arboreal ancestors. However, the mechanics of human brachiation have not been quantified. In this study, we evaluate how closely human brachiation conforms to the expectations of simple pendular motion using triaxial accelerometry and high-speed videography. These data are compared to specialized brachiating non-human primates. We found that humans have lower energy recovery than siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) during brachiation and have shorter observed pendular periods than expected compared to other primates. We demonstrate that relatively long forelimb length and high grip forces, a proxy for global forelimb force-generating potential, act as the main driving factors to reduce energetic costs through effective pendular recovery. These data are the first to assess the strategies humans adopt to perform a behavior they are not anatomically specialized to execute and places them within a comparative framework amongst other brachiating primates. We show that although humans demonstrate behavioral flexibility during brachiation (e.g., differing mediolateral and vertical center of mass positional movement patterns), anatomical features are the primary driver of variation in brachiation performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melody W Young
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - James Q Virga
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Stratos J Kantounis
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Samantha K Lynch
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Noah D Chernik
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Jon A Gustafson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Matthew J Cannata
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Nicholas D Flaim
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
- Center for Biomedical Innovation, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, NY 11568, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Grasping, in both biological and engineered mechanisms, can be highly sensitive to the gripper and object morphology, as well as perception and motion planning. Here, we circumvent the need for feedback or precise planning by using an array of fluidically actuated slender hollow elastomeric filaments to actively entangle with objects that vary in geometric and topological complexity. The resulting stochastic interactions enable a unique soft and conformable grasping strategy across a range of target objects that vary in size, weight, and shape. We experimentally evaluate the grasping performance of our strategy and use a computational framework for the collective mechanics of flexible filaments in contact with complex objects to explain our findings. Overall, our study highlights how active collective entanglement of a filament array via an uncontrolled, spatially distributed scheme provides options for soft, adaptable grasping.
Collapse
|
3
|
Casado A, Cuesta-Torralvo E, Pastor JF, De Diego M, Gómez M, Ciurana N, Potau JM. 3D geometric morphometric analysis of the distal radius insertion sites of the palmar radiocarpal ligaments indicates a relationship between wrist anatomy and unique locomotor behavior in hylobatids. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2022; 178:647-654. [PMID: 36790696 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to explore the anatomical differences in the insertion sites of the palmar radiocarpal ligaments between hylobatids and other hominoids that may be related to their different locomotor behaviors. MATERIALS AND METHODS The morphology of the insertion sites of the palmar radiocarpal ligaments was analyzed with three-dimensional geometric morphometrics (3D GM) in the distal radial epiphysis of 44 hylobatids, 25 Pan, 31 Gorilla and 15 Pongo. RESULTS Relative to other hominoids, hylobatid insertion sites of the palmar radiocarpal ligaments were relatively larger and the insertion site of the short radiolunate ligament had a palmar orientation. DISCUSSION Larger palmar radiocarpal ligaments in hylobatids can help stabilize the wrist during the radial and ulnar displacement that occurs in ricochetal brachiation, the characteristic locomotor behavior of hylobatids, and compensate for the large traction loads on the wrist during extended-elbow vertical climbing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aroa Casado
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Arqueologia de la Universitat de Barcelona (IAUB), Faculty of Geography and History, University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elisabeth Cuesta-Torralvo
- Institut d'Arqueologia de la Universitat de Barcelona (IAUB), Faculty of Geography and History, University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Marina De Diego
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mónica Gómez
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Neus Ciurana
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Maria Potau
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Arqueologia de la Universitat de Barcelona (IAUB), Faculty of Geography and History, University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Vanhoof MJM, van Leeuwen T, Galletta L, Vereecke EE. The forearm and hand musculature of semi-terrestrial rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and arboreal gibbons (fam.Hylobatidae). Part II. Quantitative analysis. J Anat 2021; 238:321-337. [PMID: 33011967 PMCID: PMC7812139 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonhuman primates have a highly diverse locomotor repertoire defined by an equally diverse hand use. Based on how primates use their hands during locomotion, we can distinguish between terrestrial and arboreal taxa. The 'arboreal' hand is likely adapted towards high wrist mobility and grasping, whereas the 'terrestrial' hand will show adaptations to loading. While the morphology of the forearm and hand bones have been studied extensively, functional adaptations in the forearm and hand musculature to locomotor behaviour have been documented only scarcely. In this paper, we investigate the forelimb musculature of the highly arboreal gibbons (including Hylobates lar,Hylobates pileatus,Nomascus leucogenys,Nomascus concolor and Symphalangus syndactylus) and compare this with the musculature of the semi-terrestrial rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Anatomical data from previous dissections on knuckle-walking bonobos (Pan paniscus) and bipedal humans (Homo sapiens) are also included to further integrate the analyses in the scope of catarrhine hand adaptation. This study indicates that the overall configuration of the arm and hand musculature of these primates is very similar but there are some apparent differences in relative size which can be linked to differences in forelimb function and which might be related to their specific locomotor behaviour. In macaques, there is a large development of wrist deviators, wrist and digital flexors, and m. triceps brachii, as these muscles are important during the different phases of palmi- and digitigrade quadrupedal walking to stabilize the wrist and elbow. In addition, their m. flexor carpi ulnaris is the most important contributor to the total force-generating capacity of the wrist flexors and deviators, and is needed to counteract the adducting torque at the elbow joint during quadrupedal walking. Gibbons show a relatively high force-generating capacity in their forearm rotators, wrist and digital flexors, which are important muscles in brachiation to actively regulate forward movement of the body. The results also stress the importance of the digital flexors in bonobos, during climbing and clambering, and in humans, which is likely linked to our advanced manipulation skills.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie J. M. Vanhoof
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
| | - Timo van Leeuwen
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
| | - Lorenzo Galletta
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesDeakin UniversityWaurn PoundsVictoriaAustralia
| | - Evie E. Vereecke
- Muscles & MovementBiomedical Sciences GroupKU Leuven Campus KulakKortrijkBelgium
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Nadell JA, Elton S, Kovarovic K. Ontogenetic and morphological variation in primate long bones reflects signals of size and behavior. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:327-351. [PMID: 33368154 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Many primates change their locomotor behavior as they mature from infancy to adulthood. Here we investigate how long bone cross-sectional geometry in Pan, Gorilla, Pongo, Hylobatidae, and Macaca varies in shape and form over ontogeny, including whether specific diaphyseal cross sections exhibit signals of periosteal adaptation or canalization. MATERIALS AND METHODS Diaphyseal cross sections were analyzed in an ontogenetic series across infant, juvenile, and adult subgroups. Three-dimensional laser-scanned long bone models were sectioned at midshaft (50% of biomechanical length) and distally (20%) along the humerus and femur. Traditional axis ratios acted as indices of cross-sectional circularity, while geometric morphometric techniques were used to study cross-sectional allometry and ontogenetic trajectory. RESULTS The humeral midshaft is a strong indicator of posture and locomotor profile in the sample across development, while the mid-femur appears more reflective of shifts in size. By comparison, the distal diaphyses of both limb elements are more ontogenetically constrained, where periosteal shape is largely static across development relative to size, irrespective of a given taxon's behavior or ecology. DISCUSSION Primate limb shape is not only highly variable between taxa over development, but at discrete humeral and femoral diaphyseal locations. Overall, periosteal shape of the humeral and femoral midshaft cross sections closely reflects ontogenetic transitions in behavior and size, respectively, while distal shape in both bones appears more genetically constrained across intraspecific development, regardless of posture or size. These findings support prior research on tradeoffs between function and safety along the limbs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Nadell
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Elton
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Kris Kovarovic
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
The mechanical origins of arm-swinging. J Hum Evol 2019; 130:61-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
7
|
Druelle F, Berthet M. Segmental morphometrics of the southern yellow-cheeked crested gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae): the case study of f. REVUE DE PRIMATOLOGIE 2017. [DOI: 10.4000/primatologie.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
8
|
Byron CD, Granatosky MC, Covert HH. An anatomical and mechanical analysis of the douc monkey (genus Pygathrix), and its role in understanding the evolution of brachiation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:801-820. [PMID: 29023639 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Pygathrix is an understudied Asian colobine unusual among the Old World monkeys for its use of arm-swinging. Little data exists on the anatomy and mechanics of brachiation in this genus. Here, we consider this colobine to gain insight into the parallel evolution of suspensory behavior in primates. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study compares axial and appendicular morphological variables of Pygathrix with other Asian colobines. Additionally, to assess the functional consequences of Pygathrix limb anatomy, kinematic and kinetic data during arm-swinging are included to compare the douc monkey to other suspensory primates (Ateles and Hylobates). RESULTS Compared to more pronograde species, Pygathrix and Nasalis share morphology consistent with suspensory locomotion such as its narrower scapulae and elongated clavicles. More distally, Pygathrix displays a gracile humerus, radius, and ulna, and shorter olecranon process. During suspensory locomotion, Pygathrix, Ateles, and Hylobates all display mechanical convergence in limb loading and movements of the shoulder and elbow, but Pygathrix uses pronated wrist postures that include substantial radial deviation during arm-swinging. DISCUSSION The adoption of arm-swinging represents a major shift within at least three anthropoid clades and little data exist about its transition. Across species, few mechanical differences are observed during arm-swinging. Apparently, there are limited functional solutions to the challenges associated with moving bimanually below branches, especially in more proximal forelimb regions. Morphological data support this idea that the Pygathrix distal forelimb differs from apes more than its proximal end. These results can inform other studies of ape evolution, the pronograde to orthograde transition, and the convergent ways in which suspensory locomotion evolved in primates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C D Byron
- Department of Biology, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia
| | - M C Granatosky
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - H H Covert
- Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Model-Based Design and Evaluation of a Brachiating Monkey Robot with an Active Waist. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/app7090947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
Prang TC. Conarticular congruence of the hominoid subtalar joint complex with implications for joint function in Plio-Pleistocene hominins. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2016; 160:446-57. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C. Prang
- Center for the Study of Human Origins, Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York, NY 10003
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP)
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Selective Value of Characteristic Size Parameters in Hylobatids. A Biomechanical Approach to Small Ape Size and Morphology. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRIMATOLOGY: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-5614-2_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
12
|
Algorithms for finding gaits of locomotive mechanisms: case studies for Gorilla robot brachiation. Auton Robots 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10514-015-9497-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
13
|
Green DJ, Sugiura Y, Seitelman BC, Gunz P. Reconciling the convergence of supraspinous fossa shape among hominoids in light of locomotor differences. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 156:498-510. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David J. Green
- Department of Anatomy; Midwestern University; Downers Grove IL 60515
| | - Yui Sugiura
- Department of Anatomy; Midwestern University; Downers Grove IL 60515
| | | | - Philipp Gunz
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute; Leipzig Germany
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Analysis of the forearm rotational efficiency in extant hominoids: New insights into the functional implications of upper limb skeletal structure. J Hum Evol 2014; 76:165-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
15
|
Arias-Martorell J, Tallman M, Potau JM, Bello-Hellegouarch G, Pérez-Pérez A. Shape analysis of the proximal humerus in orthograde and semi-orthograde primates: Correlates of suspensory behavior. Am J Primatol 2014; 77:1-19. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Arias-Martorell
- Anthropology Unit; Animal Biology Department; University of Barcelona; Barcelona Spain
| | - Melissa Tallman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Grand Valley State University; Allendale Michigan
| | - Josep Maria Potau
- Unit of Human Anatomy and Embryology; University of Barcelona; Barcelona Spain
| | | | - Alejandro Pérez-Pérez
- Anthropology Unit; Animal Biology Department; University of Barcelona; Barcelona Spain
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Tsegai ZJ, Kivell TL, Gross T, Nguyen NH, Pahr DH, Smaers JB, Skinner MM. Trabecular bone structure correlates with hand posture and use in hominoids. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78781. [PMID: 24244359 PMCID: PMC3828321 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone is capable of adapting during life in response to stress. Therefore, variation in locomotor and manipulative behaviours across extant hominoids may be reflected in differences in trabecular bone structure. The hand is a promising region for trabecular analysis, as it is the direct contact between the individual and the environment and joint positions at peak loading vary amongst extant hominoids. Building upon traditional volume of interest-based analyses, we apply a whole-epiphysis analytical approach using high-resolution microtomographic scans of the hominoid third metacarpal to investigate whether trabecular structure reflects differences in hand posture and loading in knuckle-walking (Gorilla, Pan), suspensory (Pongo, Hylobates and Symphalangus) and manipulative (Homo) taxa. Additionally, a comparative phylogenetic method was used to analyse rates of evolutionary changes in trabecular parameters. Results demonstrate that trabecular bone volume distribution and regions of greatest stiffness (i.e., Young's modulus) correspond with predicted loading of the hand in each behavioural category. In suspensory and manipulative taxa, regions of high bone volume and greatest stiffness are concentrated on the palmar or distopalmar regions of the metacarpal head, whereas knuckle-walking taxa show greater bone volume and stiffness throughout the head, and particularly in the dorsal region; patterns that correspond with the highest predicted joint reaction forces. Trabecular structure in knuckle-walking taxa is characterised by high bone volume fraction and a high degree of anisotropy in contrast to the suspensory brachiators. Humans, in which the hand is used primarily for manipulation, have a low bone volume fraction and a variable degree of anisotropy. Finally, when trabecular parameters are mapped onto a molecular-based phylogeny, we show that the rates of change in trabecular structure vary across the hominoid clade. Our results support a link between inferred behaviour and trabecular structure in extant hominoids that can be informative for reconstructing behaviour in fossil primates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, The University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thomas Gross
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - N. Huynh Nguyen
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jeroen B. Smaers
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
FAN P, SCOTT MB, FEI H, MA C. Locomotion behavior of cao vit gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) living in karst forest in Bangliang Nature Reserve, Guangxi, China. Integr Zool 2012; 8:356-64. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2012.00300.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei FAN
- Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research; Dali University; Dali China
| | - Matthew B. SCOTT
- Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research; Dali University; Dali China
| | - Hanlan FEI
- Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research; Dali University; Dali China
| | - Changyong MA
- Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research; Dali University; Dali China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Nyakatura JA, Andrada E. A mechanical link model of two-toed sloths: no pendular mechanics during suspensory locomotion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13364-012-0099-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
19
|
Michilsens F, D'Août K, Aerts P. “How pendulum-like are siamangs? energy exchange during brachiation”. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2011; 145:581-91. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
20
|
Channon AJ, Günther MM, Crompton RH, D'Août K, Preuschoft H, Vereecke EE. The effect of substrate compliance on the biomechanics of gibbon leaps. J Exp Biol 2011; 214:687-96. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.046797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY
The storage and recovery of elastic strain energy in the musculoskeletal systems of locomoting animals has been extensively studied, yet the external environment represents a second potentially useful energy store that has often been neglected. Recent studies have highlighted the ability of orangutans to usefully recover energy from swaying trees to minimise the cost of gap crossing. Although mechanically similar mechanisms have been hypothesised for wild leaping primates, to date no such energy recovery mechanisms have been demonstrated biomechanically in leapers. We used a setup consisting of a forceplate and two high-speed video cameras to conduct a biomechanical analysis of captive gibbons leaping from stiff and compliant poles. We found that the gibbons minimised pole deflection by using different leaping strategies. Two leap types were used: slower orthograde leaps and more rapid pronograde leaps. The slower leaps used a wider hip joint excursion to negate the downward movement of the pole, using more impulse to power the leap, but with no increase in work done on the centre of mass. Greater hip excursion also minimised the effective leap distance during orthograde leaps. The more rapid leaps conversely applied peak force earlier in stance where the pole was effectively stiffer, minimising deflection and potential energy loss. Neither leap type appeared to usefully recover energy from the pole to increase leap performance, but the gibbons demonstrated an ability to best adapt their leap biomechanics to counter the negative effects of the compliant pole.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Channon
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK
| | - Michael M. Günther
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK
| | - Robin H. Crompton
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, Antwerp B-2610, Belgium
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp B-2018, Belgium
| | - Holger Preuschoft
- Department of Anatomy, Medical School, Ruhr University, Bochum 44791, Germany
| | - Evie E. Vereecke
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK
- Faculty of Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Campus Kortrijk, 8500, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Michilsens F, Vereecke EE, D'Août K, Aerts P. Muscle moment arms and function of the siamang forelimb during brachiation. J Anat 2011; 217:521-35. [PMID: 20673298 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01272.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Moment arms have an important modulating impact on muscle function, as they represent the capacity of the muscle to convert muscle action into limb movements. In the current paper, we provide muscle moment arm data of the forelimb of four siamangs, collected by detailed dissections on unfixed cadavers. The aim of this study is to assess the role of different forelimb muscles during brachiation. Moment arm data are compared with similar published data of non-brachiating primates such as macaques, chimpanzees and humans. Our data show that shoulder adductors and endorotators and the elbow flexors are built for force generation, whereas the shoulder abductors, flexors and exorotators are best suited to gain speed and to change direction. Compared to non-brachiating species, both elbow and wrist flexors are particularly noticeable in terms of moment of force-generating capacity. However, the moment of force-generating capacity of the elbow extensor is not negligible, which indicates that the triceps also plays an active role, especially at the end of the support phase. Except for the elbow flexors, all muscles reach their maximum moment of force-generating capacity during the support phase of brachiation. When brachiating on a more complex setup, the siamang will flex the elbows to angles that induce maximum moment arms as well.
Collapse
|
22
|
Channon AJ, Crompton RH, Günther MM, Vereecke EE. Muscle moment arms of the gibbon hind limb: implications for hylobatid locomotion. J Anat 2010; 216:446-62. [PMID: 20447251 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscles facilitate skeletal movement via the production of a torque or moment about a joint. The magnitude of the moment produced depends on both the force of muscular contraction and the size of the moment arm used to rotate the joint. Hence, larger muscle moment arms generate larger joint torques and forces at the point of application. The moment arms of a number of gibbon hind limb muscles were measured on four cadaveric specimens (one Hylobates lar, one H. moloch and two H. syndactylus). The tendon travel technique was used, utilizing an electro-goniometer and a linear voltage displacement transducer. The data were analysed using a technique based on a differentiated cubic spline and normalized to remove the effect of body size. The data demonstrated a functional differentiation between voluminous muscles with short fascicles having small muscle moment arms and muscles with longer fascicles and comparatively smaller physiological cross-sectional area having longer muscle moment arms. The functional implications of these particular configurations were simulated using a simple geometric fascicle strain model that predicts that the rectus femoris and gastrocnemius muscles are more likely to act primarily at their distal joints (knee and ankle, respectively) because they have short fascicles. The data also show that the main hip and knee extensors maintain a very small moment arm throughout the range of joint angles seen in the locomotion of gibbons, which (coupled to voluminous, short-fascicled muscles) might help facilitate rapid joint rotation during powerful movements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Channon
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Channon A, Crompton R, Günther M, D'Août K, Vereecke E. The biomechanics of leaping in gibbons. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010; 143:403-16. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
24
|
Oka K, Hirasaki E, Hirokawa Y, Nakano Y, Kumakura H. Brief communication: Three-dimensional motion analysis of hindlimb during brachiation in a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010; 142:650-4. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
25
|
Channon AJ, Günther MM, Crompton RH, Vereecke EE. Mechanical constraints on the functional morphology of the gibbon hind limb. J Anat 2009; 215:383-400. [PMID: 19627388 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01123.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Gibbons utilize a number of locomotor modes in the wild, including bipedalism, leaping and, most of all, brachiation. Each locomotor mode puts specific constraints on the morphology of the animal; in some cases these may be complementary, whereas in others they may conflict. Despite several studies of the locomotor biomechanics of gibbons, very little is known about the musculoskeletal architecture of the limbs. In this study, we present quantitative anatomical data of the hind limb for four species of gibbon (Hylobates lar, H. moloch, H. pileatus and Symphalangus syndactylus). Muscle mass and fascicle lengths were obtained from all of the major hind limb muscles and the physiological cross-sectional area was calculated and scaled to remove the effect of body size. The results clearly indicate that, for all of the species studied, the major hip, knee and ankle extensors are short-fascicled and pennate. The major hip and knee flexors, however, are long-fascicled, parallel muscles with relatively small physiological cross-sectional areas. We hypothesize that the short-fascicled muscles could be coupled with a power-amplifying mechanism and are predominantly useful in leaping. The long-fascicled knee and hip flexors are adapted for a wide range of joint postures and can play a role in flexing the legs during brachiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Channon
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Michilsens F, Vereecke EE, D'Août K, Aerts P. Functional anatomy of the gibbon forelimb: adaptations to a brachiating lifestyle. J Anat 2009; 215:335-54. [PMID: 19519640 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that gibbons are able to brachiate with very low mechanical costs. The conversion of muscle activity into smooth, purposeful movement of the limb depends on the morphometry of muscles and their mechanical action on the skeleton. Despite the gibbon's reputation for excellence in brachiation, little information is available regarding either its gross musculoskeletal anatomy or its more detailed muscle-tendon architecture. We provide quantitative anatomical data on the muscle-tendon architecture (muscle mass, physiological cross-sectional area, fascicle length and tendon length) of the forelimb of four gibbon species, collected by detailed dissections of unfixed cadavers. Data are compared between different gibbon species and with similar published data of non-brachiating primates such as macaques, chimpanzees and humans. No quantitative differences are found between the studied gibbon species. Both their forelimb anatomy and muscle dimensions are comparable when normalized to the same body mass. Gibbons have shoulder flexors, extensors, rotator muscles and elbow flexors with a high power or work-generating capacity and their wrist flexors have a high force-generating capacity. Compared with other primates, the elbow flexors of gibbons are particularly powerful, suggesting that these muscles are particularly important for a brachiating lifestyle. Based on this anatomical study, the shoulder flexors, extensors, rotator muscles, elbow flexors and wrist flexors are expected to contribute the most to brachiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fana Michilsens
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Wright KA, Stevens NJ, Covert HH, Nadler T. Comparisons of Suspensory Behaviors Among Pygathrix cinerea, P. nemaeus, and Nomascus leucogenys in Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam. INT J PRIMATOL 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-008-9319-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
28
|
Richmond BG. Biomechanics of phalangeal curvature. J Hum Evol 2007; 53:678-90. [PMID: 17761213 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2006] [Revised: 04/13/2007] [Accepted: 05/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Phalangeal curvature has been widely cited in primate functional morphology and is one of the key traits in the ongoing debate about whether the locomotion of early hominins included a significant degree of arboreality. This study examines the biomechanics of phalangeal curvature using data on hand posture, muscle recruitment, and anatomical moment arms to develop a finite element (FE) model of a siamang manual proximal phalanx during suspensory grasping. Strain patterns from experiments on intact cadaver forelimbs validated the model. The strain distribution in the curved siamang phalanx FE model was compared to that in a mathematically straight rendition in order to test the hypotheses that curvature: 1) reduces strain and 2) results in lower bending strains but relatively higher compression. In the suspensory posture, joint reaction forces load the articular ends of the phalanx in compression and dorsally, while muscle forces acting through the flexor sheath pull the mid-shaft palmarly. These forces compress the phalanx dorsally and tense it palmarly, effectively bending it 'open.' Strains in the curved model were roughly half that of the straight model despite equivalent lengths, areas, mechanical properties, and loading conditions in the two models. The curved model also experienced a higher ratio of compressive to tensile strains. Curvature reduces strains during grasping hand postures because the curved bone is more closely aligned with the joint reaction forces. Therefore, phalangeal curvature reduces the strains associated with arboreal, and especially suspensory, activity involving flexed digits. These results offer a biomechanical explanation for the observed association between phalangeal curvature and arboreality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian G Richmond
- Center for the Advanced Study of Hominid Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington D.C. 20052, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Chan LK. Glenohumeral mobility in primates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 78:1-18. [PMID: 17170553 DOI: 10.1159/000095682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 04/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study refutes the traditional idea that the glenohumeral joint of hominoids is more mobile than that of other primates, a belief that forms a basis for the two prominent theories of hominoid evolution. According to the brachiation theory, many anatomical features of the hominoid shoulder (including those of the glenohumeral joint) increase shoulder mobility and are interpreted as adaptations for brachiation. The slow climbing theory explains the same set of features as adaptations for slow climbing. The slow-climbing primates should therefore also possess these features, and their glenohumeral mobility should be the same as that of hominoids and be higher than that of other primates. This study presents three-dimensional glenohumeral mobility data, measured using a single video camera method on fresh specimens. The results show that the hominoid glenohumeral joint is actually less mobile than those of non-hominoid primates, including the habitually slow-climbing lorines, but it is characterized by a smooth excursion in the scapulocranial direction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lap Ki Chan
- Department of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Voisin JL. Clavicle, a neglected bone: morphology and relation to arm movements and shoulder architecture in primates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 288:944-53. [PMID: 16894572 DOI: 10.1002/ar.a.20354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In spite of its importance for movements of the upper limbs, the clavicle is an infrequently studied shoulder bone. The present study compares clavicular morphology among different extant primates. Methods have included the assessment of clavicular curvatures projected on two perpendicular planes that can be assessed overall as cranial and dorsal primary curvatures. Results showed that in cranial view, three morphologies can be defined. One group exhibited an external curvature considerably more pronounced than the internal one (Gorilla, Papio); a second group was characterized by an internal curvature much more pronounced than the external one (Hylobates, Ateles); and a third group contained those with the two curvatures equally pronounced (Pan, Homo, Pongo, Procolobus, Colobus). Clavicle curvatures projected on the dorsal plane could be placed into four groups. The first group is characterized by two curvatures, an inferior and a superior (Apes, Spider monkeys). The second included monkeys, whose clavicles have an inferior curvature much more pronounced than the superior one. The third group includes only Hylobates, whose clavicles possess only the superior curvature. The last group includes only modern humans, whose clavicles show only the inferior curvature, which is less pronounced than that which exists in monkeys. Curvatures in cranial view relate information regarding the parameters of arm elevation while those in dorsal view offer insights into the position of the scapula related to the thorax. The use of clavicular curvature analysis offers a new dimension in assessment of the functional morphology of the clavicle and its relationship to the shoulder complex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Voisin
- Département de Préhistoire du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, USM 103 and UMR 5198 du CNRS, Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, 1 rue René Pahnard, 75013 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Payne RC, Crompton RH, Isler K, Savage R, Vereecke EE, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, D'Août K. Morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. I. Muscle architecture. J Anat 2006; 208:709-24. [PMID: 16761973 PMCID: PMC2100225 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00563.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/16/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
We present quantitative data on the hindlimb musculature of Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla gorilla, Gorilla gorilla graueri, Pongo pygmaeus abelii and Hylobates lar and discuss the findings in relation to the locomotor habits of each. Muscle mass and fascicle length data were obtained for all major hindlimb muscles. Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) was estimated. Data were normalized assuming geometric similarity to allow for comparison of animals of different size/species. Muscle mass scaled closely to (body mass)(1.0) and fascicle length scaled closely to (body mass)(0.3) in most species. However, human hindlimb muscles were heavy and had short fascicles per unit body mass when compared with non-human apes. Gibbon hindlimb anatomy shared some features with human hindlimbs that were not observed in the non-human great apes: limb circumferences tapered from proximal-to-distal, fascicle lengths were short per unit body mass and tendons were relatively long. Non-human great ape hindlimb muscles were, by contrast, characterized by long fascicles arranged in parallel, with little/no tendon of insertion. Such an arrangement of muscle architecture would be useful for locomotion in a three dimensionally complex arboreal environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R C Payne
- Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hatfield, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Payne RC, Crompton RH, Isler K, Savage R, Vereecke EE, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, D’Août K. Morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. I. Muscle architecture. J Anat 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00433.x-i1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
|
33
|
Gomes MW, Ruina AL. A five-link 2D brachiating ape model with life-like zero-energy-cost motions. J Theor Biol 2005; 237:265-78. [PMID: 15970295 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2004] [Revised: 04/15/2005] [Accepted: 04/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We have found periodic life-like brachiating motions of a rigid-body ape model that use no muscle or gravitational energy to move steadily forward. The most complicated of these models has 5 links (a body and two arms, each with 2 links) and 7 degrees of freedom in flight. The defining feature of all our periodic solutions is that all collisions are at zero relative velocity. These motions are found using numerical integration and root-finding that is sufficiently precise so as to imply that the solutions found correspond to mathematical solutions with exactly zero energy cost. The only actuation and control in the model is for maintaining contact with and releasing handholds which requires no mechanical work. The similarity of these energy-free simulations to the motions of apes suggests that muscle-use minimization at least partially characterizes the coordination strategies they use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mario W Gomes
- Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Bertram JEA. New perspectives on brachiation mechanics. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2004; Suppl 39:100-17. [PMID: 15605388 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This review is designed to evaluate and interpret studies relevant to the locomotory mode known as brachiation, particularly as performed by the Hylobatid apes: the gibbon and siamang species. The older literature and its conclusions are evaluated against recent work performed by the author and other research groups working on brachiation models, either computer simulations or physical robots. The gibbon displays two types of brachiation: continuous contact, analogous to walking, and ricochetal, analogous to running. Both brachiation gaits display substantial pendular exchange between kinetic and potential energy. However, the fundamental feature of either of these gaits is the minimization of collisional energy loss. Collisional energy loss due to discontinuities in the trajectory of the center of mass is emerging as key in understanding locomotion using limbs in any terrestrial environment. The insight gained from this perspective applied to gibbon locomotion demonstrates that this is a critical factor in understanding many of the maneuvers employed by these animals, and can provide novel new interpretations of the morphological specializations that characterize the group. It is observed that these animals could brachiate using either totally active (muscle powered) or totally passive (nonmuscular) mechanisms. The active option would be metabolically costly, but provides substantial motion plasticity, while the passive option has the potential for profound economy, but does not allow a means to effectively contend with the inconsistencies present in the animal's natural environment. The conclusion is that the body form of brachiators and the locomotion behaviors they exhibit are a compromise between these two extremes, and these features of the gibbon's biology can only be understood by recognizing the role of collisional energy loss and evaluating both passive and active motion options together.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John E A Bertram
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada. :
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Usherwood JR, Bertram JEA. Understanding brachiation: insight from a collisional perspective. J Exp Biol 2003; 206:1631-42. [PMID: 12682095 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Gibbons are able to brachiate effectively through the forest canopy with a suspended swinging motion via contact with handholds. The swing phase is unlikely to be a cause of significant energy loss as pendulums are able to oscillate with only gradual mechanical energy dissipation. We consider the energetics associated with the transition of either a swing (during continuous-contact brachiation) or a ballistic flight (ricochetal brachiation) to a subsequent swing. In both styles of brachiation, kinematic data suggest that a gibbon overshoots the path that would allow a smooth transition into the swing phase. The sudden change in velocity due to such an overshoot is associated with a collision. Assuming neither the handhold nor the gibbon stores elastic strain energy, the energetic consequences of such overshoots can be calculated. We suggest two reasons for overshooting smooth transition trajectories: in the case of continuous contact brachiation, excess mechanical energy can be maintained with a high amplitude swing, and an overshoot during ricochetal brachiation produces a safety margin. The degree of energy loss with the transition to the swing phase is dependent both on the alignment of the pre- and post-transition paths, and on the kinetic energy at that instant. Active mechanisms reduce the effects of overshoots in both brachiation gaits. During continuous-contact brachiation, the path of the centre of mass can be controlled actively by flexion both of the trailing arm and the legs. During ricochetal brachiation, the length between the hand and the centre of mass (determining the subsequent swing path) can be controlled throughout the flight phase with leg flexion/extension. In addition, the elongated arms characteristic of gibbons improves the geometry of a collision for a given overshoot, and so may be viewed as a morphological adaptation reducing the energetic losses caused by overshooting for safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James R Usherwood
- Food, Nutrition and Exercise Sciences, Sandels Building, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Usherwood JR, Larson SG, Bertram JEA. Mechanisms of force and power production in unsteady ricochetal brachiation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2003; 120:364-72. [PMID: 12627531 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.10133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Brachiators travel by swinging beneath handholds, and it is not obvious how these animals manage to accelerate and decelerate in a horizontal direction, especially when moving rapidly. Most previous analyses focused on brachiation in highly constrained laboratory conditions that induced steady-state locomotion. Emerging understanding of brachiation suggests that much of gibbon locomotory behavior and morphology must be considered within the context of the complexities of the natural environment: the forest canopy is three-dimensional, with high variation in handhold availability and properties. The goal of this paper is to quantify the active mechanisms by which gibbons can dynamically control their velocity. Force production and kinematics were analyzed from a white-handed gibbon Hylabates lar during ricochetal brachiation. Both the mechanisms of force production and power input may be inferred for accelerating and decelerating brachiation by combining force data with kinematics. Examples of steady-state, accelerating, and decelerating ricochetal brachiation are highlighted. Gibbons are able to produce net horizontal impulses by releasing early (resulting in a loss of potential energy, but an accelerating horizontal impulse) or delaying release (associated with an increase in potential energy, and a decelerating horizontal impulse). Torque about the shoulder, leg-lifting (or dropping), and elbow flexing (or straightening) are discussed as potential mechanisms for controlling energy within the brachiating system. Of these possibilities, leg-lifting and arm-flexing were observed as mechanisms of adding mechanical energy. Net energy loss, and substantial torques about the shoulder, were not observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James R Usherwood
- Department of Food, Nutrition and Exercise Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Bertram JE, Chang YH. Mechanical energy oscillations of two brachiation gaits: measurement and simulation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2001; 115:319-26. [PMID: 11471130 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
How do arm-swinging apes locomote effectively over a variety of speeds? One way to reduce the metabolic energy cost of locomotion is to transfer energy between reversible mechanical modes. In terrestrial animals, at least two transfer mechanisms have been identified: 1) a pendulum-like mechanism for walking, with exchange between gravitational potential energy and translational kinetic energy, and 2) a spring-like mechanism for running, where the elastic strain energy of stretched muscle and tendon is largely returned to reaccelerate the animal. At slower speeds, a brachiator will always have at least one limb in contact with the support, similar to the overlap of foot contact in bipedal walking. At faster speeds, brachiators exhibit an aerial phase, similar to that seen in bipedal running. Are there two distinct brachiation gaits even though the animal appears to simply swing beneath its overhead support? If so, are different exchange mechanisms employed? Our kinetic analysis of brachiation in a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) indicates that brachiation is indeed comprised of two mechanically distinct gaits. At slower speeds in "continuous contact" brachiation, the gibbon utilizes a simple pendulum-like transfer of mechanical energy within each stride. At faster speeds in "ricochetal" brachiation, translational and rotational kinetic energy are exchanged in a novel "whip-like" transfer. We propose that brachiators utilize the transfer between translational and rotational kinetic energy to control the dynamics of their swing. This maneuver may allow muscle action at the shoulder to control the transfer and adjust the ballistic portion of the step to meet the requirements for the next hand contact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Bertram
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Chang YH, Bertram JE, Lee DV. External forces and torques generated by the brachiating white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2000; 113:201-16. [PMID: 11002205 DOI: 10.1002/1096-8644(200010)113:2<201::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We compared the kinetics of brachiation to bipedal walking and running. Gibbons use pectoral limbs in continuous contact with their overhead support at slow speeds, but exhibit aerial phases (or ricochetal brachiation) at faster speeds. This basic interaction between limb and support suggests some analogy to walking and running. We quantified the forces in three axes and torque about the vertical axis generated by a brachiating White-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) and compared them with bipedal locomotion. Handholds oriented perpendicular to the direction of travel (as in ladder rungs) were spaced 0.80, 1.20, 1.60, 1.72, 1.95, and 2.25 m apart. The gibbon proportionally matched forward velocity to stride length. Handhold reaction forces resembled ground reaction forces of running humans except that the order of horizontal braking and propulsion were reversed. Peak vertical forces in brachiation increased with speed as in bipedal locomotion. In contrast to bipedalism, however, peak horizontal forces changed little with speed. Gait transition occurred within the same relative velocity range as the walk-run transition in bipeds (Froude number = 0.3-0.6). We oriented handholds parallel to the direction of travel (as in a continuous pole) at 0.80 and 1.60 m spacings. In ricochetal brachiation, the gibbon generated greater torque with handholds oriented perpendicular as opposed to parallel to the direction of travel. Handhold orientation did not affect peak forces. The similarities and differences between brachiation and bipedalism offer insight into the ubiquity of mechanical principles guiding all limbed locomotion and the distinctiveness of brachiation as a unique mode of locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y H Chang
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3140, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Pendular motion during brachiation of captive Lagothrix lagothricha lugens and Ateles fusciceps robustus was analyzed to demonstrate similarities, and differences, between these two closely related large bodied atelines. This is the first captive study of the kinematics of brachiation in Lagothrix. Videorecordings of one adult male of each species were made in a specially designed cage constructed at the DuMond Conservancy/Monkey Jungle, Miami, FL. Java software (Jandel Scientific Inc., San Rafael, CA) was used for frame-by-frame kinematic analysis of individual strides/steps. Results demonstrate that the sequence of hand and tail contacts differ significantly between the two species with Lagothrix using a new tail hold with every hand hold, while Ateles generally utilizes a new tail hold with only every other hand hold. Stride length and stride frequency, even after adjusting for limb length, also differ significantly between the two species. Lagothrix brachiation utilizes short, choppy strides with quick hand holds, while Ateles uses long, fluid strides with longer hand holds. During brachiation not only is Lagothrix's body significantly less horizontal than that of Ateles but also, within Ateles, there are significant differences between steps depending on tail use. Because of the unique nature of tail use in Ateles, many aspects of body positioning in Lagothrix more closely resemble Ateles steps without a simultaneous tail hold rather than those with one. Overall pendulum length in Lagothrix is shorter than in Ateles. Tail use in Ateles has a significant effect on maximum pendulum length during a step. Although neither species achieves the extreme pendulum effect and long period of free-flight of hylobatids in fast ricochetal brachiation, in captivity both consistently demonstrate effective brachiation with brief periods of free-flight and pendular motion. Morphological similarities between ateline brachiators and hylobatids are fewer and less pronounced in Lagothrix than in Ateles. This study demonstrates that Lagothrix brachiation is also less hylobatid-like than that of Ateles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Turnquist
- Department of Anatomy, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00936-5067, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
In brachiation, an animal uses alternating bimanual support to move beneath an overhead support. Past brachiation models have been based on the oscillations of a simple pendulum over half of a full cycle of oscillation. These models have been unsatisfying because the natural behavior of gibbons and siamangs appears to be far less restricted than so predicted. Cursorial mammals use an inverted pendulum-like energy exchange in walking, but switch to a spring-based energy exchange in running as velocity increases. Brachiating apes do not possess the anatomical springs characteristic of the limbs of terrestrial runners and do not appear to be using a spring-based gait. How do these animals move so easily within the branches of the forest canopy? Are there fundamental mechanical factors responsible for the transition from a continuous-contact gait where at least one hand is on a hand hold at a time, to a ricochetal gait where the animal vaults between hand holds? We present a simple model of ricochetal locomotion based on a combination of parabolic free flight and simple circular pendulum motion of a single point mass on a massless arm. In this simple brachiation model, energy losses due to inelastic collisions of the animal with the support are avoided, either because the collisions occur at zero velocity (continuous-contact brachiation) or by a smooth matching of the circular and parabolic trajectories at the point of contact (ricochetal brachiation). This model predicts that brachiation is possible over a large range of speeds, handhold spacings and gait frequencies with (theoretically) no mechanical energy cost. We then add the further assumption that a brachiator minimizes either its total energy or, equivalently, its peak arm tension, or a peak tension-related measure of muscle contraction metabolic cost. However, near the optimum the model is still rather unrestrictive. We present some comparisons with gibbon brachiation showing that the simple dynamic model presented has predictive value. However, natural gibbon motion is even smoother than the smoothest motions predicted by this primitive model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Bertram
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, USA, Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Cornell University, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
|
42
|
Gebo DL. Climbing, brachiation, and terrestrial quadrupedalism: historical precursors of hominid bipedalism. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1996; 101:55-92. [PMID: 8876814 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199609)101:1<55::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The vertical-climbing account of the evolution of locomotor behavior and morphology in hominid ancestry is reexamined in light of recent behavioral, anatomical, and paleontological findings and a more firmly established phylogeny for the living apes. The behavioral record shows that African apes, when arboreal, are good vertical climbers, and that locomotion during traveling best separates the living apes into brachiators (gibbons), scrambling/ climbing/brachiators (orangutans), and terrestrial quadrupeds (gorillas and chimpanzees). The paleontological record documents frequent climbing as an ancestral catarrhine ability, while a reassessment of the morphology of the torso and forelimb in living apes and Atelini suggests that their shared unique morphological pattern is best explained by brachiation and forelimb suspensory positional behavior. Further, evidence from the hand and foot points to a terrestrial quadrupedal phase in hominoid evolution prior to the adoption of bipedalism. The evolution of positional behavior from early hominoids to hominids appears to have begun with an arboreal quadrupedal-climbing phase and proceeded though an orthograde, brachiating, forelimb-suspensory phase, which was in turn followed by arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedal phases prior to the advent of hominid bipedality. The thesis that protohominids climbed down from the trees to become terrestrial bipeds needs to be reexamined in light of a potentially long history of terrestriality in the ancestral protohominid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D L Gebo
- Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb 60120, USA
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Hallgrimsson B, Swartz S. Biomechanical adaptation of ulnar cross-sectional morphology in brachiating primates. J Morphol 1995; 224:111-123. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1052240112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
44
|
Hunt KD. Mechanical implications of chimpanzee positional behavior. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1991; 86:521-36. [PMID: 1776659 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330860408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical hypotheses concerning the function of chimpanzee anatomical specializations are examined in light of recent positional behavior data. Arm-hanging was the only common chimpanzee positional behavior that required full abduction of the humerus, and vertical climbing was the only distinctive chimpanzee positional behavior that required forceful retraction of the humerus and flexion of the elbow. Some elements of the chimpanzee anatomy, including an abductible humerus, a broad thorax, a cone-shaped torso, and a long, narrow scapula, are hypothesized to be a coadapted functional complex that reduces muscle action and structural fatigue during arm-hanging. Large muscles that retract the humerus (latissimus dorsi and probably sternocostal pectoralis major and posterior deltoid) and flex the elbow (biceps brachii, probably brachialis and brachioradialis) are argued to be adaptations to vertical climbing alone. A large ulnar excursion of the manus and long, curved metacarpals and phalanges are interpreted as adaptations to gripping vertical weight-bearing structures during vertical climbing and arm-hanging. A short torso, an iliac origin of the latissimus dorsi, and large muscles for arm-raising (caudal serratus, teres minor, cranial trapezius, and probably anterior deltoid and clavicular pectoralis major) are interpreted as adaptations to both climbing and unimanual suspension.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K D Hunt
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
|
46
|
Swartz SM. Curvature of the forelimb bones of anthropoid primates: Overall allometric patterns and specializations in suspensory species. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1990. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330830409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
47
|
Swartz SM, Bertram JE, Biewener AA. Telemetered in vivo strain analysis of locomotor mechanics of brachiating gibbons. Nature 1989; 342:270-2. [PMID: 2812025 DOI: 10.1038/342270a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The slender elongated form that is characteristic of the forelimb long bones of gibbons (Hylobates) has long been attributed to their functional adaptation to habitual armswinging locomotion, although potential selective advantages of this morphology for brachiation have yet to be demonstrated. If the forces exerted on the limb skeleton during brachiation indeed differ greatly from those of other locomotor modes, then the changes in skeletal loading accompanying a shift in locomotor behaviour could favour alterations in skeletal morphology in brachiating lineages. In vivo skeletal strain patterns recorded by using radiotelemetry during brachiation indicate that the forelimb bones of the gibbon are loaded in substantial tension and show reduced bending and compression in comparison with those of other mammals. We suggest that this unique loading regime could have contributed to the evolution of the distinctive morphology of hylobatid limbs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S M Swartz
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Illinois 60637
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
|
49
|
Swartz SM. Pendular mechanics and the kinematics and energetics of brachiating locomotion. INT J PRIMATOL 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02736368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
50
|
Larson SG, Stern JT. EMG of scapulohumeral muscles in the chimpanzee during reaching and "arboreal" locomotion. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ANATOMY 1986; 176:171-90. [PMID: 3739946 DOI: 10.1002/aja.1001760207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Current views on the function of the deltoid and rotator cuff muscles emphasize their roles in arm-raising as participants in a scapulohumeral force "couple." The acceptance of such a mechanism is based primarily on a 1944 EMG study of human shoulder muscle action. More recently, it has been suggested that shoulder joint stabilization constitutes a second and equally important function of the cuff musculature, especially in nonhuman primates which habitually use their forelimbs in overhead postural and locomotor activities. Few comparative data exist, however, on the actual recruitment patterns of these muscles in different species. In order to assess the general applicability of a scapulohumeral force couple model, and the functional significance of the differential development of the scapulohumeral musculature among primate species, we have undertaken a detailed study of shoulder muscle activity patterns in nonhuman primates employing telemetered electromyography, which permits examination of unfettered natural behaviors and locomotion. The results of our research on the chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, on voluntary reaching and two forms of "arboreal" locomotion reveal four ways in which previous perceptions of the function of the scapulohumeral muscles must be revised: 1) the posterior deltoid is completely different in function from the middle and anterior regions of this muscle; 2) the integrity of the glenohumeral joint during suspensory postures is not maintained solely by osseoligamentous structures; 3) the function of teres minor is entirely different from that of the other rotator cuff muscles and is more similar to the posterior deltoid and teres major; and 4) each remaining member of the rotator cuff plays a distinct, and often unique, role during natural behaviors. These results clearly refute the view that the muscles of the rotator cuff act as a single functional unit in any way, and an alternative to the force couple model is proposed.
Collapse
|