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Hernigou P, Hosny GA, Scarlat M. Evolution of orthopaedic diseases through four thousand three hundred years: from ancient Egypt with virtual examinations of mummies to the twenty-first century. INTERNATIONAL ORTHOPAEDICS 2024; 48:865-884. [PMID: 37867166 DOI: 10.1007/s00264-023-06012-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study conducts a comprehensive comparative analysis of bone pathologies between ancient Egypt and today. We aim to elucidate the prevalence, types, and potential aetiological factors influencing skeletal disorders in these two distinct temporal and cultural contexts. METHODS The research employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating osteological, paleopathological, and historical data to understand bone pathologies in mummies and the actual world. Applying radiographs and CT scans as noninvasive techniques has shed new light on past diseases such as fractures, dysplasia, osteoarthritis, surgery, and tuberculosis. Virtual inspection has almost replaced classical autopsy and is essential, especially when dealing with museum specimens. RESULTS Findings indicate no significant disparities in the prevalence and types of bone pathologies through 4300 years of evolution. Moreover, this study sheds light on the impact of sociocultural factors on bone health. Examination of ancient Egypt's burial practices and associated cultural beliefs provides insights into potential behavioral and ritualistic influences on bone pathologies and the prevalence of specific pathologies in the past and present. CONCLUSION This comparative analysis illuminates the dynamic of bone pathologies, highlighting the interplay of biological, cultural, and environmental factors. By synthesizing archeological and clinical data, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of skeletal health's complexities in ancient and modern societies, offering valuable insights for anthropological and clinical disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marius Scarlat
- Clinique Chirurgicale St Michel, Groupe ELSAN, Toulon, France
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2
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Huber B, Hammann S, Loeben CE, Jha DK, Vassão DG, Larsen T, Spengler RN, Fuller DQ, Roberts P, Devièse T, Boivin N. Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12477. [PMID: 37652925 PMCID: PMC10471619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC-MS, HT-GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Huber
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - S Hammann
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - C E Loeben
- Egyptian and Islamic Collections, Museum August Kestner, Hannover, Germany
| | - D K Jha
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D G Vassão
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Larsen
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - R N Spengler
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Domestication and Anthropogenic Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D Q Fuller
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - P Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- isoTROPIC Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Devièse
- Centre Européen de Recherche et d'Enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement (CEREGE), Aix Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - N Boivin
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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3
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Raffo A, Sapienza FU, Astolfi R, Lombardi G, Fraschetti C, Božović M, Artini M, Papa R, Trecca M, Fiorentino S, Vecchiarelli V, Papalini C, Selan L, Ragno R. Effect of Different Soil Treatments on Production and Chemical Composition of Essential Oils Extracted from Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Origanum vulgare L. and Thymus vulgaris L. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:2835. [PMID: 37570990 PMCID: PMC10421082 DOI: 10.3390/plants12152835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate how essential oil production and associated chemical composition and related biological activity could be influenced by different cultivation treatments and distillation methods. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (fennel), Origanum vulgare L. (oregano) and Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) were cultivated in absence of any fertilizer (control) and in presence of three different fertilizers: a chemical one with augmented mineral phosphorus and potassium, a second added with hydrolyzed organic substance and mineral phosphorus and potassium (organic-mineral) and a third one treated with a high content of organic nitrogen of protein origin (organic). The plants were subjected to steam distillation using two modalities, recycled and continuous, to obtain 32 essential oil samples. Chemical composition analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; in vitro antimicrobial activity was evaluated using a broth microdilution method. In general, the recycled distillation method appeared to have a slightly higher yield than the continuous method. The "mineral" and "organic-mineral" treatments resulted in a higher yield compared to the "organic" or "control" treatments, and this was particularly evident in the recycled method. The "control" plants had a lower yield of essential oils. Anethole (13.9-59.5%) and estragole (13.4-52.2%) were the main constituents of the fennel oils; p-cymene and its derivatives carvacrol and thymol were the main constituents of the oregano and thyme samples. The antimicrobial activity of the thyme oils on Staphylococcus aureus ranged from 0.31 to 0.16% (v/v); a lower effect of the oregano samples and no activity of the fennel samples were observed. The essential oils failed to inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Raffo
- CREA-Research Centre for Food and Nutrition, Via Ardeatina, 546, 00178 Rome, Italy;
| | - Filippo Umberto Sapienza
- Rome Center for Molecular Design, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (F.U.S.); (R.A.)
| | - Roberta Astolfi
- Rome Center for Molecular Design, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (F.U.S.); (R.A.)
| | - Gabriele Lombardi
- Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Caterina Fraschetti
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Mijat Božović
- Faculty of Natural Science and Mathematics, University of Montenegro, Džordža Vašingtona bb, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro;
| | - Marco Artini
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.A.); (R.P.); (M.T.); (L.S.)
| | - Rosanna Papa
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.A.); (R.P.); (M.T.); (L.S.)
| | - Marika Trecca
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.A.); (R.P.); (M.T.); (L.S.)
| | - Simona Fiorentino
- Centro Appenninico del Terminillo “Carlo Jucci”, Perugia University, Via Comunali 43, 02100 Rieti, Italy; (S.F.); (V.V.)
| | - Valerio Vecchiarelli
- Centro Appenninico del Terminillo “Carlo Jucci”, Perugia University, Via Comunali 43, 02100 Rieti, Italy; (S.F.); (V.V.)
| | - Claudia Papalini
- ARSIAL Agenzia Regionale per lo Sviluppo e l’Innovazione dell’Agricoltura del Lazio, Via R. Lanciani 38, 00162 Rome, Italy;
| | - Laura Selan
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.A.); (R.P.); (M.T.); (L.S.)
| | - Rino Ragno
- Rome Center for Molecular Design, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University, p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (F.U.S.); (R.A.)
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Ottria R, Xynomilakis O, Casati S, Abbiati E, Maconi G, Ciuffreda P. Chios Mastic Gum: Chemical Profile and Pharmacological Properties in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: From the Past to the Future. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12038. [PMID: 37569412 PMCID: PMC10419108 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Chios mastic gum, the product of the tree Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, has been used for more than 2500 years in traditional Greek medicine for treating several diseases, thanks to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of its components. Despite the long-time use of mastic in gastroenterology and in particular in chronic-inflammation-associated diseases, to date, the literature lacks reviews regarding this topic. The aim of the present work is to summarize available data on the effects of P. lentiscus on inflammatory bowel disease. A comprehensive review of this topic could drive researchers to conduct future studies aimed at deeply investigating P. lentiscus effects and hypothesizing a mechanism of action. The present review, indeed, schematizes the possible bioactive components of mastic gum. Particular care is given to P. lentiscus var. Chia medicaments' and supplements' chemical compositions and their pharmacological action in inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Ottria
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (O.X.); (S.C.); (G.M.); (P.C.)
| | - Ornella Xynomilakis
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (O.X.); (S.C.); (G.M.); (P.C.)
| | - Silvana Casati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (O.X.); (S.C.); (G.M.); (P.C.)
| | - Ezio Abbiati
- Phytoitalia S.r.l., Via Gran Sasso, 37, Corbetta, 20011 Milan, Italy;
| | - Giovanni Maconi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (O.X.); (S.C.); (G.M.); (P.C.)
- Gastroenterology Unit, Luigi Sacco University Hospital, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Pierangela Ciuffreda
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy; (O.X.); (S.C.); (G.M.); (P.C.)
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Lemos R, Fulcher K, Abdllatief I, Werkström L, Hocker E. Reshaping Egyptian funerary ritual in colonized Nubia? Organic characterization of unguents from mortuary contexts of the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BCE). ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2023; 15:73. [PMID: 37181044 PMCID: PMC10167172 DOI: 10.1007/s12520-023-01769-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Samples taken from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, chief of Tehkhet (Debeira), Lower Nubia, and local versions of Egyptian canopic jars from Sai, Upper Nubia, suggest that the materials used for mortuary ritual unguents in Nubia may have differed from those used in Egypt. Nubian samples consisted of plant gum and bitumen, whereas those from Egypt conformed to the standardizing black resinous liquid recipe used for mummification and other funerary rituals. However, there may be time frame issues to be considered as most samples analyzed from Egypt date to later periods. A standard black funerary liquid was used at Amara West, Upper Nubia, probably poured over a wrapped body, which might suggest that the gum and bitumen mixture was reserved for filling canopic jars, perhaps indicating that the use of canopic jars in Nubia differed from their use in Egypt. Evidence from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, local versions of canopic jars from Sai, and the sample from Amara West also indicate a source of bitumen that was not the Dead Sea, which was the main (although not only) source used in Egypt. The new results from the analysis of the Djehutyhotep canopic jars and previously published results from Sai point towards alternative ritual practices associated with local conceptions and uses of canopic jars in colonized Nubia. These samples and data from Amara West further reveal that the bitumen used in mortuary contexts in Nubia originated elsewhere than bitumen used in Egypt, which might have implications for our understanding of colonized Nubia as part of other trade networks independently from Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rennan Lemos
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB23DZ UK
| | - Kate Fulcher
- Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, London, UK
| | | | | | - Emma Hocker
- Gustavianum, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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6
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Rageot M, Hussein RB, Beck S, Altmann-Wendling V, Ibrahim MIM, Bahgat MM, Yousef AM, Mittelstaedt K, Filippi JJ, Buckley S, Spiteri C, Stockhammer PW. Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming. Nature 2023; 614:287-293. [PMID: 36725928 PMCID: PMC9908542 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05663-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability of the ancient Egyptians to preserve the human body through embalming has not only fascinated people since antiquity, but also has always raised the question of how this outstanding chemical and ritual process was practically achieved. Here we integrate archaeological, philological and organic residue analyses, shedding new light on the practice and economy of embalming in ancient Egypt. We analysed the organic contents of 31 ceramic vessels recovered from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara1,2. These vessels were labelled according to their content and/or use, enabling us to correlate organic substances with their Egyptian names and specific embalming practices. We identified specific mixtures of fragrant or antiseptic oils, tars and resins that were used to embalm the head and treat the wrappings using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. Our study of the Saqqara workshop extends interpretations from a micro-level analysis highlighting the socio-economic status of a tomb owner3-7 to macro-level interpretations of the society. The identification of non-local organic substances enables the reconstruction of trade networks that provided ancient Egyptian embalmers with the substances required for mummification. This extensive demand for foreign products promoted trade both within the Mediterranean8-10 (for example, Pistacia and conifer by-products) and with tropical forest regions (for example, dammar and elemi). Additionally, we show that at Saqqara, antiu and sefet-well known from ancient texts and usually translated as 'myrrh' or 'incense'11-13 and 'a sacred oil'13,14-refer to a coniferous oils-or-tars-based mixture and an unguent with plant additives, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Rageot
- Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany. .,Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Ramadan B. Hussein
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Egyptology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Susanne Beck
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Egyptology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Victoria Altmann-Wendling
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany ,grid.8379.50000 0001 1958 8658Department of Egyptology, Julius-Maximilians University, Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mohammed I. M. Ibrahim
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157The Central Laboratories Network, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M. Bahgat
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157The Central Laboratories Network, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M. Yousef
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157Packaging Materials Department, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Katja Mittelstaedt
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Stephen Buckley
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany ,grid.5685.e0000 0004 1936 9668BioArCh, University of York, York, UK
| | - Cynthianne Spiteri
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany ,grid.7605.40000 0001 2336 6580Department of Life Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Philipp W. Stockhammer
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany ,grid.419518.00000 0001 2159 1813Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Dutoit CE, Binet L, Vezin H, Anduze O, Lattuati-Derieux A, Gourier D. Insight into the structure of black coatings of ancient Egyptian mummies by advanced electron magnetic resonance of vanadyl complexes. MAGNETIC RESONANCE (GOTTINGEN, GERMANY) 2022; 3:111-124. [PMID: 37904866 PMCID: PMC10539842 DOI: 10.5194/mr-3-111-2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2023]
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Period to the Greco-Roman Period were covered by a black coating consisting of complex and heterogeneous mixtures of conifer resins, wax, fat and oil with variable amounts of bitumen. Natural bitumen always contains traces of vanadyl porphyrin complexes that we used here as internal probes to explore the nanoscale environment of V4 + ions in these black coatings by electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) and hyperfine sub-level correlation spectroscopy (HYSCORE). Four types of vanadyl porphyrin complexes were identified from the analysis of 14 N hyperfine interactions. Three types (referred to as VO-P1, VO-P2 and VO-P3) are present in natural bitumen from the Dead Sea, among which VO-P1 and VO-P2 are also present in black coatings of mummies. The absence of VO-P3 in mummies, which is replaced by another complex, VO-P4, may be due to its transformation during preparation of the black matter for embalming. Analysis of 1 H hyperfine interaction shows that bitumen and other natural substances are intimately mixed in these black coatings, with aggregate sizes of bitumen increasing with the bitumen content but not exceeding a few nanometres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E. Dutoit
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Binet
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Hervé Vezin
- Université de Lille, CNRS, UMR8516-LASIRE, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Océane Anduze
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Agnès Lattuati-Derieux
- Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France
(C2RMF), Palais du Louvre, 75001 Paris, France
| | - Didier Gourier
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
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Found in the Folds: A Rediscovery of Ancient Egyptian Pleated Textiles and the Analysis of Carbohydrate Coatings. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27134103. [PMID: 35807349 PMCID: PMC9268585 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27134103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Charles T. Currelly, first director of the Royal Ontario Museum, participated in excavations of the tomb of King Nebhepetre, now known as Mentuhotep II, (Dynasty XI) in Deir el-Bahri, Egypt in 1906. He brought to Canada many objects from the excavations, and objects that he purchased while in Egypt; these formed the initial collection of the museum. Among the objects were seven fragments of fine linen cloth with intricate pleat patterns. Recently, the cloths became the subject of a study to learn how they had retained their pleats for 4000 years. Samples were examined and analysed using polarised light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-electron dispersive X-ray spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Three of the cloths were likely fragments of clothing re-purposed as bandages and were found to be saturated in mummification balms composed of Pinaceae resin, Pistacia resin, and an essential oil characterised by a high abundance of cedrol, possibly originating from a juniper species. All seven of the cloths were found to have traces of polysaccharides from two probable sources: an arabinogalactan gum such as gum arabic or a fruit gum, and a polyglucoside, possibly starch.
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9
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Recipes of Ancient Egyptian kohls more diverse than previously thought. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5932. [PMID: 35396488 PMCID: PMC8994005 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08669-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Kohl, a dark eye cosmetic, is a well-known part of Ancient Egyptian culture. Modern chemical analyses of kohls have largely found lead-based inorganic constituents, whereas earlier studies argued for a much broader range of constituents. Furthermore, organic materials in kohls remain severely understudied. This raises questions regarding the true diversity of materials and recipes used to produce kohls. We analysed the contents of 11 kohl containers from the Petrie Museum collection in London. The objects selected cover a broad range of times and locations in Egypt. Our multi-analytical approach allowed us to characterise both inorganic and organic components. Our data show that inorganic ingredients in kohl recipes are not only lead-based but also manganese- and silicon-based. Our analyses also revealed that organic ingredients derived from both plant and animal sources were commonly used in kohl recipes and sometimes even represent the main constituent. All these findings point towards more varied recipes than initially thought and significantly shift our understanding of Ancient Egyptian kohls.
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Marković M, Mezzatesta E, Porcier S, Vieillescazes C, Mathe C. Rethinking the Process of Animal Mummification in Ancient Egypt: Molecular Characterization of Embalming Material and the Use of Brassicaceae Seed Oil in the Mummification of Gazelle Mummies from Kom Mereh, Egypt. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27051532. [PMID: 35268632 PMCID: PMC8912108 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The study of animal mummification in ancient Egypt has recently received increasing attention from a number of modern scholars given the fact that this part of ancient Egyptian funerary and religious history is a practice yet to be fully understood. In this study, nine samples of embalming matter were extracted from six gazelle mummies from the archaeological site of Kom Mereh (modern village of Komir), dated to the Roman period of dominance in ancient Egypt. All samples were analyzed for the presence of inorganic and organic matter applying a multi-analytical approach based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Furthermore, in order to identify more specific compounds such as bitumen and beeswax in studied balms, each sample was subjected to a solid phase extraction (SPE) and saponification separation process, respectively. The results of this study revealed that the majority of the analyzed embalming substances sampled from six gazelle mummies from Kom Mereh were complex mixtures of plant oils, animal fats, conifer resin, and beeswax. In this regard, this study was able to report a practice until now unmentioned in the scientific literature, namely, the use of cruciferous oil, derived from seeds of Brassicaceae plants, in animal mummification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Marković
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.M.); Tel.: +33-490-144-454 (C.M.)
| | - Elodie Mezzatesta
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
| | - Stéphanie Porcier
- ASM, Archéologie des Sociétés Méditerranéennes, UMR5140, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Universités Paul Valéry, MCC (Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication), INRAP (Institut National de Recherches en Archéologie Préventive), CEDEX 5, F-34090 Montpellier, France;
| | - Cathy Vieillescazes
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
| | - Carole Mathe
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.M.); Tel.: +33-490-144-454 (C.M.)
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11
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Moissidou D, Derricott H, Kamel G. Mummified embalmed head skin: SR-FTIR microspectroscopic exploration. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 261:120073. [PMID: 34147735 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This case report details the examination of the skin of an Egyptian mummified head with a possible skin disorder. The head, thought to be dated in the first half of the 18th Dynasty, New Kingdom (1570-1400 BCE) belongs to the Museum of Forensic Anthropology, University of Madrid. Initial histological examination demonstrated evidence of chronic inflammation, which was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). However, confirmation of pathology could be confounded by both the age of the specimen and the process of preservation by mummification. In this case report, Synchrotron Radiation Fourier Transform Microspectroscopy (SR-µFTIR) was used to add novel insights into embalmed mummified tissue. More precisely, FTIR is used for the first time on the specific specimens, while no other similar studies have been performed on these samples priorly. Additionally, modern skin tissue was examined too, in order to compare the amount of degradation to the mummified one. Whilst the FTIR results confirmed the results from the initial histological study, they also showed a biochemical modification of the mummified skin that could be indicative of tissue degradation. The latter was supported by comparing it to FTIR results of the modern tissue used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Moissidou
- Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Malta Campus, Malta
| | - Hayley Derricott
- Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Malta Campus, Malta
| | - Gihan Kamel
- SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East), Allan, Jordan; Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt.
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12
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Chasan R, Rosenberg D, Klimscha F, Beeri R, Golan D, Dayan A, Galili E, Spiteri C. Bee products in the prehistoric southern levant: evidence from the lipid organic record. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210950. [PMID: 34667619 PMCID: PMC8493208 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Beehive products have a rich global history. In the wider Levantine region, bees had a significant role in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and intensive beekeeping was noted in Israel during the Biblical period when apiaries were first identified. This study investigates the origins of this extensive beekeeping through organic residue analysis of pottery from prehistoric sites in the southern Levant. The results suggest that beehive products from likely wild bees were used during the Chalcolithic period as a vessel surface treatment and/or as part of the diet. These functions are reinforced by comparison to the wider archaeological record. While the true frequency of beeswax use may be debated, alternatives to beehive products were seemingly preferred as wild resources contrasted with the socio-economic system centred on domesticated resources, controlled production and standardization. Bee products only became an important part of the economic canon in the southern Levant several millennia later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivka Chasan
- Laboratory for Ground Stone Tools Research, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Danny Rosenberg
- Laboratory for Ground Stone Tools Research, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Florian Klimscha
- Archaeology Division, Research/Collections, Lower Saxony State Museum, Hanover, Germany
| | - Ron Beeri
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Dor Golan
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Ehud Galili
- Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Cynthianne Spiteri
- Institute of Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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13
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Yatsishina EB, Pozhidaev VM, Sergeeva YE, Retivov VM, Tereshchenko EY, Kulikova IS, Panarina EI. Detection and Assessment of Natural Bitumen Sources in Ancient Mummy Resins. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934821040122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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An Insight to the Composition of Pre-Hispanic Mayan Funerary Pigments by 1H-NMR Analysis. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26102972. [PMID: 34067744 PMCID: PMC8157014 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The funerary rites of particular members of the pre-Hispanic Mayan society included the pigmentation of the corpse with a red color. In order to understand this ritual, it is first necessary to identify the constituents of the pigment mixture and then, based on its properties, analyze the possible form and moment of application. In the present approach, 1H-NMR analysis was carried to detect organic components in the funerary pigments of Xcambó, a small Maya settlement in the Yucatan Peninsula. The comparison of the spectra belonging to the pigment found in the bone remains of seven individuals, and those from natural materials, led to the identification of beeswax and an abietane resin as constituents of the pigment, thus conferring it agglutinant and aromatic properties, respectively. The 1H-NMR analysis also allowed to rule out the presence of copal, a resin found in the pigment cover from paramount chiefs from the Mayan society. Additionally, a protocol for the extraction of the organic fraction from the bone segment without visible signs of analysis was developed, thus broadening the techniques available to investigate these valuable samples.
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15
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Lebedev AT, Polyakova OV, Artaev VB, Mednikova MB, Anokhina EA. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry with complementary ionization methods in the study of 5000-year-old mummy. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e9058. [PMID: 33496359 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Mummification is one of the defining customs of ancient Egypt. The nuances of the embalming procedure and the composition of the embalming mixtures have attracted the attention of scientists and laypeople for a long time. Modern analytical tools make mummy studies more efficient. METHODS Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GCxGC/HRMS) with complementary ionization methods (electron ionization, positive chemical ionization, and electron capture negative ionization [ECNI]) with a Pegasus GC-HRT+4D instrument was used to identify embalming components in the mummy from the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts acquired in 1913 in London at the de Rustafjaell sale. The mummy dates back to the late Predynastic period (direct accelerator mass spectrometry-dating 3356-3098 bc), being one of the oldest in the world. RESULTS The results showed the complexity of the embalming mixtures that were already in use 5000 years ago. Several hundred organic compounds were identified in the mummy samples. Various types of hydrocarbons (triterpanes, steranes, isoprenoid, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) prove the presence of petroleum products. Iodinated compounds detected using ECNI define oils of marine origin, whereas esters of palmitic acid indicate the use of beeswax. The nature of the discovered components of conifer tar proves that the preliminary processing of conifer resins involved heating. GCxGC/HRMS also allowed a number of modern contaminants (phthalates, organophosphates, and even DDT) to be identified. CONCLUSIONS Application of a powerful GCxGC/HRMS technique with complementary ionization methods allowed significant widening of the range of organic compounds used for mummification that could be identified. The complexity of the embalming mixtures supports the hypothesis of the high social status of the child made on the basis of the preliminary study of the mummy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert T Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V Polyakova
- Organic Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Maria B Mednikova
- Department of Theory and Methods, Institute of Archaeology RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Eugenia A Anokhina
- Department of the Ancient Orient, The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow, Russia
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Molecular analysis of black coatings and anointing fluids from ancient Egyptian coffins, mummy cases, and funerary objects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2100885118. [PMID: 33903252 PMCID: PMC8106298 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2100885118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies of ritual black coatings on coffins from ancient Egypt have taken single small samples from objects of wide-ranging time periods and have conflated different types of application. This study takes 100 samples of black ritual liquids identified by type of application and precisely located on the objects, to allow the results to be fully contextualized within the wider discipline. It shows that black coatings on coffins were made using a remarkably consistent selection of natural products. The molecules identified in these black coatings overlap with those used in Egyptian mummification balms, which may suggest a link among separate applications: preparation of the body for burial, decoration of the coffin, and rites performed during the funeral. Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are important and understudied sources of evidence about the rituals of funerary practice. Sometimes, the coatings were applied extensively over the surface of the coffin, resembling paint; in other cases, they were poured over the mummy case or wrapped body, presumably as part of a funerary ritual. For this study, multiple samples of black coatings and ritual liquids were taken from 20 Egyptian funerary items dating to a specific time period (c. 943 to 716 BC). Multiple sampling from each object enabled several comparisons to be made: the variability of the black coating within one application, the variability between two applications on one object, and the variability from object to object. All samples were analyzed for lipids using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and 51 samples from across the 20 items were further analyzed for the presence of bitumen using solid phase separation followed by selected ion monitoring GC-MS. The majority of the black substances were found to comprise a complex mixture of organic materials, including bitumen from the Dead Sea, conifer resin, and Pistacia resin, providing evidence for a continuation in international trade between Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean after the Late Bronze Age. Both the coating and the anointing liquid are very similar to mummification balms, pointing to parallels with Egyptian embalming rituals and raising questions about the practical aspects of Egyptian funerary practice.
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D’ANASTASIO RUGGERO, CILLI JACOPO, ICARO IURI, TANGA CARMEN, CAPASSO LUIGI. The human remains of the funerary complex of Neferhotep (XVIIIth–XXth Dynasty, Valley of the Nobles, Luxor, Egypt): taphonomy and anthropology. ANTHROPOL SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1537/ase.210507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- RUGGERO D’ANASTASIO
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti–Pescara, Chieti
| | - JACOPO CILLI
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti–Pescara, Chieti
| | - IURI ICARO
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti–Pescara, Chieti
| | - CARMEN TANGA
- University Museum, ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti–Pescara, Chieti
| | - LUIGI CAPASSO
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti–Pescara, Chieti
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18
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Dutoit CE, Binet L, Fujii H, Lattuati-Derieux A, Gourier D. Nondestructive Analysis of Mummification Balms in Ancient Egypt Based on EPR of Vanadyl and Organic Radical Markers of Bitumen. Anal Chem 2020; 92:15445-15453. [PMID: 33197168 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The black matter employed in the funeral context by ancient Egyptians is a complex mixture of plant-based compounds with variable amounts of bitumen. Asphaltene, the most resistant component of bitumen, contains vanadyl porphyrins and carbonaceous radicals, which can be used as paramagnetic probes to investigate embalming materials without sample preparation. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) at the X-band, combining in-phase and out-of-phase detection schemes, provides new information in a nondestructive way about the presence, the origin, and the evolution of bitumen in these complex materials. It is found that the relative EPR intensity of radicals and vanadyl porphyrins is sensitive to the origin of the bitumen. The presence of nonporphyrinic vanadyl complexes in historical samples is likely due to the complexation of VO2+ ions by carboxylic functions at the interface between bitumen and other biological components of the embalming matter. The absence of such oxygenated vanadyl complex in natural bitumen and in one case of historical human mummy acquired by a museum in the 19th century reveals a possible, nondocumented, ancient restoration of this mummy by pure bitumen. The linear correlation between in-phase and out-of-phase EPR intensities of radicals and vanadyl porphyrins in balms and in natural bitumen reveals a nanostructuration of radicals and vanadyl porphyrin complexes, which was not affected by the preparation of the balm. This points to the remarkable chemical stability of paramagnetic probes in historical bitumen in ancient Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Dutoit
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie-Paris (IRCP), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Binet
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie-Paris (IRCP), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Hitomi Fujii
- Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (C2RMF), Palais du Louvre, F-75001 Paris, France
| | - Agnes Lattuati-Derieux
- Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (C2RMF), Palais du Louvre, F-75001 Paris, France
| | - Didier Gourier
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie-Paris (IRCP), F-75005 Paris, France
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19
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Baadsvik EL, Weiger M, Froidevaux R, Rösler MB, Brunner DO, Öhrström L, Rühli FJ, Eppenberger P, Pruessmann KP. High-resolution MRI of mummified tissues using advanced short-T 2 methodology and hardware. Magn Reson Med 2020; 85:1481-1492. [PMID: 33009877 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.28530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Evolutionary medicine aims to study disease development from a long-term perspective, and through the analysis of mummified tissue, timescales of several thousand years are unlocked. Due to the status of mummies as ancient relics, noninvasive techniques are preferable, and, currently, CT imaging is the most widespread method. However, CT images lack soft-tissue contrast, making complementary MRI data desirable. Unfortunately, the dehydrated nature and short T2 times of mummified tissues render them practically invisible to standard MRI techniques. Specialized short-T2 approaches have therefore been used, but currently suffer severe resolution limitations. The purpose of the present study is to improve resolution in MRI of mummified tissues. METHODS The zero-TE-based hybrid filling technique, together with a high-performance magnetic field gradient, was used to image three ancient Egyptian mummified human body parts: a hand, a foot, and a head. A similar pairing has already been shown to increase resolution and image quality in MRI of short-T2 tissues. RESULTS MRI images of yet unparalleled image quality were obtained for all samples, reaching isotropic resolutions of 0.6 mm and SNR values above 100. The same general features as present in CT images were depicted but with different contrast, particularly for regions containing embalming substances. CONCLUSION Mummy MRI is a potentially valuable tool for (paleo)pathological studies, as well as for investigations into ancient mummification processes. The results presented here show sufficient improvement in the depiction of mummified tissues to clear new paths for the exploration of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Louise Baadsvik
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Weiger
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romain Froidevaux
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Barbara Rösler
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David Otto Brunner
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lena Öhrström
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frank Jakobus Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Eppenberger
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaas Paul Pruessmann
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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20
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Tomov N. Impregnation is an essential part of mummification. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 304:518-519. [PMID: 32445508 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Tomov
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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21
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Abstract
Bitumen has been identified for the first time in Egyptian occupied Nubia, from within the town of Amara West, occupied from around 1300 to 1050 BC. The bitumen can be sourced to the Dead Sea using biomarkers, evidencing a trade in this material from the eastern Mediterranean to Nubia in the New Kingdom or its immediate aftermath. Two different end uses for bitumen were determined at the site. Ground bitumen was identified in several paint palettes, and in one case can be shown to have been mixed with plant gum, which indicates the use of bitumen as a ground pigment. Bitumen was also identified as a component of a friable black solid excavated from a tomb, and a black substance applied to the surface of a painted and plastered coffin fragment. Both contained plant resin, indicating that this substance was probably applied as a ritual funerary liquid, a practice identified from this time period in Egypt. The use of this ritual, at a far remove from the royal Egyptian burial sites at Thebes, indicates the importance of this ritual as a component of the funeral, and the value attributed to the material components of the black liquid.
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22
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Davey J, Spring G. Is ancestry, not natron, an explanation for fair haired children in Greco-Roman Egypt? Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2020; 16:207-215. [PMID: 32410108 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-020-00225-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In an examination of three unwrapped mummified children from the Graeco-Roman Period of ancient Egypt there was an unexpected finding of fair hair. In the majority of unwrapped ancient Egyptian mummified bodies the hair was not fair but rather dark brown or black. To determine if exposure to natron during the mummification process was responsible for the fair hair color an experiment was carried out to partially replicate the environment in which bodies were desiccated. Fourteen samples of modern hair from various age groups, sex and ethnicity were subjected to synthetic natron for a period of 40 days to replicate the time taken to mummify a body. Macroscopic and microscopic examinations of samples were employed to ascertain any significant changes in hair color after treatment. Ancient wigs were studied for evidence of post mortem changes to hair color since construction over 2,000 years ago. Results of the study showed no significant lightening of hair color and in several samples the hair significantly darkened as the result of exposure to the natron. There was not any evidence that hair lightened as the result of natural post mortem changes and this was confirmed by the study of the natural hair wigs that had not changed color post mortem. This study concluded that the fair hair observed in the three child mummies was not the result of exposure to natron or post mortem changes but rather it was probably due to ancestry because of the presence of diverse genomes that were introduced into ancient Egypt during the Greco-Roman Period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Davey
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. .,Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh St., Southbank,, 3006 Victorian, Australia.
| | - Gale Spring
- School of Science, RMIT University, 124 La Trobe St., Melbourne, 3000, Australia
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23
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La Nasa J, Nardella F, Andrei L, Giani M, Degano I, Colombini MP, Ribechini E. Profiling of high molecular weight esters by flow injection analysis-high resolution mass spectrometry for the characterization of raw and archaeological beeswax and resinous substances. Talanta 2020; 212:120800. [PMID: 32113562 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This work presents a method to characterize high molecular esters in beeswax and resinous substances based on the use of microwave-assisted extraction and flow injection analysis-high resolution mass spectrometry that combines the high efficiency of the extraction procedure with the advantages of high resolution mass spectrometry. This approach allows us to identify archaeological beeswax and plant resinous substances by the characterization of the survived intact high molecular weight components. By this way, several raw materials (beeswax, pine resin and pitch, and resin extracted from Euphorbia tirucalli) were studied and used as reference substances. The procedure was then tested on an adhesive dated 44-42 ka BP recovered from Border Cave (KwaZulu-Natal, Africa), allowing us to detect the high molecular weight species even after almost 50,000 years, and then used to chemically investigate unknown archaeological adhesives from Antinoopolis (Egypt), dated to the 4th-5th century AD. The results allowed us to extend our knowledge on the long-term behavior of beeswax and resinous substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo La Nasa
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Federica Nardella
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - Lucia Andrei
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marta Giani
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ilaria Degano
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - Maria Perla Colombini
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - Erika Ribechini
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124, Pisa, Italy
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Cockitt J, Lamb A, Metcalfe R. An ideal solution? Optimising pretreatment methods for artificially mummified ancient Egyptian tissues. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34:e8686. [PMID: 31785028 PMCID: PMC7064939 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although the analysis of skeletal remains dominates the study of ancient dietary stable isotopes, mummified bodies also allow short-term diet to be studied through the analysis of soft tissues. The application of resins, waxes and oils during mummification can affect the results obtained. This study assesses a range of methods for removing such substances from mummified tissue. METHODS An experimental mummification model following ancient Egyptian methods was created using a modern pig leg. Sub-samples of skin, muscle and bone were removed and coated with a range of substances used in Egyptian mummification. Four methods were used to clean these samples before the measurement of the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of their gelatinised collagen content using a ThermoFinnigan Flash Elemental analyser coupled to a DeltaPlus XL isotope ratio mass spectrometer via a ConFlo III interface. RESULTS The results showed that embalming materials can significantly affect dietary stable isotope ratios, and that these substances are most effectively removed using a mixture of polar and non-polar solvents. Results indicate that bone samples demineralised with HCl and skin samples produce more accurate results than bone samples demineralised with EDTA or muscle samples. CONCLUSIONS The choice of tissue and the preparation methods used can have a significant effect on the accuracy of stable isotope data obtained from mummified tissue, particularly when embalming materials are also present. A mixture of solvents appears to be a more effective cleaning agent than a single solvent. Demineralisation with HCl is preferable for well-preserved bone, as used in this study, but whether this is the case for more fragile, less well-preserved bone requires further study. Skin samples produce more consistent data than muscle, but visually distinguishing between these tissues is not simple on ancient mummies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenefer Cockitt
- KNH Centre for Biomedical EgyptologyUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
| | - Angela Lamb
- National Environmental Isotope FacilityBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, NottinghamNG12 5GGUK
| | - Ryan Metcalfe
- KNH Centre for Biomedical EgyptologyUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
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Yatsishina EB, Pozhidaev VM, Sergeeva YE, Malakhov SN, Slushnaya IS. An Integrated Study of the Hair Coating of Ancient Egyptian Mummies. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934819120141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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26
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Öhrström L, Tekin A, Biedermann P, Morozova I, Habicht M, Gascho D, Bode-Lesniewska B, Imhof A, Rühli F, Eppenberger P. Experimental mummification-In the tracks of the ancient Egyptians. Clin Anat 2020; 33:860-871. [PMID: 31943391 DOI: 10.1002/ca.23568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding natural and artificial postmortem alterations in different tissues of the human body is essential for bioarchaeology, paleogenetics, physical anthropology, forensic medicine, and many related disciplines. With this study, we tried to gain a better understanding of tissue alterations associated with the artificial mummification techniques of ancient Egypt, in particular for mummified visceral organs. We used several entire porcine organs and organ sections (liver, lung, stomach, ileum, and colon), which provided a close approximation to human organs. First, we dehydrated the specimens in artificial natron, before applying natural ointments, according to the ancient literary sources and recent publications. We periodically monitored the temperature, pH value, and weight of the specimens, in addition to radiodensity and volumetric measurements by clinical computed tomography and sampling for histological, bacteriological, and molecular analyses. After seven weeks, mummification was seen completed in all specimens. We observed a considerable loss of weight and volume, as well as similar courses in the decay of tissue architecture but varying levels of DNA degradation. Bacteriologically we did not detect any of the initially identified taxa in the samples by the end of the mummification process, nor any fungi. This feasibility study established an experimental protocol for future experiments modeling ancient Egyptian mummification of visceral organs using human specimens. Understanding desiccation and mummification processes in non-pathological tissues of specific visceral organs may help to identify and interpret disease-specific alterations in mummified tissues in ancient Egyptian canopic jars and organ packages contained in whole mummies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Öhrström
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ahmed Tekin
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Biedermann
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Irina Morozova
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dominic Gascho
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beata Bode-Lesniewska
- Institute of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Imhof
- Microbiology Laboratory, Hospital of Langenthal, Langenthal, Switzerland
| | - Frank Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Eppenberger
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Oras E, Anderson J, Tõrv M, Vahur S, Rammo R, Remmer S, Mölder M, Malve M, Saag L, Saage R, Teearu-Ojakäär A, Peets P, Tambets K, Metspalu M, Lees DC, Barclay MVL, Hall MJR, Ikram S, Piombino-Mascali D. Multidisciplinary investigation of two Egyptian child mummies curated at the University of Tartu Art Museum, Estonia (Late/Graeco-Roman Periods). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227446. [PMID: 31945091 PMCID: PMC6964855 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Two ancient Egyptian child mummies at the University of Tartu Art Museum (Estonia) were, according to museum records, brought to Estonia by the young Baltic-German scholar Otto Friedrich von Richter, who had travelled in Egypt during the early 19th century. Although some studies of the mummies were conducted, a thorough investigation has never been made. Thus, an interdisciplinary team of experts studied the remains using the most recent analytical methods in order to provide an exhaustive analysis of the remains. The bodies were submitted for osteological and archaeothanatological study, radiological investigation, AMS radiocarbon dating, chemical and textile analyses, 3D modelling, entomological as well as aDNA investigation. Here we synthesize the results of one of the most extensive multidisciplinary analyses of ancient Egyptian child mummies, adding significantly to our knowledge of such examples of ancient funerary practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester Oras
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Institute of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Mari Tõrv
- Institute of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Signe Vahur
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Riina Rammo
- Institute of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Sünne Remmer
- Estonian Forensic Science Institute, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Maarja Mölder
- Estonian Forensic Science Institute, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Martin Malve
- Institute of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Lehti Saag
- Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ragnar Saage
- Institute of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Anu Teearu-Ojakäär
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Pilleriin Peets
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Mait Metspalu
- Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | | | | | - Salima Ikram
- Department of Sociology, Egyptology and Anthropology, American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt
- Department of Ancient Studies, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Dario Piombino-Mascali
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
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Abdel-Sayed P, Tornay D, Hirt-Burri N, de Buys Roessingh A, Raffoul W, Applegate LA. Implications of chlorhexidine use in burn units for wound healing. Burns 2020; 46:1150-1156. [PMID: 31911075 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2019.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Chlorhexidine is known to be a potent antiseptic with evidence of a beneficial role in burn care. Nevertheless, several in vitro studies have reported cytotoxicity on cultured cells, while in vivo and clinical data seem to show more controversial results. In the frame of this work, we aimed to evaluate the use of chlorhexidine in burn units worldwide be sending a survey to professionals of the field. We associated survey results to those perspectives reported in the literature to update recommendations for the use of chlorhexidine in specific protocols for burn management. The survey results showed that there is no clear consensus on the use of chlorhexidine regarding the concentrations, the type of excipient and the cleansing after application. Literature searches showed evidence that the skin of premature infants appears to be more sensitive to chlorhexidine that adult skin, with more reported cases of adverse effects. It was also determined that aqueous formulations of chlorhexidine do not appear to be necessarily less efficient than with alcohol as an excipient, and that lower concentrations are as efficient as higher concentrations. In view of this study, we have adjusted our protocols for the use of aqueous formulations at low concentrations and investigated further the role of washing after application in order to standardize the indication of chlorhexidine and minimize the probability of adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Abdel-Sayed
- Regenerative Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland; Service of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland
| | - Dorian Tornay
- Regenerative Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Hirt-Burri
- Regenerative Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland; Service of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland
| | | | - Wassim Raffoul
- Service of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland
| | - Lee Ann Applegate
- Regenerative Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland; Service of Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland.
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Courel B, Adam P, Schaeffer P. The potential of triterpenoids as chemotaxonomic tools to identify and differentiate genuine, adulterated and archaeological balsams. Microchem J 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2019.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Brockbals L, Habicht M, Hajdas I, Galassi FM, Rühli FJ, Kraemer T. Untargeted metabolomics-like screening approach for chemical characterization and differentiation of canopic jar and mummy samples from Ancient Egypt using GC-high resolution MS. Analyst 2018; 143:4503-4512. [DOI: 10.1039/c8an01288a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Canopic jarsvs.mummies: first time use of modern metabolomic techniques to unravel ancient embalming chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Brockbals
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology
- Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Michael Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Irka Hajdas
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics
- ETH Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | | | - Frank J. Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology
- Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
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Loynes RD, Charlier P, Froesch P, Houlton TMR, Lallo R, Di Vella G, Bianucci R. Virtopsy shows a high status funerary treatment in an early 18th Dynasty non-royal individual. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2017; 13:302-311. [DOI: 10.1007/s12024-017-9879-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Hardy K, Buckley S. Earliest evidence of bitumen fromHomosp. teeth is from El Sidrón. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:212-213. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karen Hardy
- ICREA; Pg. Lluís Companys 23 08010 Barcelona Catalonia Spain
- Departament de Prehistòria; Facultat de Filosofia i Lletres, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona Catalonia Spain
| | - Stephen Buckley
- Department of Archaeology; University of York; The King's Manor York UK
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Habicht ME, Bianucci R, Buckley SA, Fletcher J, Bouwman AS, Öhrström LM, Seiler R, Galassi FM, Hajdas I, Vassilika E, Böni T, Henneberg M, Rühli FJ. Queen Nefertari, the Royal Spouse of Pharaoh Ramses II: A Multidisciplinary Investigation of the Mummified Remains Found in Her Tomb (QV66). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166571. [PMID: 27902731 PMCID: PMC5130223 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Queen Nefertari, the favourite Royal Consort of Pharaoh Ramses II (Ancient Egypt, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty c. 1250 BC) is famous for her beautifully decorated tomb in the Valley of the Queens. Her burial was plundered in ancient times yet still many objects were found broken in the debris when the tomb was excavated. Amongst the found objects was a pair of mummified legs. They came to the Egyptian Museum in Turin and are henceforth regarded as the remains of this famous Queen, although they were never scientifically investigated. The following multidisciplinary investigation is the first ever performed on those remains. The results (radiocarbon dating, anthropology, paleopathology, genetics, chemistry and Egyptology) all strongly speak in favour of an identification of the remains as Nefertari’s, although different explanations—albeit less likely—are considered and discussed. The legs probably belong to a lady, a fully adult individual, of about 40 years of age. The materials used for embalming are consistent with Ramesside mummification traditions and indeed all objects within the tomb robustly support the burial as of Queen Nefertari.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E. Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Raffaella Bianucci
- University of Turin, Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, Turin, Italy
- UMR 7258, Laboratoire d’Anthropologie bio-culturelle, Droit, Etique & Santé (Adés), Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Stephen A. Buckley
- University of York, Department of Archaeology, York, United Kingdom
- BioArCh, Departments of Archaeology, Biology & Chemistry, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Joann Fletcher
- University of York, Department of Archaeology, York, United Kingdom
- BioArCh, Departments of Archaeology, Biology & Chemistry, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Abigail S. Bouwman
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lena M. Öhrström
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Hospital Zurich, Department of Radiology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Seiler
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Irka Hajdas
- Ion Beam Physics. Labor f. Ionenstrahlphysik (LIP), ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Böni
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Frank J. Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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35
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Clark KA, Ikram S, Evershed RP. The significance of petroleum bitumen in ancient Egyptian mummies. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2016; 374:rsta.2016.0229. [PMID: 27644983 PMCID: PMC5031647 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Mummification was practised in ancient Egypt for more than 3000 years, emerging from initial observations of buried bodies preserved by natural desiccation. The use of organic balms (and other funerary practices) was a later introduction necessitated by more humid burial environments, especially tombs. The dark colour of many mummies led to the assumption that petroleum bitumen (or natural asphalt) was ubiquitous in mummification; however, this has been questioned for more than 100 years. We test this by investigating 91 materials comprising balms, tissues and textiles from 39 mummies dating from ca 3200 BC to AD 395. Targeted petroleum bitumen biomarker (steranes and hopanes) analyses by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry selected ion monitoring (GC-MS SIM, m/z 217 and 191) showed no detectable bitumen use before the New Kingdom (ca 1550-1070 BC). However, bitumen was used in 50% of New Kingdom to Late Period mummies, rising to 87% of Ptolemaic/Roman Period mummies. Quantitative determinations using (14)C analyses reveal that even at peak use balms were never more than 45% w/w bitumen. Critically, the dark colour of balms can be simulated by heating/ageing mixtures of fats, resins and beeswax known to be used in balms. The application of black/dark brown balms to bodies was deliberate after the New Kingdom reflecting changing funerary beliefs and shifts in religious ideology.This article is part of the themed issue 'Quantitative mass spectrometry'.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Clark
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - S Ikram
- Department of Egyptology, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, PO Box 74, Tagammu 5, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - R P Evershed
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
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Jones J, Mirzaei M, Ravishankar P, Xavier D, Lim DS, Shin DH, Bianucci R, Haynes PA. Identification of proteins from 4200-year-old skin and muscle tissue biopsies from ancient Egyptian mummies of the first intermediate period shows evidence of acute inflammation and severe immune response. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2016; 374:rsta.2015.0373. [PMID: 27644972 PMCID: PMC5031639 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2015.0373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We performed proteomics analysis on four skin and one muscle tissue samples taken from three ancient Egyptian mummies of the first intermediate period, approximately 4200 years old. The mummies were first dated by radiocarbon dating of the accompany-\break ing textiles, and morphologically examined by scanning electron microscopy of additional skin samples. Proteins were extracted, separated on SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) gels, and in-gel digested with trypsin. The resulting peptides were analysed using nanoflow high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. We identified a total of 230 unique proteins from the five samples, which consisted of 132 unique protein identifications. We found a large number of collagens, which was confirmed by our microscopy data, and is in agreement with previous studies showing that collagens are very long-lived. As expected, we also found a large number of keratins. We identified numerous proteins that provide evidence of activation of the innate immunity system in two of the mummies, one of which also contained proteins indicating severe tissue inflammation, possibly indicative of an infection that we can speculate may have been related to the cause of death.This article is part of the themed issue 'Quantitative mass spectrometry'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Jones
- Department of Ancient History, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Mehdi Mirzaei
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Prathiba Ravishankar
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Dylan Xavier
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Do Seon Lim
- Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Sciences, Eulji University, Sungnam, South Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Seoul National University, College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Raffaella Bianucci
- Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy UMR 7268, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie bio-culturelle, Droit, Étique and Santé (ADÉS), Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, 13344 Marseille, France
| | - Paul A Haynes
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
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Identification of the earliest collagen- and plant-based coatings from Neolithic artefacts (Nahal Hemar cave, Israel). Sci Rep 2016; 6:31053. [PMID: 27503740 PMCID: PMC4977467 DOI: 10.1038/srep31053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Mortuary practices in human evolution record cognitive, social changes and technological innovations. The Neolithic Revolution in the Levant was a watershed in this domain that has long fascinated the archaeological community. Plaster modelled skulls are well known at Jericho and several other Neolithic sites, and in Nahal Hemar cave (Israel, ca. 8200 -7300 cal. BC) excavations yielded six unique human skulls covered with a black organic coating applied in a net pattern evoking a headdress. This small cave was used as storage for paraphernalia in the semi-arid area of the Judean desert and the dry conditions preserved other artefacts such as baskets coated with a similar dark substance. While previous analysis had revealed the presence of amino acids consistent with a collagen signature, in the present report, specific biomarkers were characterised using combined proteomic and lipid approaches. Basket samples yielded collagen and blood proteins of bovine origin (Bos genus) and a large sequence coverage of a plant protein charybdin (Charybdis genus). The skull residue samples were dominated by benzoate and cinnamate derivatives and triterpenes consistent with a styrax-type resin (Styrax officinalis), thus providing the earliest known evidence of an odoriferous plant resin used in combination with an animal product.
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Analysis of diterpenic compounds by GC-MS/MS: contribution to the identification of main conifer resins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:6599-612. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9772-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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The conifer biomarkers dehydroabietic and abietic acids are widespread in Cyanobacteria. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23436. [PMID: 26996104 PMCID: PMC4800451 DOI: 10.1038/srep23436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Terpenes, a large family of natural products with important applications, are commonly associated with plants and fungi. The diterpenoids dehydroabietic and abietic acids are defense metabolites abundant in resin, and are used as biomarkers for conifer plants. We report here for the first time that the two diterpenoid acids are produced by members of several genera of cyanobacteria. Dehydroabietic acid was isolated from two cyanobacterial strains and its identity was confirmed spectroscopically. One or both of the diterpenoids were detected in the cells of phylogenetically diverse cyanobacteria belonging to four cyanobacterial 'botanical orders', from marine, estuarine and inland environments. Dehydroabietic acid was additionally found in culture supernatants. We investigated the natural role of the two resin acids in cyanobacteria using ecologically-relevant bioassays and found that the compounds inhibited the growth of a small coccoid cyanobacterium. The unexpected discovery of dehydroabietic and abietic acids in a wide range of cyanobacteria has implications for their use as plant biomarkers.
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Moissidou D, Day J, Shin DH, Bianucci R. Invasive versus Non Invasive Methods Applied to Mummy Research: Will This Controversy Ever Be Solved? BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:192829. [PMID: 26345295 PMCID: PMC4543116 DOI: 10.1155/2015/192829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the application of non invasive techniques to mummified remains have shed new light on past diseases. The virtual inspection of a corpse, which has almost completely replaced classical autopsy, has proven to be important especially when dealing with valuable museum specimens. In spite of some very rewarding results, there are still many open questions. Non invasive techniques provide information on hard and soft tissue pathologies and allow information to be gleaned concerning mummification practices (e.g., ancient Egyptian artificial mummification). Nevertheless, there are other fields of mummy studies in which the results provided by non invasive techniques are not always self-explanatory. Reliance exclusively upon virtual diagnoses can sometimes lead to inconclusive and misleading interpretations. On the other hand, several types of investigation (e.g., histology, paleomicrobiology, and biochemistry), although minimally invasive, require direct contact with the bodies and, for this reason, are often avoided, particularly by museum curators. Here we present an overview of the non invasive and invasive techniques currently used in mummy studies and propose an approach that might solve these conflicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Moissidou
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical School, National Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 M. Asias Street, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Jasmine Day
- The Ancient Egypt Society of Western Australia Inc., P.O. Box 103, Ballajura, WA 6066, Australia
| | - Dong Hoon Shin
- Division of Paleopathology, Institute of Forensic Science, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Republic of Korea
| | - Raffaella Bianucci
- Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, University of Turin, Corso Galileo Galilei 22, 10126 Turin, Italy
- Center for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Anthropologie Bioculturelle, Droit, Ethique et Santé, Faculté de Médecine-Nord, Aix-Marseille Université, 15 boulevard Pierre Dramard, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France
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Bianucci R, Habicht ME, Buckley S, Fletcher J, Seiler R, Öhrström LM, Vassilika E, Böni T, Rühli FJ. Shedding New Light on the 18th Dynasty Mummies of the Royal Architect Kha and His Spouse Merit. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26200778 PMCID: PMC4511739 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The mummies of Kha and his wife Merit were found intact in an undisturbed tomb in western Thebes near the ancient workers’ village of Deir el-Medina. Previous MDCT (this abbreviation needs spelling out) investigations showed that the bodies of Kha and Merit did not undergo classical royal 18th Dynasty artificial mummification, which included removal of the internal organs. It was, therefore, concluded that the retention of the viscera in the body, combined with an absence of canopic jars in the burial chamber, meant the couple underwent a short and shoddy funerary procedure, despite their relative wealth at death. Nevertheless, all internal organs - brain, ocular bulbs/ocular nerves, thoracic and abdominal organs - showed a very good state of preservation, which contradicts the previous interpretation above. In order to better understand the type of mummification used to embalm these bodies, both wrapped mummies were reinvestigated using new generation X-ray imaging and chemical microanalyses Here we provide evidence that both individuals underwent a relatively high quality of mummification, fundamentally contradicting previous understanding. Elucidated “recipes”, whose components had anti-bacterial and anti-insecticidal properties, were used to treat their bodies. The time and effort undoubtedly employed to embalm both Kha and Merit and the use of imported costly resins, notably Pistacia, do not support the previously held view that the two individuals were poorly mummified. Despite a lack of evisceration, the approach clearly allowed their in situ preservation as well as affording a fairly successful mummification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Bianucci
- Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Laboratoire d’Anthropologie bio-culturelle, Droit, Etique & Santé (Adés), Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Michael E. Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Roger Seiler
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lena M. Öhrström
- Department of Radiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eleni Vassilika
- Fondazione Museo delle Antichità Egizie di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Thomas Böni
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frank J. Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Papageorgopoulou C, Shved N, Wanek J, Rühli FJ. Modeling Ancient Egyptian Mummification on Fresh Human Tissue: Macroscopic and Histological Aspects. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2015; 298:974-87. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christina Papageorgopoulou
- Department of History and Ethnology; Laboratory of Anthropology; Demokritus University of Thrace; Komotini Greece
| | - Natallia Shved
- Swiss Mummy Project, Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy; University of Zurich; Zürich Switzerland
| | - Johann Wanek
- Swiss Mummy Project, Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy; University of Zurich; Zürich Switzerland
| | - Frank J. Rühli
- Swiss Mummy Project, Centre for Evolutionary Medicine, Institute of Anatomy; University of Zurich; Zürich Switzerland
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Özen AC, Ludwig U, Öhrström LM, Rühli FJ, Bock M. Comparison of ultrashort echo time sequences for MRI of an ancient mummified human hand. Magn Reson Med 2015; 75:701-8. [DOI: 10.1002/mrm.25651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Caglar Özen
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
| | - Ute Ludwig
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
| | - Lena Maria Öhrström
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineMedical Faculty, University of ZürichZürich Switzerland
| | - Frank Jakobus Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineMedical Faculty, University of ZürichZürich Switzerland
| | - Michael Bock
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
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ALSHEHRI MA, BASKARADOSS JK, GEEVARGHESE A, RAMAKRISHNAIAH R, TATAKIS DN. Effects of myrrh on the strength of suture materials: an in vitro study. Dent Mater J 2015; 34:148-53. [DOI: 10.4012/dmj.2013-317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jagan Kumar BASKARADOSS
- Department of Dental Public Health, School of Dental Medicine, Case Western Reserve University
| | - Amrita GEEVARGHESE
- Department of Dental Public Health, College of Dentistry, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences
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Jones J, Higham TFG, Oldfield R, O'Connor TP, Buckley SA. Evidence for prehistoric origins of Egyptian mummification in late Neolithic burials. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103608. [PMID: 25118605 PMCID: PMC4132097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional theories on ancient Egyptian mummification postulate that in the prehistoric period (i.e. the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, 5th and 4th millennia B.C.) bodies were naturally desiccated through the action of the hot, dry desert sand. Although molding of the body with resin-impregnated linen is believed to be an early Pharaonic forerunner to more complex processes, scientific evidence for the early use of resins in artificial mummification has until now been limited to isolated occurrences during the late Old Kingdom (c. 2200 B.C.), their use becoming more apparent during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1600 BC). We examined linen wrappings from bodies in securely provenanced tombs (pit graves) in the earliest recorded ancient Egyptian cemeteries at Mostagedda in the Badari region (Upper Egypt). Our investigations of these prehistoric funerary wrappings using a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and thermal desorption/pyrolysis (TD/Py)-GC-MS have identified a pine resin, an aromatic plant extract, a plant gum/sugar, a natural petroleum source, and a plant oil/animal fat in directly AMS-dated funerary wrappings. Predating the earliest scientific evidence by more than a millennium, these embalming agents constitute complex, processed recipes of the same natural products, in similar proportions, as those utilized at the zenith of Pharaonic mummification some 3,000 years later. The antibacterial properties of some of these ingredients and the localized soft-tissue preservation that they would have afforded lead us to conclude that these represent the very beginnings of experimentation that would evolve into the famous mummification practice of the Pharaonic period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Jones
- Department of Ancient History, Faculty of Arts, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas F. G. Higham
- Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ron Oldfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Terry P. O'Connor
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, The Kings Manor, York, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen A. Buckley
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, The Kings Manor, York, United Kingdom
- BioArch, Departments of Archaeology, Biology and Chemistry (S-Block), University of York, York, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Ménager M, Azémard C, Vieillescazes C. Study of Egyptian mummification balms by FT-IR spectroscopy and GC–MS. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2013.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Giulivi C. Grand challenges in cellular biochemistry: the "next-gen" biochemistry. Front Chem 2014; 2:22. [PMID: 24809045 PMCID: PMC4010732 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
- Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA
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Organic chemistry of balms used in the preparation of pharaonic meat mummies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:20392-5. [PMID: 24248384 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1315160110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The funeral preparations for ancient Egyptian dead were extensive. Tomb walls were often elaborately painted and inscribed with scenes and objects deemed desirable for the afterlife. Votive objects, furniture, clothing, jewelry, and importantly, food including bread, cereals, fruit, jars of wine, beer, oil, meat, and poultry were included in the burial goods. An intriguing feature of the meat and poultry produced for the deceased from the highest levels of Egyptian society was that they were mummified to ensure their preservation. However, little is known about the way they were prepared, such as whether balms were used, and if they were used, how they compared with those applied to human and animal mummies? We present herein the results of lipid biomarker and stable carbon isotope investigations of tissues, bandaging, and organic balms associated with a variety of meat mummies that reveal that treatments ranged from simple desiccation and wrapping in bandages to, in the case of the tomb of Yuya and Tjuia (18th Dynasty, 1386-1349 BC), a balm associated with a beef rib mummy containing a high abundance of Pistacia resin and, thus, more sophisticated than the balms found on many contemporaneous human mummies.
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First insights into the metagenome of Egyptian mummies using next-generation sequencing. J Appl Genet 2013; 54:309-25. [PMID: 23553074 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-013-0145-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We applied, for the first time, next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology on Egyptian mummies. Seven NGS datasets obtained from five randomly selected Third Intermediate to Graeco-Roman Egyptian mummies (806 BC-124AD) and two unearthed pre-contact Bolivian lowland skeletons were generated and characterised. The datasets were contrasted to three recently published NGS datasets obtained from cold-climate regions, i.e. the Saqqaq, the Denisova hominid and the Alpine Iceman. Analysis was done using one million reads of each newly generated or published dataset. Blastn and megablast results were analysed using MEGAN software. Distinct NGS results were replicated by specific and sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocols in ancient DNA dedicated laboratories. Here, we provide unambiguous identification of authentic DNA in Egyptian mummies. The NGS datasets showed variable contents of endogenous DNA harboured in tissues. Three of five mummies displayed a human DNA proportion comparable to the human read count of the Saqqaq permafrost-preserved specimen. Furthermore, a metagenomic signature unique to mummies was displayed. By applying a "bacterial fingerprint", discrimination among mummies and other remains from warm areas outside Egypt was possible. Due to the absence of an adequate environment monitoring, a bacterial bloom was identified when analysing different biopsies from the same mummies taken after a lapse of time of 1.5 years. Plant kingdom representation in all mummy datasets was unique and could be partially associated with their use in embalming materials. Finally, NGS data showed the presence of Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii DNA sequences, indicating malaria and toxoplasmosis in these mummies. We demonstrate that endogenous ancient DNA can be extracted from mummies and serve as a proper template for the NGS technique, thus, opening new pathways of investigation for future genome sequencing of ancient Egyptian individuals.
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