Antagonistic effects of GABA and benzodiazepines on vestibular and cerebellar neurones

Diazepam as a treatment for metronidazole toxicosis in dogs: a retrospective study of 21 cases

The currently recommended treatment for metronidazole toxicosis is drug discontinuation and supportive therapy. Reported recovery times are 1-2 weeks. The records of 21 dogs with metronidazole toxicosis were retrospectively analyzed to determine whether diazepam improved recovery. The dosage and duration of metronidazole therapy and the response and recovery times of 13 dogs treated with diazepam were compared to those of 8 dogs receiving only supportive care. Response time was defined as the time to resolution of the debilitating clinical signs. Recovery time was the time to resolution of all residual clinical signs. The average dosage and duration of metronidazole administration for the diazepam-treated and untreated groups were 60.3 mg/kg/d for 44.9 days and 65.1 mg/kg/d for 37.25 days. The protocol for diazepam administration consisted of an initial i.v. bolus and then diazepam PO q8h for 3 days. The average dosage of both the i.v. and PO diazepam was 0.43 mg/kg. The average response time for the diazepam-treated dogs was 13.4 hours compared to 4.25 days for the untreated group. Recovery time also was markedly shorter for the diazepam-treated dogs (38.8 hours) compared to the untreated group (11 days). Results of this study showed that dogs with metronidazole toxicosis recover faster when treated with diazepam. Although the mechanism of metronidazole toxicosis or how diazepam exerts its favorable effect is not known, it is likely related to modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor within the cerebellar and vestibular systems.

Synthesis and benzodiazepine receptor (omega receptor) affinities of 3-substituted derivatives of pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridine-5-carboxylate, a novel class of omega1 selective ligands

Based on the structure of ZK91296 (4d), a high affinity partial agonist of the central benzodiazepine (omega) receptor, a series of pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridine-5-carboxylate derivatives having mainly aralkyl and aralkyloxy substituents at C-3 was synthesized. The in vitro binding affinities of these compounds for three subclasses of the omega receptor (omega1, omega2, omega5) were determined using rat brain tissue. Practically all of these compounds (except the diethyl ester derivative 22c) showed an approximately twofold selectivity for omega1 (IC50's in the 200-500 nM range) compared to omega2 receptors and practically no affinity for omega5 receptors. Compound 22c showed the highest affinity of all the compounds synthesized (IC50 = 70 nM for omega1 receptors) as well as a fivefold selectivity for omega1 versus omega2 receptors but also displayed significant binding to omega5 receptors (IC50 = 250 nM). The absence of appreciable binding of 4-methyl and 4-methoxymethyl derivatives to omega receptors, in contrast to beta-carbolines having these similarly located substituents, suggests that the pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridine-5-carboxylates may be considered an entirely novel class of selective omega receptor ligands.

Identifiable Achatina giant neurones: their localizations in ganglia, axonal pathways and pharmacological features

1. An African giant snail (Achatina fulica Férussac), originally from East Africa, is now found abundantly in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, including Okinawa in Japan. This is one of the largest land snail species in the world. The Achatina central nervous system is composed of the buccal, cerebral and suboesophageal ganglia. The 37 giant neurones were identified in these ganglia by the series of studies conducted over about 20 years. The identifications were made by the localization of these neurones in the ganglia, their axonal pathways and their pharmacological features. 2. In the left buccal ganglion, the four giant neurones, d-LBAN, d-LBMB, d-LBCN and d-LBPN, were identified. In the left and right cerebral ganglia, d-LCDN, d-RCDN, v-LCDN and v-RCDN were identified. The suboesophageal ganglia are further composed of the left and right parietal, the visceral, the left and right pleural, and the left and right pedal ganglia. In the right parietal ganglion, PON, TAN, TAN-2, TAN-3, RAPN, d-RPLN, BAPN, LPPN, LBPN, LAPN and v-RPLN were identified. In the visceral ganglion, VIN, FAN, INN, d-VLN, v-VLN, v-VAN, LVMN, RVMN and v-VNAN were identified. In the left parietal ganglion, v-LPSN was identified. In the left and right pedal ganglia, LPeNLN, RPeNLN, d-LPeLN, d-LPeCN, d-RPeAN, d-LPeDN, d-LPeMN and d-LPeEN were identified. 3. Of the small molecule compounds tested, dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, GABA, L-glutamic acid, threo- or erythro-beta-hydroxy-L-glutamic acid were effective on the Achatina giant neurones. We suppose that these compounds act as the neurotransmitters for these neurones. 4. Of the neuroactive peptides, achatin-I(Gly-D-Phe-Ala-Asp). APGW-amide(Ala-Pro-Gly-Trp-NH2) and Achatina cardioexcitatory peptide (ACEP-1)(Ser-Gly-Gln-Ser-Trp-Arg-Pro-Gln-Gly-Arg-Phe-NH2) were proposed as neurotransmitters, because these were effective on the Achatina giant neurones and their presence was demonstrated in the Achatina ganglia. Further, myomodulin (Pro-Met-Ser-Met-Leu-Arg-Leu-NH2), buccalin (Gly-Met-Asp-Ser-Leu-Ala-Phe-Ser-Gly-Gly-Leu-NH2), FMRFamide (Phe-Met-Arg-Phe-NH2). [Ser2]-Mytilus inhibitory peptide ([Ser2]-MIP) (Gly-Ser-Pro-Met-Phe-Val-NH2), catch-relaxing peptide (CARP) (Ala-Met-Pro-Met-Leu-Arg-Leu-NH2), oxytocin (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2) and small cardioactive peptideB (SCPB) (Met-Asn-Tyr-Leu-Ala-Phe-Pro-Arg-Met-NH2) could also be neurotransmitters because these peptides were also effective on the Achatina giant neurones, though their presence in the ganglia of this animal has not yet been demonstrated. 5. Calcium current (ICa) was recorded from Achatina giant neurones in the Na(+)-free solution containing K(+)-channel blockers under voltage clamp. The Ca2+ antagonistic effects of brovincamine, verapamil, eperisone, diltiazem, monatepil, etc., were compared using the ICa of the Achatina neurones. 6. Almost all of the mammalian small molecule neurotransmitters were effective on the Achatina giant neurones, suggesting that these compounds are acting on the neurones of a wide variety of animal species. However, the pharmacological features of the Achatina neurone receptors to these compounds were not fully comparable to those of the mammalian receptors. For example, we proposed that beta-hydroxy-L-glutamic acid (either threo- or erythro-) could be an inhibitory neurotransmitter for an Achatina neurone. 7. In contrast, the Achatina giant neurones appear to have no receptor for the mammalian neuroactive peptides, except for oxytocin and Arg-vasotocin. On the other hand, many neuroactive peptides were isolated from invertebrate nervous tissues, including achatin-I, a neuroexcitatory tetrapeptide having a D-phenylalanine residue.

Pharmacological characteristics of two different types of inhibitory GABA receptors on Achatina fulica neurones

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptors of Achatina fulica neurones have been classified into two types associated with neuronal inhibition and one type with excitation. The pharmacological features of muscimol I and baclofen types associated with inhibition were investigated in this study. Activation of muscimol I type receptors on TAN (tonically autoactive neurone) by GABA, muscimol and trans-4-aminocrotonic acid (TACA) produced a transient outward current (Iout) with an increase in membrane conductance (g). Their relative potencies at GABA ED50 (approximately 10(-4) M) were: GABA: muscimol: TACA = 1:0.6:0.3. The relation between Iout and g increase (delta g) induced by various concentrations of these compounds was linear. The Hill coefficients for GABA were close to 1.0. The GABA effects were potentiated by pentobarbitone, antagonized competitively by pitrazepin and non-competitively by picrotoxin and diazepam, and unaffected by bicuculline. The reversal potentials of the effects of GABA, muscimol and TACA on TAN changed under various [Cl-]0 according to the Nernst equation for Ec1, but not under various [K+]0 and [Na+]0. Activation of baclofen type GABA receptors on RPeNLN (right pedal nerve large neurone) by GABA and (+/-)-baclofen produced a slow Iout with an increase in g. The two compounds were almost equipotent (ED50: approximately 3 x 10(-4) M). The relation between Iout and delta g produced by various concentrations was linear. The Hill coefficients for GABA were also close to 1.0. The reversal potentials of GABA and (+/-)-baclofen on RPeNLN changed under various [K+]0 according to the Nernst equation for EK, but not under various [Cl-]0 and [Na+]0. The two compounds hardly affected the voltage-gated and slowly inactivating calcium current. The Iout produced by GABA and (+/-)-baclofen was reduced by tetraethylammonium chloride, but was unaffected by 4-aminopyridine, bicuculline, pitrazepin and picrotoxin. In conclusion, the pharmacological features of muscimol I type GABA receptors are partly comparable to those of mammalian GABAA receptors, except for the influences of bicuculline and diazepam: the features of the baclofen type GABA receptor, which did not occur with muscimol I type receptors in the same neurone, were similar to those of GABAB.

On the location of gamma-aminobutyrate and benzodiazepine receptors in the cerebellum of the normal C3H and Lurcher mutant mouse

Binding of gamma-aminobutyrate and benzodiazepine receptor ligands has been studied in the cerebellum of adult normal (C3H) and Lurcher mutant mice. The adult mutant has lost all Purkinje cells and more than 90% of the granule cells in the cerebellar cortex. When compared with their normal littermates Lurcher mice displayed large decreases in the number of high-affinity binding sites for [3H]muscimol, a synaptic gamma-aminobutyrate receptor ligand, in washed cerebellar homogenates. This observation was consistent with the extensive loss of gamma-aminobutyrate receptive Purkinje and granule cells from the Lurcher cerebellum. However, specific binding of the benzodiazepine-receptor ligand [3H]flunitrazepam to Lurcher cerebellum remained unchanged. Indeed quantitative autoradiography, employing [3H]flunitrazepam as a photoaffinity label, showed no significant differences in the density of labelling between Lurcher and normal littermate mice in any region of the cerebellum. These benzodiazepine binding sites in washed homogenates or tissue sections displayed a gamma-aminobutyrate-induced enhancement of [3H]flunitrazepam binding which occurred to the same extent in both Lurcher and normal cerebellum, a facilitatory effect which could be blocked by the addition of bicuculline methobromide. Our results suggest that a large proportion of the high-affinity, specific benzodiazepine binding sites in mouse cerebellum are not coupled to the synaptic gamma-aminobutyrate receptors thought to be labelled by high affinity [3H]muscimol binding. Further, that benzodiazepine binding sites do not appear to be enriched on either the soma or dendrites of Purkinje cells, as has been suggested from previous studies. Investigations at the electron microscope level are now required to elucidate the cellular location of benzodiazepine binding sites in the cerebellar cortex and to examine whether or not they are likely to be exposed to gamma-aminobutyrate in vivo.

Inhibitory effect on 3H-diazepam binding and potentiating action on GABA of ethyl loflazepate, a new minor tranquilizer

A new benzodiazepine compound, ethyl loflazepate (ethyl-7-chloro-2,3-dihydro-5-(2-fluorophenyl)-2-oxo-1H,1,4- benzodiazepine-3-carboxylate; CM6912) was studied using in vitro experimental systems for its displacement activity on 3H-diazepam binding to the synaptosomal membrane fraction of rat cerebrum and potentiating action on GABA. CM6912 inhibited the specific binding of 3H-diazepam by 25%, 75% and 90% at concentrations of 0.01 microM, 0.1 microM and 1 microM, respectively, while its metabolites CM6913 and CM7116, at 0.1 microM, completely inhibited the binding. Concentrations for 50% inhibition (IC50) were 25 nM for CM6912, 3.2 nM for CM6913 and 1.4 nM for CM7116. These results suggest that the metabolite CM7116 is stronger than its parent compound in displacing the 3H-diazepam binding, and they also suggest that the long-lasting anti-anxietic action of CM6912 might be due to the in vivo formation of CM7116. CM6912, CM7116 and diazepam potentiated the suppressive action of GABA on spontaneous spikes of Purkinje cells in guinea pig cerebellar slices in a dose-dependent manner. Concentrations for 50% suppression (IC50) were 96.0 microM for GABA alone, 75.0 microM for GABA plus diazepam (5 microM), 78.9 microM for GABA plus CM6912 (5 microM) and 60.8 microM for GABA plus CM7116 (5 microM). These findings suggest that CM6912 and CM7116 may potentiate the postsynaptic inhibitory action of GABA in a manner similar to and probably more strongly than diazepam.

Gabaergic mechanisms and anxiety: an overview and a new neurophysiological model

GABA is one of the principal inhibitory neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain and an ever increasing wealth of information suggests that GABAergic mechanisms have a special role in the neurophysiology of anxiety. All of the most commonly used antianxiety drugs (the benzodiazepines, the barbiturates, ethanol) selectively enhance only GABA-mediated synaptic transmission. Furthermore, the relative affinities of pharmacologically active benzodiazepines for the benzodiazepine receptor correlate well with their ability to antagonize GABA-modulin (the endogenous inhibitor of GABA receptors) in vitro, as well as with their ability to potentiate GABA-mediated electrically evoked cortical inhibition in vivo. Finally, it is of interest for the neurophysiology of anxiety that repetitive stimulation of the recurrent inhibitory GABAergic pathway in the rat hippocampus leads to a remarkable reduction of the effectiveness of GABA; this elimination of GABAergic "inhibition" is counteracted by antianxiety drugs. On the basis of the above a neurophysiological model of anxiety is proposed.

Autoradiography of benzodiazepine receptor binding in the central nervous system of the normal C57BL6J mouse

[3H]flunitrazepam has been used as a photoaffinity label for the specific, clonazepam-displaceable 1,4-benzodiazepine binding sites in sections of normal C57BL6J mouse brain and spinal cord. Binding was visualized by light microscope autoradiography and quantified by a simple microdensitometric procedure. Specific flunitrazepam binding was seen to be highest in the colliculi, cerebral cortex, hippocampal formation, interpeduncular nucleus, mamillary body, hypothalamus, olfactory tubercle, and in the molecular layer and deep nuclei of the cerebellum. The distribution of specific flunitrazepam binding sites in mouse brain and spinal cord is discussed in terms of the known actions of the benzodiazepines.

Low-dose benzodiazepine neuronal inhibition: enhanced Ca2+-mediated K+-conductance

The water-soluble inhibitory benzodiazepine, midazolam, was applied in low nanomolar concentrations to CA1 hippocampal neurons in vitro, recorded intracellularly. The drug caused a long-lasting hyperpolarization and moderate conductance increase, which persisted with TTX-induced synaptic blockade or with intracellular injection of Cl- ions, but not in zero Ca2+ perfusate. Calcium spikes elicited in the presence of TTX were enhanced by midazolam. It was concluded that these low nanomolar concentrations, which did not enhance GABA actions, inhibited by augmenting Ca2+ mediated K+-conductance.

The dizzy patient. Symptomatic treatment of vertigo

Vertigo is a distressing symptom, but in the majority of cases it can be treated effectively. Whenever possible, treatment should be directed at the underlying disorder. Usually, however, symptomatic treatment alone or in combination with specific therapy is effective. Symptomatic treatments include antivertiginous medications, vestibular exercises, and surgical therapy. The choice of medications is determined by the known side effects of the drugs and the time course of symptoms. An early vestibular exercise program ensures a more rapid return to normal physical activity. Surgical therapy is reserved for those patients who fail to respond to medical therapy.

Biochemical and electrophysiological characteristics of mammalian GABA receptors

The concept that GABA is a neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS is supported by both electrophysiological and biochemical data. Whereas the electrophysiological studies are essential for demonstrating a specific functional response to GABA, the biochemical approach is useful for characterizing the molecular properties of this site. As a result of these studies the concept of the GABA receptor has progressed from a simple model of a single recognition site associated with a chloride channel to a more complex structure having a variety of interacting components. Thus, both electrophysiological and biochemical data support the existence of at least two pharmacologically distinct types of GABA receptors, based on the sensitivity to bicuculline. Also, anatomically, there appear to be two different types of receptors, those located postsynaptically on the soma or dendrites of a neighboring cell and those found presynaptically on GABAergic and other neurotransmitter terminals. From biochemical studies it appears that the GABA receptor may be composed of at least three distinct interacting components. One of these, the recognition site, may exist in two conformations, with one preferring agonists and the other having a higher affinity for antagonists. Ion channels may be considered a second component, with some of these regulating the passage of chloride ion, whereas others may be associated with calcium transport. The third major element of GABA receptors appears to be a benzodiazepine recognition site, although only a certain population of GABA receptors may be endowed with this property. In addition to these, the GABA receptor complex appears to contain substances that modulate the recognition site by influencing the availability of higher affinity binding proteins. It would appear therefore that changes affecting any one of these constituents can influence the characteristics of the others. While increasing the complexity of the system, this arrangement makes for a more sensitive and adaptable receptor mechanism. Thus the GABA receptor can be envisioned as a supramolecular complex of interacting sites, all of which contribute to the functional expression of receptor activation. Because of this complexity, GABA receptors can theoretically be modified in a variety of ways by drug treatment or disease. Accordingly, it may be possible to develop selective agonists and antagonists that may act at one of the basic components, as well as agents that may alter the receptor modulators. Conversely, a disorder of any of these entities may result in an alteration of GABA receptor function, which in turn could contribute to the symptoms of a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Effect of 1-methyl cyclohexane carboxylic acid on electrical activity of Purkinje cells in the rat: evidence for a potentiation of intracerebellar inhibition

The effect of an anticonvulsant compound (Simiand, Ferrandes, Lacolle and Eymard, 1979), 1-methyl cyclohexane carboxylic acid (CCA), upon the electrical activity of Purkinje cells (PCs) was studied in the cerebellar cortex of the rat in vivo. Cyclohexane carboxylic acid (200-400 mg/kg i.v.) decreased the spontaneous simple spike (SS) activity of the Purkinje cells tested without modifying the complex spike (CS) frequency. Two effects of CCA upon intracortical inhibition were observed: (1) the decrease in firing rate that followed surface stimulation of the parallel fibres (LOC stimulation) was enhanced after injection of CCA; (2) the depression of the antidromic field potential of Purkinje cells by a conditioning stimulation was also enhanced after injection of CCA. This latter effect was suppressed in a reversible manner by injection of bicuculline. These results strongly suggest that the effect of CCA upon electrical activity of Purkinje cells is related to an enhancement of the inhibition exerted on Purkinje cells by GABAergic, cerebellar interneurones. The possible mechanisms of action of CCA are discussed.

Some pharmacological studies on the spastic mouse

1 Full-wave rectification and integration of the EMG signal recorded from the hamstring muscles of the spastic mouse was used to evaluate the actions of a variety of drugs on the muscle rigidity of these mutants, animals in which no histological lesion has yet been found. 2 Profound and long-lasting muscle relaxant responses were consistently observed upon the injection of diazepam (2 mg/kg, i.p.) and flunitrazepam (2 mg/kg, i.p.). Such responses were always greater than those obtained upon injection of 40% (v/v) propylene glycol (10 ml/kg) alone, the vehicle for the benzodiazepines. 3 The muscle relaxant action of a low dose (0.25 mg/kg i.p.) of the benzodiazepine Roll-6896 was not shared by the same dose of its enantiomer Roll-6893. 4 Profound and long-lasting muscle relaxation was caused by sodium valproate (696 mg/kg, i.p.). Consistent muscle relaxant responses were also observed upon the injection of pentobarbitone (30 mg/kg, i.p.), but not phenobarbitone (30 mg/kg, i.p.). 5 Other drugs that had little or no detectable effect on the muscle rigidity of the spastic mouse included diphenylhydantoin (30 mg/kg, i.p.) and bromocriptine (10 mg/kg, s.c.) while, in some animals, benztropine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) and baclofen (10 mg/kg, i.p.) increased muscle rigidity. 6 The development of full muscle relaxant responses to flunitrazepam (2 mg/kg, i.p.) and to sodium valproate (696 mg/kg, i.p.) was shown to depend upon mild warming of the animals with radiant heat, a procedure which can increase muscle spindle afferent input to the spinal cord. 7 The results suggest a hyperactivity of stretch reflexes in the spastic mouse, ameliorated selectively by those drugs that enhance the GABA-mediated presynaptic inhibition of such pathways.

Benzodiazepines and central inhibitory mechanisms

The effect of diazepam was evaluated on spontaneous activity and drug- and electrically-elicited inhibitions of neuronal activity. Doses of diazepam which did not change spontaneous firing rates markedly enhanced GABA-mediated inhibitions in rat cerebellum in situ and in tissue cultures of rat hypothalamus. The effects of diazepam were readily reversible, and could be antagonized by picrotoxin; no effect on glycine or norepinephrine-induced inhibition was seen. It is concluded that actions of diazepam are mediated, at least in part, by a specific increase in GABA-mediated inhibition in the central nervous system.

The effects of chlordiazepoxide on synaptic transmission and amino acid neurotransmitter release in slices of rat olfactory cortex

The rat olfactory cortex slice has been used to investigate the effects of chlordiazepoxide on evoked field potentials and the release of endogenous amino acid neurotransmitters (aspartate, glutamate, GABA and possibly taurine) which accompany electrical stimulation of the lateral olfactory tract. When single, low frequency stimuli were employed, chlordiazepoxide (2 microM-1 mM) depressed the amplitude of the field potential correlate of the depolarizing actions of the lateral olfactory tract excitatory transmitter (aspartate?) although aspartate release was unaffected. The field potential correlate of GABA-mediated presynaptic inhibition (late N-wave) was also depressed in amplitude but low drug concentrations (between approximately 2 and 50 microM) increased its peak duration . Effects of chlordiazepoxide on evoked inhibition were analyzed by giving paired stimuli such that the second stimulus occurred during the field potentials evoked by the first stimulus. Chlordiazepoxide (1-20 microM) increased the depression in amplitudes of the presynaptic massed action potential and late N-wave evoked by the second of a pair of stimuli compared with those evoked by the first stimulus suggesting that presynaptic inhibition was potentiated. These effects of chlordiazepoxide were accompanied by a significant reduction in aspartate release from the lateral olfactory tract terminals. Moreover, the drug effects on presynaptic inhibition and aspartate release were antagonized by picrotoxin (5 microM). On the other hand, chlordiazepoxide (1-50 microM) had no significant effect on postsynaptic inhibition. The results are discussed in terms of both the sites (presynaptic or postsynaptic) and mechanisms of action of chlordiazepoxide.

Pharmacology of GABA-mediated inhibition of spinal cord neurons in vivo and in primary dissociated cell culture

In this paper it is shown that the postsynaptic GABA-receptor chloride ion channel complex is composed of several functional subunits. There are probably at least two stereospecific locations on the receptor for GABA-binding and both must be occupied to obtain an increase in chloride conductance. The interaction between these sites is uncertain but there could be either positive cooperativity between the sites or only a requirement that both sites are occupied without occupation of either site affecting the affinity for GABA of the other site. There is a chloride conductance channel coupled to the GABA receptor which opens for an average of 20 msec and has an average conductance of 18 pS. The GABA-coupled chloride channel may or may not have the same composition as the glycine coupled chloride channel. In addition to the GABA-recognition site and the chloride ion channel, GABA-receptors must have additional binding sites or modulator sites where drugs can bind to modify GABA activation of the GABA receptor. The convulsant PICRO binds to a site which is independent of the GABA site and PICRO reduces GABA responses. Barbiturates and benzodiazepines augment GABA-responses without reducing GABA-binding and thus they must bind to a modulator site independent of the GABA recognition site. Whether or not this is the same site as the PICRO binding site is uncertain. Thus, the GABA-receptor-chloride ion channel complex is composed of at least: 1) two GABA-binding sites; 2) a chloride ion channel; 3) a convulsant binding site (PICRO-binding site) and 4) an anticonvulsant binding site. This organization serves several obvious purposes. First, since two GABA-molecules are required to activate GABA-coupled chloride ion channels, the dose-response relationship for GABA is sigmoidal and steep. Thus minor shifts in GABA affinity will produce large alterations in GABA-responses and the GABA receptor can be easily modulated. Second, since the receptors has binding sites for convulsant and anticonvulsant compounds which decrease and increase GABA-responses, GABAergic inhibition can easily be modulated.

The influence of diazepam on the activity of secondary vestibular neurons in the rabbit

We have studied the influence of intravenously administered diazepam on the activity of single secondary vestibular neurons in unanesthetized, paralyzed rabbits evoked by sinusoidal angular accelerations about the vertical and longitudinal axes. Intravenous injections of diazepam (20-100 micrograms/kg) caused a decreased sensitivity of all secondary vestibular neurons which were tested. The reduction in sensitivity was sometimes preceded by a transient increase in excitability which lasted 10-40 sec. The duration of the decreased sensitivity to vestibular stimulation following intravenous injections of diazepam was dose-dependent, lasting 15-60 min. These data suggest that the diazepam-induced reduction of vestibuloocular reflexes is caused, at least in part, by the depressant action of diazepam upon secondary vestibular neurons.

Receptors for the age of anxiety: pharmacology of the benzodiazepines

Investigation of the actions of the benzodiazepines has provided insights into the neurochemical mechanisms underlying anxiety, seizures, muscle relaxation, and sedation. Behavioral, electrophysical, pharmacological, and biochemical evidence indicates that the benzodiazepines exert their therapeutic effects by interacting with a high-affinity binding site (receptor) in the brain. The benzodiazepine receptor interacts with a receptor for gamma-aminobutyric acid, a major inhibitory neurotransmitter, and enhances its inhibitory effects. The benzodiazepine receptor may also interact with endogenous substances and several naturally occurring compounds, including the purines and nicotinamide, are candidates for this role. Both the purines and nicotinamide possess some benzodiazepine-like properties in vivo, although further work will be required to confirm their possible roles as endogenous benzodiazepines.

Selective antagonism by benzodiazepines of neuronal responses to excitatory amino acids in the cerebral cortex

1 The recently discovered benzodiazepine receptor exists in high concentration in the cerebral cortex. We have, therefore, examined the effects of diazepam and chlordiazepoxide on cortical neurone responses to excitatory and inhibitory amino acids and acetylcholine, in the cortex of rats anaesthetized with urethane.2 Chlordiazepoxide applied by microiontophoresis reduced the responses to glutamate and aspartate but acetylcholine responses were unaffected on most cells even by much higher doses of benzodiazepine. gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and taurine responses were unaffected on most cells, but were reduced on 4 of 25 units. After intravenous diazepam, responses to GABA and taurine were reduced on 3 cells and unchanged on 11.3 On Purkinje cells in the cerebellum a number of cells (5 of 16) exhibited a substantial increase in responses to GABA and taurine following intravenous or iontophoretic application of benzodiazepines.4 It is suggested that the highly selective reduction of excitatory amino acid responses in the cerebral cortex may be of particular relevance to the behavioural effects of benzodiazepines.

Inosine may be an endogenous ligand for benzodiazepine receptors on cultured spinal neurons

Mouse spinal neurons grown in tissue culture were used to study the membrane effects of the benzodiazepine flurazepam and the naturally occurring purine nucleoside inosine, which competes for benzodiazepine receptor sites in the central nervous system. Application of inosine elicited two types of transmitter-like membrane effects: a rapidly desensitizing excitatory response and a nondesensitizing inhibitory response. Flurazepam produced a similar excitatory response which showed cross-desensitization with the purine excitation. Flurazepam also blocked the inhibitory inosine response. The results provide electrophysiological evidence that an endogenous purine can activate two different conductances on spinal neurons and that flurazepam can activate one of the conductances and antagonize the other.

Enhancement of GABA-mediated postsynaptic inhibition in cultured mammalian spinal cord neurons: a common mode of anticonvulsant action

Murine spinal cord neurons grown in dissociated cell culture were used to study the effects of barbiturate (phenobarbital, mephobarbital) and benzodiazepine (diazepam, chlordiazepoxide( anticonvulsants on amino acid responses. Both types of anticonvulsant augmented GABA-mediated postsynaptic inhibition without augmenting beta-alanine or glycine-mediated postsynaptic inhibition. Barbiturates, but not benzodiazepines, antagonized glutamate-mediated postsynaptic excitation. Augmentation of GABA-mediated inhibition by the anticonvulsants should contribute to their anticonvulsant action; antagonism of glutamate-mediated excitation by barbiturates should also contribute to their anticonvulsant action and could be at least in part responsible for their sedative actions.

A possible neuronal release of [14C] GABA from the rat cerebellum in vivo

Release patterns for exogenously applied [14C] labelled alpha-amino-n-butyric-acid (GABA) have been investigated in rat cerebellar cortex in vivo. An increase in [14C] GABA release could be evoked by stimulating with high (40 mM) K+ or veratridine (10(-4)M) but not with direct electrical stimulation. Biphasic patterns for high K+ and possibly veratridine stimulated release of GABA suggest the existence of two separate anatomical sources of isotope which are sensitive to these depolarising stimuli. Both K+ and veratridine-evoked GABA release are calcium dependent. Studies involving partial replacement of Na+ with HEPES, (N-2-hydroxyethyl-piperazine-N-2-ethane-sulphonic acid), sucrose or choline chloride also reveal a sodium dependency of [14C] GABA release. These studies collectively indicate a neuronal source for evoked GABA release, a criterion for transmitter identification not previously satisfied in the cerebellar cortex.

Augmentation by chlordiazepoxide of the inhibitory effects of taurine, beta-alanine and gamma-aminobutyric acid on spike discharges in guinea-pig cerebellar slices

1. Chlordiazepoxide (Cdp, 1 to 100 micrometer) enhanced the inhibitory action of externally applied gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) upon spontaneous spike discharges in guinea-pig cerebellar slices; the actions of externally applied beta-alanine and taurine, but not externally applied glycine, were also enhanced by Cdp. 2. It was suggested the Cdp might exert its action by enhancing the increase of membrane permeability to K+ induced by the amino acid, but not to Cl-. 3. Cdp (5 to 100 micrometer) reversed the antagonism of picrotoxin to the inhibitory action of externally applied GABA and also the antagonism of strychnine to the actions of externally applied beta-alanine and taurine. 4. The inhibition of the spontaneous spike discharges of Purkinje cells, evoked by electrical stimulation of the slice, was also enhanced by Cdp (10 to 100 micrometer). 5. The blocking action of picrotoxin (10 to 20 micrometer) on the stimulus-evoked inhibition of spike discharges was reversed by Cdp (10 micrometer). 6. In a similar manner, strychnine (10 or 20 micrometer) was also found to block the stimulus-evoked inhibition of spike discharges. It is suggested that in the cerebellum strychnine-sensitive amino acid(s) may be involved in synaptic transmission. Strychnine blockade was also reversed by Cdp (10 micrometer).

Behavioural evidence for GABAergic activity of the benzodiazepine flurazepam

Following reports that unilateral intranigral injections of putative GABAergic drugs induce contralateral rotational behaviour in rats, the effects of similar injections of the benzodiazepine flurazepam have been studied. Flurazepam mimicked the effects of the GABA agonist muscimol and the GABA analogue baclofen by inducing a dose-related contralateral rotation. This response was anatomically associated with the GABA-rich zona reticulata of the substantia nigra and was attenuated by the GABA antagonist picrotoxin but not by the dopamine antagonist haloperidol or by destruction of the ipsilateral nigrostriatal dopamine pathway with 6-hydroxydopamine. These results suggest that in this behavioural model flurazepam may show GABAergic activity by indirectly enhancing GABA transmission at synapses with receptors located on nigral non-dopaminergic neurons controlling postural asymmetry.

Mechanism of action of benzodiazepines - the GABA hypothesis

Benzodiazepines influence on a number of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, catecholamines, serotonin, glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), but during recent years the major interest has been focused on the inhibitory transmitter GABA. This paper reviews the hypothesis that benzodiazepines act via GABA-ergic mechanisms in the central nervous system. At NIMH in Washington D.C. a novel method to measure the turnover rate of GABA in rat brain nuclei has been developed (Bertilsson et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 200: 277, 1977). The incorporation of 13C from glucose into glutamic acid and GABA was quantitated in stereomicroscopically isolated nuclei. Using this technique it was shown that the GABA agonist muscimol and diazepam have a similar action. Both drugs decreased the turnover rate of GABA in N. caudatus and accumbens, but not in globus pallidus (Mao et al., Biol. Psychiatry 12: 395, 1977). This gives further support to the theory that diazepam acts as a GABA-mimetic drug.

Vertebrate GABA receptors

Physiologic-pharmacologic studies in vivo and with tissue cultures have revealed that synaptic GABA receptors exist in the vertebrate CNS. The GABA antagonist, bicuculline, can be used to detect synaptic GABA receptors in both the presence and absence of Na+, even though GABA binding to cerebral subcellular fractions occurs mainly to transport (uptake) receptors in the presence of Na+.

Benzodiazepines: potentiation of a GABA inhibitory response in the dorsal raphe nucleus

Based on evidence that the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) has specific and independent receptors for 5HT, GABA and glycine (Gallager and Aghajanian, 1976; Wang and Aghajanian, 1977), alterations in the firing rate of DR neurons following the administration of benzodiazepines (BZ) were evaluated to determine whether they were the result of a direct interaction with 5HT receptors or due to interactions of these drugs with GABA and/or glycine. The effects of BZs after both direct and systemic application were tested in rats using microiotophoretic and single-cell recording techniques. Although the BZs did not alter the spontaneous firing rate of the DR, both the systemic and iontophoretic administration of these drugs were found to potentiate the inhibitory response produced by GABA. The data suggest that this potentiation is mediated postsynaptically. Since the effects of BZs on the spontaneous activity of the DR are only apparent following pretreatments with AOAA, it is speculated that these drugs may only have pronounced effects when GABAergic input is prominent.

Reversal of the action of amino acid antagonists by barbiturates and other hypnotic drugs

1 The effects of pentobarbitone (PB) and other sedative/hypnotic drugs have been examined in relation to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in vitro on the superfused isolated superior cervical ganglion of the rat and in vivo on single units in the brain stem of the anaesthetized rat.2 PB, and other barbiturates, depolarized the ganglion in a dose-dependent manner (threshold concentration 100-300 muM, cf. GABA depolarization threshold 1 muM). The depolarization was reduced in the presence of the selective GABA antagonist (+)-bicuculline methochloride (Bic). Other non-barbiturate sedatives e.g. chlordiazepoxide, amitriptyline, promethazine at concentrations up to 2mM produced no depolarization.3 PB, tested at concentrations up to 80 muM, produced variable effects on the dose-response curve to GABA. On most occasions a slight potentiation occurred in responses to low concentrations of GABA (below 10 muM) coupled with a depression in the responses to concentrations of GABA greater than 10 muM.4 Superfusion with PB in the presence of Bic reversed the depression in the response to GABA produced by Bic. This reversal phenomenon occurred at concentrations of PB too low to depolarize the ganglion and was dependent not only on the concentration of PB but also on that of Bic.5 The reversal potency within an homologous series of barbiturates increased with the size of the alkyl substituent (R2) at C5 on the barbiturate ring. The most potent occurred when the substituent contained 5 carbon atoms (pentobarbitone and amylobarbitone); above this, activity decreased.6 PB reversed the effects of the other GABA antagonists, tetramethylenedisulphotetramine and isopropyl bicyclophosphate and also the non-selective antagonism produced by strychnine. A concomitant reduction by strychnine of responses to the cholinomimetic, carbachol, was not reversed by PB.7 Non-barbiturate sedative/hypnotics also reversed the GABA antagonism produced by Bic. The benzodiazepines were effective at lower concentrations than PB (chlordiazepoxide threshold concentration 0.5 muM, cf. PB 5 muM), however, they only produced a partial reversal even at concentrations much higher than the maximally effective concentration of PB.8 The Bic reversal effect of chloridazepoxide (and other benzodiazepines) lasted many hours after removal from the superfusion solution. By contrast the effect of PB lasted only 15-30 min after its removal.9 Chlordiazepoxide (30 muM) applied in the absence of Bic did not affect the response to GABA but did reduce the depression produced by the subsequent application of Bic even though the chlordiazepoxide had been removed 40 min earlier.10 In the rat brain stem in vivo PB, applied iontophoretically in amounts which neither decreased the spontaneous neuronal firing rate nor affected the response to GABA or glycine, reversed the GABA antagonism induced by iontophoretic application of Bic (in all 23 neurones tested). PB also reversed the antagonism produced by strychnine of responses to glycine although this was less readily observed (5 out of 14 neurones tested).11 Iontophoretic application of other barbiturates and chlordiazepoxide also reversed the effect of Bic. Chlordiazepoxide only produced a partial reversal, as in the isolated ganglion, and no reversal could be demonstrated with flurazepam.12 Intravenous administration of thiopentone (1.3 mg/kg) pentobarbitone (0.4-5.5 mg/kg) hexobarbitone (0.4-0.8 mg/kg) and clonazepam (0.1-0.2 mg/kg) also reversed the effect of iontophoretically applied Bic. The reversal by clonazepam was of much longer duration than that produced by the barbiturates.13 It is suggested that the reversal exhibited by PB and the other hypnotics may be explained by assuming that the amino acids and their antagonists bind to the membrane at separate sites. If the reversal agent has particular affinity only for the antagonist binding site then it may displace the antagonist without affecting the receptor.

On the mode of action of diazepam on brain catecholamine metabolism

Intraperitoneal injection of diazepam in moderate dosage (1--10mg/kg) to rats caused a decrease in dopa and 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) formation, measured as the accumulation of these intermediates induced by inhibition of the aromatic L-aminoacid decarboxylase by means of NSD 1015 (3-hydroxybenzylhydrazine (HCl), in limbic forebrain, striatum and the remaining hemisphere portion. These effects are opposite to those induced by gamma-aminobutyric acid (gaba) and gamma-butyrolactone (100 and 750 mg/kg i.p. respectively), and the effects of the latter agents were significantly counteracted by diazepam. The effect of diazepam on dopa formation persisted after the acute transection of dopaminergic axons (transverse cerebral hemisection at the level of the caudal hypothalamus). The elevation of dopamine following hemisection was also significantly counteracted on the hemisected side of the brain, the intact side remaining unchanged. The data do not support the hypothesis that benzodiazepines act by enhancing gabaergic transmission. They rather suggest that these agents exert an inhibitory action on transmitter synthesis and utilization at the synaptic level, i.e. an action not necessarily bearing any direct relationship to gaba.

Effects of benzodiazepines and pentobarbitone on the gaba-ergic recurrent inhibition of hippocampal neurons

The actions of benzodiazepines and pentobarbitone on GABA-mediated recurrent inhibition of hippocampal pyramidal neurons were investigated in the immobilized unanaesthetized cat. Extracellular action potentials of single neurons were recorded in regions CA1 or CA2 with 4 M NaCl-containing glass micropipettes. Bicuculline (0.1 mg/kg i.v.) reduced the period of inhibition induced by stimulation of the fimbria and the septum, but fludiazepam and diazepam (0.3--1.0 mg/kg i.v.) and pentobarbitone (15--30 mg/kg i.v.) prolonged the inhibition. The prolongation produced by these compounds was antagonized by the administration of bicuculline (0.3 mg/kg i.v.). The results suggest that these two classes of compounds potentiate GABA-mediated recurrent inhibition in hippocampal neurons in a similar way.

Rotational behaviour and cGMP responses following manipulation of nigral mechanisms with chlordiazepoxide. Evidence for enhancement of GABA transmission by benzodiazepines

Unilateral stereotaxic injections of 1 microgram of the soluble benzodiazepine chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride into the predominantly GABA-containing zona reticulata of the substantia nigra of amphetamine-pretreated rats induced rotational behaviour similar to that seen following unilateral elevation of nigral GABA levels and amphetamine treatment; this effect was not seen following injections into the vicinity of the predominantly dopamine-containing zona compacta. Chlordiazepoxide-induced rotations were abolished by the GABA-antagonist picrotoxin. Both chlordiazepoxide and GABA depressed production of cyclic 3',5'-guanosine monophosphate in samples of nigral tissue in vitro as estimated by radioimmunoassay. It is concluded that chlordiazepoxide may enhance GABA transmission within the substantia nigra, by some as yet unidentified mechanism, to create asymmetric activity in GABA-modulated neurones and hence induce rotation.

Effects of diazepines and barbiturates on hippocampal recurrent inhibition

The effects of two diazepines (diazepam and Ro 11-7800) and 3 barbiturates (thiamylal, pentobarbitol and phenobarbital) on GABA-mediated recurrent inhibition were assessed on single hippocampal pyramidal cells and on population spikes using extracellular recording techniques. Recurrent inhibition was evoked in spontaneously active CA1 pyramidal cells by stimulation of the fimbria or the alveus with single shocks. Microiontophoretic application of Ro 11-7800 or systemic application of diazepines or barbiturates resulted in an increase of the duration of the inhibition and in a concomitant depression of the spontaneous firing in most neurones tested. When the firing rates were kept constant artificially, using excitant amino acids, a prolongation of the recurrent inhibition was observed with barbiturates but not with diazepines. The duration of the inhibition, which was assessed from CA1 population spikes elicited by double shocks to the fimbria, was prolonged following systemic application of diazepines or barbiturates. It is concluded that both diazepines and barbiturates are able to potentiate GABAergic recurrent inhibition in the hippocampus. The demonstration of this effect appears to depend critically on certain experimental conditions.

Anticonvulsant action of diazepam: increase of cortical postsynaptic inhibition

The action of intravenously administered diazepam (Valium) on postsynaptic inhibition was studied in cat motor cortex. The efficacy of postsynaptic inhibition of pyramidal tract cells was measured as the ability to suppress action potential generation. Diazepam increased the suppression of action potentials by inhibition. This effect may explain the anticonvulsant action of diazepam.