A cytokine-responsive IkappaB kinase that activates the transcription factor NF-kappaB

HDX-MS Analysis of Catalytic Activation of IKK2 in the IκB Kinase Complex

The IκB Kinase (IKK) complex, containing catalytic IKK2 and noncatalytic NEMO subunits, plays essential roles in the induction of transcription factors of the NF-κB family. Catalytic activation of IKK2 via phosphorylation of its activation loop is promoted upon noncovalent association of linear or K63-linked polyubiquitin chains to NEMO within the IKK complex. The mechanisms of this activation remain speculative. To investigate interaction dynamics within the IKK complex during activation of IKK2, we conducted hydrogen-deuterium exchange coupled with mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) on NEMO and IKK2 proteins in their free and complex-bound states. Altered proton exchange profiles were observed in both IKK2 and NEMO upon complex formation, and changes were consistent with the involvement of distinct regions throughout the entire length of both proteins, including previously uncharacterized segments, in direct or allosteric interactions. Association with linear tetraubiquitin (Ub4) affected multiple regions of the IKK2:NEMO complex, in addition to previously identified interaction sites on NEMO. Intriguingly, observed enhanced solvent accessibility of the IKK2 activation loop within the IKK2:NEMO:Ub4 complex, coupled with contrasting protection of surrounding segments of the catalytic subunit, suggests an allosteric role for NEMO:Ub4 in priming IKK2 for phosphorylation-dependent catalytic activation.

NF-κB role on tumor proliferation, migration, invasion and immune escape

Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) is a nuclear transcription factor that plays a key factor in promoting inflammation, which can lead to the development of cancer in a long-lasting inflammatory environment. The activation of NF-κB is essential in the initial phases of tumor development and progression, occurring in both pre-malignant cells and cells in the microenvironment such as phagocytes, T cells, and B cells. In addition to stimulating angiogenesis, inhibiting apoptosis, and promoting the growth of tumor cells, NF-κB activation also causes the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and tumor immune evasion. Therapeutic strategies that focus on immune checkpoint molecules have revolutionized cancer treatment by enabling the immune system to activate immunological responses against tumor cells. This review focused on understanding the NF-κB signaling pathway in the context of cancer.

Regulation of RIPK1 Phosphorylation: Implications for Inflammation, Cell Death, and Therapeutic Interventions

Receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) plays a crucial role in controlling inflammation and cell death. Its function is tightly controlled through post-translational modifications, enabling its dynamic switch between promoting cell survival and triggering cell death. Phosphorylation of RIPK1 at various sites serves as a critical mechanism for regulating its activity, exerting either activating or inhibitory effects. Perturbations in RIPK1 phosphorylation status have profound implications for the development of severe inflammatory diseases in humans. This review explores the intricate regulation of RIPK1 phosphorylation and dephosphorylation and highlights the potential of targeting RIPK1 phosphorylation as a promising therapeutic strategy for mitigating human diseases.

Coffee, antioxidants, and brain inflammation

Coffee is the most popular beverage in the world and, aside from tea and water, the most often consumed caffeine-containing beverage. Because of its high caffeine concentration, it is typically classified as a stimulant. There are other bioactive ingredients in coffee besides caffeine. The coffee beverage is a blend of several bioactive substances, including diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol), alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelline), and polyphenols (particularly chlorogenic acids in green beans and caffeic acid in roasted coffee beans). Caffeine has also been linked to additional beneficial benefits such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which change cellular redox and inflammatory status in a dose-dependent manner. Pyrocatechol, a constituent of roasted coffee that is created when chlorogenic acid is thermally broken down, has anti-inflammatory properties as well. It is postulated that coffee consumption reduces neuroinflammation, which is intimately linked to the onset of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington's disease (HD). This review provides an overview of the most recent studies regarding coffee's possible benefits in preventing brain inflammation and neurodegenerative disorders.

Molecular definition of the endogenous Toll-like receptor signalling pathways

Innate immune pattern recognition receptors, such as the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), are key mediators of the immune response to infection and central to our understanding of health and disease1. After microbial detection, these receptors activate inflammatory signal transduction pathways that involve IκB kinases, mitogen-activated protein kinases, ubiquitin ligases and other adaptor proteins. The mechanisms that connect the proteins in the TLR pathways are poorly defined. To delineate TLR pathway activities, we engineered macrophages to enable microscopy and proteomic analysis of the endogenous myddosome constituent MyD88. We found that myddosomes form transient contacts with activated TLRs and that TLR-free myddosomes are dynamic in size, number and composition over the course of 24 h. Analysis using super-resolution microscopy revealed that, within most myddosomes, MyD88 forms barrel-like structures that function as scaffolds for effector protein recruitment. Proteomic analysis demonstrated that myddosomes contain proteins that act at all stages and regulate all effector responses of the TLR pathways, and genetic analysis defined the epistatic relationship between these effector modules. Myddosome assembly was evident in cells infected with Listeria monocytogenes, but these bacteria evaded myddosome assembly and TLR signalling during cell-to-cell spread. On the basis of these findings, we propose that the entire TLR signalling pathway is executed from within the myddosome.

NFκB signalling in colorectal cancer: Examining the central dogma of IKKα and IKKβ signalling

The NFκB pathway, known as the central regulator of inflammation, has a well-established role in colorectal cancer (CRC) initiation, progression, and therapy resistance. Due to the pathway's overarching roles in CRC, there have been efforts to characterise NFκB family members and target the pathway for therapeutic intervention. Initial research illustrated that the canonical NFκB pathway, driven by central kinase IKKβ, was a promising target for drug intervention. However, dose limiting toxicities and specificity concerns have resulted in failure of IKKβ inhibitors in clinical trials. The field has turned to look at targeting the less dominant kinase, IKKα, which along with NFκB inducing kinase (NIK), drives the lesser researched non-canonical NFκB pathway. However prognostic studies of the non-canonical pathway have produced conflicting results. There is emerging evidence that IKKα is involved in other signalling pathways, which lie outside of canonical and non-canonical NFκB signalling. Evidence suggests that some of these alternative pathways involve a truncated form of IKKα, and this may drive poor cancer-specific survival in CRC. This review aims to explore the multiple components of NFκB signalling, highlighting that NIK may be the central kinase for non-canonical NFκB signalling, and that IKKα is involved in novel pathways which promote CRC.

Phytosterols: Physiological Functions and Potential Application

Dietary intake of natural substances to regulate physiological functions is currently regarded as a potential way of promoting health. As one of the recommended dietary ingredients, phytosterols that are natural bioactive compounds distributed in plants have received increasing attention for their health effects. Phytosterols have attracted great attention from scientists because of many physiological functions, for example, cholesterol-lowering, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. In addition, the physiological functions of phytosterols, the purification, structure analysis, synthesis, and food application of phytosterols have been widely studied. Nowadays, many bioactivities of phytosterols have been assessed in vivo and in vitro. However, the mechanisms of their pharmacological activities are not yet fully understood, and in-depth investigation of the relationship between structure and function is crucial. Therefore, a contemporaneous overview of the extraction, beneficial properties, and the mechanisms, as well as the current states of phytosterol application, in the food field of phytosterols is provided in this review.

Hydrogen sulfide supplementation as a potential treatment for primary mitochondrial diseases

Primary mitochondrial diseases (PMD) are amongst the most common inborn errors of metabolism causing fatal outcomes within the first decade of life. With marked heterogeneity in both inheritance patterns and physiological manifestations, these conditions present distinct challenges for targeted drug therapy, where effective therapeutic countermeasures remain elusive within the clinic. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-based therapeutics may offer a new option for patient treatment, having been proposed as a conserved mitochondrial substrate and post-translational regulator across species, displaying therapeutic effects in age-related mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative models of mitochondrial disease. H2S can stimulate mitochondrial respiration at sites downstream of common PMD-defective subunits, augmenting energy production, mitochondrial function and reducing cell death. Here, we highlight the primary signalling mechanisms of H2S in mitochondria relevant for PMD and outline key cytoprotective proteins/pathways amenable to post-translational restoration via H2S-mediated persulfidation. The mechanisms proposed here, combined with the advent of potent mitochondria-targeted sulfide delivery molecules, could provide a framework for H2S as a countermeasure for PMD disease progression.

Dual-specific autophosphorylation of kinase IKK2 enables phosphorylation of substrate IκBα through a phosphoenzyme intermediate

Rapid and high-fidelity phosphorylation of two serines (S32 and S36) of IκBα by a prototype Ser/Thr kinase IKK2 is critical for fruitful canonical NF-κB activation. Here, we report that IKK2 is a dual specificity Ser/Thr kinase that autophosphorylates itself at tyrosine residues in addition to its activation loop serines. Mutation of one such tyrosine, Y169, located in proximity to the active site, to phenylalanine, renders IKK2 inactive for phosphorylation of S32 of IκBα. Surprisingly, auto-phosphorylated IKK2 relayed phosphate group(s) to IκBα without ATP when ADP is present. We also observed that mutation of K44, an ATP-binding lysine conserved in all protein kinases, to methionine renders IKK2 inactive towards specific phosphorylation of S32 or S36 of IκBα, but not non-specific substrates. These observations highlight an unusual evolution of IKK2, in which autophosphorylation of tyrosine(s) in the activation loop and the invariant ATP-binding K44 residue define its signal-responsive substrate specificity ensuring the fidelity of NF-κB activation.

Cellular heterogeneity in TNF/TNFR1 signalling: live cell imaging of cell fate decisions in single cells

Cellular responses to TNF are inherently heterogeneous within an isogenic cell population and across different cell types. TNF promotes cell survival by activating pro-inflammatory NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways but may also trigger apoptosis and necroptosis. Following TNF stimulation, the fate of individual cells is governed by the balance of pro-survival and pro-apoptotic signalling pathways. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms driving heterogenous responses to TNF, quantifying TNF/TNFR1 signalling at the single-cell level is crucial. Fluorescence live-cell imaging techniques offer real-time, dynamic insights into molecular processes in single cells, allowing for detection of rapid and transient changes, as well as identification of subpopulations, that are likely to be missed with traditional endpoint assays. Whilst fluorescence live-cell imaging has been employed extensively to investigate TNF-induced inflammation and TNF-induced cell death, it has been underutilised in studying the role of TNF/TNFR1 signalling pathway crosstalk in guiding cell-fate decisions in single cells. Here, we outline the various opportunities for pathway crosstalk during TNF/TNFR1 signalling and how these interactions may govern heterogenous responses to TNF. We also advocate for the use of live-cell imaging techniques to elucidate the molecular processes driving cell-to-cell variability in single cells. Understanding and overcoming cellular heterogeneity in response to TNF and modulators of the TNF/TNFR1 signalling pathway could lead to the development of targeted therapies for various diseases associated with aberrant TNF/TNFR1 signalling, such as rheumatoid arthritis, metabolic syndrome, and cancer.

Oxidative stress-mediated activation of FTO exacerbates impairment of the epithelial barrier by up-regulating IKBKB via N6-methyladenosine-dependent mRNA stability in asthmatic mice exposed to PM2.5

In order to comprehend the underlying mechanisms contributing to the development and exacerbation of asthma resulting from exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), we established an asthmatic model in fat mass and obesity-associated gene knockdown mice subjected to PM2.5 exposure. Histological analyses using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) staining revealed that the down-regulation of the fat mass and obesity-associated gene (Fto) expression significantly ameliorated the pathophysiological alterations observed in asthmatic mice exposed to PM2.5. Furthermore, the down-regulation of Fto gene expression effectively attenuated damage to the airway epithelial barrier. Additionally, employing in vivo and in vitro models, we elucidated that PM2.5 modulated FTO expression by inducing oxidative stress. Asthmatic mice exposed to PM2.5 exhibited elevated Fto expression, which correlated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species. Similarly, when cells were exposed to PM2.5, FTO expression was up-regulated in a ROS-dependent manner. Notably, the administration of N-acetyl cysteine successfully reversed the PM2.5-induced elevation in FTO expression. Concurrently, we performed transcriptome-wide Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation Sequencing (MeRIP-seq) analysis subsequent to PM2.5 exposure. Through the implementation of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and m6A-IP-qPCR, we successfully identified inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B kinase subunit beta (IKBKB) as a target gene regulated by FTO. Interestingly, exposure to PM2.5 led to increased expression of IKBKB, while m6A modification on IKBKB mRNA was reduced. Furthermore, our investigation revealed that PM2.5 also regulated IKBKB through oxidative stress. Significantly, the down-regulation of IKBKB effectively mitigated epithelial barrier damage in cells exposed to PM2.5 by modulating nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling. Importantly, we discovered that decreased m6A modification on IKBKB mRNA facilitated by FTO enhanced its stability, consequently resulting in up-regulation of IKBKB expression. Collectively, our findings propose a novel role for FTO in the regulation of IKBKB through m6A-dependent mRNA stability in the context of PM2.5-induced oxidative stress. Therefore, it is conceivable that the utilization of antioxidants or inhibition of FTO could represent potential therapeutic strategies for the management of asthma exacerbated by PM2.5 exposure.

Lactate-lactylation-HSPA6 axis promotes PRRSV replication by impairing IFN-β production

Lactate, traditionally considered a metabolic by-product, has recently been identified as a substrate for the induction of lactylation, a newly identified epigenetic modification that plays an important role in the regulation of host gene expression. Our previous study showed that lactate levels were significantly elevated in cells infected with the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), an Arterivirus that has devastated the swine industry worldwide for over 30 years. However, the role of elevated lactate in PRRSV infections remains unknown. In this study, we found that lactate was required for optimal PRRSV proliferation, and PRRSV infection increased cellular lactylation in a dose-dependent manner. Using the Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&Tag) combined with RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to screen the downstream genes regulated by lactylation in PRRSV-infected cells, we found that PRRSV-induced lactylation activated the expression of heat shock 70 kDa protein 6 (HSPA6). Follow-up experiments showed that HSPA6 is important for PRRSV proliferation by negatively modulating interferon (IFN)-β induction. Mechanistically, HSPA6 impeded the interaction between TNF-receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) and inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase subunit epsilon (IKKε), thereby hindering the production of IFN-β. Taken together, these results indicate that the activated lactate-lactylation-HSPA6 axis promotes viral growth by impairing IFN-β induction, providing new therapeutic targets for the prevention and control of PRRSV infection. The results presented here also link lactylation to the virus life cycle, improving our understanding of epigenetic regulation in viral infection.IMPORTANCEAs a newly identified epigenetic modification, lactate-induced lactylation has received attentions because it plays important roles in gene expression and contributes to tumorigenesis and the innate immune response. Previous studies showed that many viruses upregulate cellular lactate levels; however, whether virus-elevated lactate induces lactylation and the subsequent biological significance of the modification to viral infection have not been reported. In this study, we demonstrated that porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection induced cellular lactylation, which, in turn, upregulated the expression of HSPA6, an IFN-negative regulator. We also dissected the mechanism by which HSPA6 negatively regulates IFN-β production. To our knowledge, this is the first report to study virus-induced lactylation and establish the relationship between lactylation and virus infection.

Splenic proteome profiling in response to Marek's disease virus strain GX0101 infection

Marek's disease virus (MDV) strain GX0101 was the first reported field strain of recombinant gallid herpesvirus type 2 (GaHV-2). However, the splenic proteome of MDV-infected chickens remains unclear. In this study, a total of 28 1-day-old SPF chickens were intraperitoneally injected with chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) containing 2000 PFU GX0101. Additionally, a control group, consisting of four one-day-old SPF chickens, received intraperitoneal equal doses of CEF. Blood and various tissue samples were collected at different intervals (7, 14, 21, 30, 45, 60, and 90 days post-infection; dpi) for histopathological, real-time PCR, and label-free quantitative analyses. The results showed that the serum expressions of MDV-related genes, meq and gB, peaked at 45 dpi. The heart, liver, and spleen were dissected at 30 and 45 dpi, and their hematoxylin-eosin staining indicated that virus infection compromised the normal organizational structure at 45 dpi. Particularly, the spleen structure was severely damaged, and the lymphocytes in the white medulla were significantly reduced. Furthermore, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and label-free techniques were used to analyze the difference in splenic proteome profiles of the experimental and control groups at 30 and 45 dpi. Proteomic analysis identified 1660 and 1244 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) at 30 and 40 dpi, respectively, compared with the uninfected spleen tissues. According to GO analysis, these DEPs were involved in processes such as organelle organization, cellular component biogenesis, cellular component assembly, anion binding, small molecule binding, metal ion binding, cation binding, cytosol, nuclear part, etc. Additionally, KEGG analysis indicated that the following pathways were linked to MDV-induced inflammation, apoptosis, and tumor: Wnt, Hippo, AMPK, cAMP, Notch, TGF-β, PI3K-Akt, Rap1, Ras, Calcium, NF-κB, PPAR, cGMP-PKG, Apoptosis, VEGF, mTOR, FoxO, TNF, JAK-STAT, MAPK, Prion disease, T cell receptor, and B cell receptor. We finally screened 674 DEPs that were linked to MDV infection in spleen tissue. This study improves our understanding of the MDV response mechanism in the spleen.

Flavonoid diversity and roles in the lipopolysaccharide-mediated inflammatory response of monocytes and macrophages

Targeting lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/toll-like receptor 4 signaling in mononuclear phagocytes has been explored for the treatment of inflammation and inflammation-related disorders. However, only a few key targets have been translated into clinical applications. Flavonoids, a class of ubiquitous plant secondary metabolites, possess a privileged scaffold which serves as a valuable template for designing pharmacologically active compounds directed against diseases with inflammatory components. This perspective provides a general overview of the diversity of flavonoids and their multifaceted mechanisms that interfere with LPS-induced signaling in monocytes and macrophages. Focus is placed on flavonoids targeting MD-2, IκB kinases, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38 MAPK and PI3K/Akt or modulating LPS-related gene expression.

Suppression of Neuroinflammation by Coffee Component Pyrocatechol via Inhibition of NF-κB in Microglia

According to numerous studies, it has been epidemiologically suggested that habitual coffee intake seems to prevent the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we hypothesized that coffee consumption suppresses neuroinflammation, which is closely related to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Using microglial BV-2 cells, we first found that the inflammatory responses induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation was diminished by both coffee and decaffeinated coffee through the inhibition of an inflammation-related transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Pyrocatechol, a component of roasted coffee produced by the thermal decomposition of chlorogenic acid, also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the LPS-induced activation of NF-κB. Finally, in an inflammation model using mice injected with LPS into the cerebrum, we observed that intake of pyrocatechol as well as coffee decoctions drastically suppressed the accumulation of microglia and the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), CCL2, and CXCL1 in the inflammatory brain. These observations strongly encourage us to hypothesize that the anti-inflammatory activity of pyrocatechol as well as coffee decoction would be useful for the suppression of neurodegeneration and the prevention of the onsets of Alzheimer's (AD) and Perkinson's diseases (PD).

Multifaceted control of T cell differentiation by STIM1

In T cells, stromal interaction molecule (STIM) and Orai are dispensable for conventional T cell development, but critical for activation and differentiation. This review focuses on novel STIM-dependent mechanisms for control of Ca2+ signals during T cell activation and its impact on mitochondrial function and transcriptional activation for control of T cell differentiation and function. We highlight areas that require further work including the roles of plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA) and partner of STIM1 (POST) in controlling Orai function. A major knowledge gap also exists regarding the independence of T cell development from STIM and Orai, despite compelling evidence that it requires Ca2+ signals. Resolving these and other outstanding questions ensures that the field will remain active for many years to come.

Slit2 suppresses endotoxin-induced uveitis by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/IKK/NF-κB pathway

Uveitis is a devastating intraocular inflammatory disease. The secreted leucine-rich repeat protein slit homologue 2 (Slit2) has been found to be an essential regulator of inflammation. This study aimed to analyse the anti-inflammatory effects and the underlying mechanisms of Slit2 in an endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) rat model. In this study, rats with EIU pretreated recombinant human Slit2 (rhSlit2) or a control vehicle by intravitreal injection. The clinical scores were graded under a slit lamp. The protein concentrations and total number of cells in the aqueous humour (AqH) were examined, and the retinal expression of various inflammatory mediators was detected. The levels of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), phosphorylated NF-κB, IkappaB-a (IκB-a), phosphorylated IκB-a, IKK, phosphorylated IKK, PI3Kp85, phosphorylated PI3Kp85, Akt and phosphorylated Akt were evaluated by western blotting. Treatment with rhSlit2 dramatically diminished the clinical scores of EIU, with significant decreases in inflammatory cell infiltration, protein concentrations, cellulose-like exudates, the production of ICAM-1, MCP-1, TNF-α and IL-6 in the AqH; and adhesion of leucocytes. The PI3K/Akt/IKK/NF-κB pathway was found to be activated in EIU. However, the pre-treatment of rhSlit2 significantly inhibited the production of ICAM-1, MCP-1, TNF-α, and IL-6, and inhibited leucocyte adhesion by modulating the PI3K/Akt/IKK/NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, the intravitreal injection of rhSlit2 alleviated EIU-related inflammation in Sprague-Dawley rats by reducing the proinflammatory cytokines and leucocyte adhesion; in particular, rhSlit2 may inhibit LPS-induced inflammation by inhibiting the activation of PI3K/Akt/IKK/NF-κB signalling pathway. Therefore, rhSlit2 shows significant potential for effectively alleviating immune inflammatory responses in vivo.

The citrus flavonoid, nobiletin inhibits neuronal inflammation by preventing the activation of NF-κB

Nobiletin (5,6,7,8,3',4'-hexamethoxyflavone) is one of the flavonoids found in shikuwasa, a popular citrus fruit in Okinawa, Japan. It exerts various pharmacological effects, such as anti-tumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. We herein investigated whether nobiletin attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses in the murine microglial cell line BV-2 and neuroinflammation in mice induced by an intracerebral injection of LPS. In BV-2 cells, nobiletin significantly inhibited the LPS-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by preventing the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), respectively. Nobiletin also inhibited the LPS-induced mRNA expression of CCL2, CXCL1, IL-6, and TNFα. Nobiletin markedly attenuated the transcriptional activity of the NF-κB p65 subunit without affecting the degradation of IκBα or the nuclear localization of the NF-κB p65 subunit. Nobiletin also inhibited the LPS-induced activation of JNK, but not ERK or p38, in BV-2 cells. Furthermore, the administration of nobiletin significantly suppressed the accumulation of microglia and induction of the mRNA expression of CCL2, CXCL1, IL-6, and TNFα in the murine brain induced by injecting LPS into the striatum. Collectively, these results suggest the potential of nobiletin as a candidate anti-inflammatory drug for the prevention of neuroinflammation.

IKBKB reduces huntingtin aggregation by phosphorylating serine 13 via a non-canonical IKK pathway

N-terminal phosphorylation at residues T3 and S13 is believed to have important beneficial implications for the biological and pathological properties of mutant huntingtin, where inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B kinase subunit beta (IKBKB) was identified as a candidate regulator of huntingtin N-terminal phosphorylation. The paucity of mechanistic information on IKK pathways, together with the lack of sensitive methods to quantify endogenous huntingtin phosphorylation, prevented detailed study of the role of IKBKB in Huntington's disease. Using novel ultrasensitive assays, we demonstrate that IKBKB can regulate endogenous S13 huntingtin phosphorylation in a manner, dependent on its kinase activity and known regulators. We found that the ability of IKBKB to phosphorylate endogenous huntingtin S13 is mediated through a non-canonical interferon regulatory factor3-mediated IKK pathway, distinct from the established involvement of IKBKB in mutant huntingtin's pathological mechanisms mediated via the canonical pathway. Furthermore, increased huntingtin S13 phosphorylation by IKBKB resulted in decreased aggregation of mutant huntingtin in cells, again dependent on its kinase activity. These findings point to a non-canonical IKK pathway linking S13 huntingtin phosphorylation to the pathological properties of mutant huntingtin aggregation, thought to be significant to Huntington's disease.

New insights into intestinal macrophages in necrotizing enterocolitis: the multi-functional role and promising therapeutic application

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an inflammatory intestinal disease that profoundly affects preterm infants. Currently, the pathogenesis of NEC remains controversial, resulting in limited treatment strategies. The preterm infants are thought to be susceptible to gut inflammatory disorders because of their immature immune system. In early life, intestinal macrophages (IMφs), crucial components of innate immunity, demonstrate functional plasticity and diversity in intestinal development, resistance to pathogens, maintenance of the intestinal barrier, and regulation of gut microbiota. When the stimulations of environmental, dietary, and bacterial factors interrupt the homeostatic processes of IMφs, they will lead to intestinal disease, such as NEC. This review focuses on the IMφs related pathogenesis in NEC, discusses the multi-functional roles and relevant molecular mechanisms of IMφs in preterm infants, and explores promising therapeutic application for NEC.

Modulation of Plasmatic Matrix Metalloprotease 9: A Promising New Tool for Understanding the Variable Clinical Responses of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis to Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Modulators

BACKGROUND

The most recent modulator combination, elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (Trikafta®), has been shown to improve clinical outcomes in most patients with cystic fibrosis (PwCF). Unfortunately, the clinical benefits are sometimes variable; thus, improving our knowledge of the possible causes of this variability can help reduce it.

METHODS

Circulating mononuclear cells (CMCs) and plasma were collected from 16 PwCF (including those on Trikafta® therapy) and 4 non-CF subjects. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) activity and matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9) expression were monitored before and after therapy, together with some clinical parameters. The relationship between MMP9 expression and the modulation of the extracellular-regulated 1/2 (ERK1/2) and nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB) pathways was also analyzed.

RESULTS

MMP9, markedly expressed in the CMCs and plasma of all the patients included in the study, was downregulated in the clinically responsive PwCF. In the non-responder, the MMP9 levels remained high. The modulation of MMP9 following treatment with Trikafta® may be controlled by the NF-kB pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

These data strongly suggest that MMP9 downregulation is a potential biomarker of therapy efficacy and that it could be useful in understanding the molecular events underlying the variable clinical responses of patients to Trikafta®. This knowledge could be helpful for future studies of personalized medicine and thereby ensure improvements in individual responses to therapies.

Extracellular Vesicles-mediated recombinant IL-10 protects against ascending infection-associated preterm birth by reducing fetal inflammatory response

Background

Fetal inflammatory response mediated by the influx of immune cells and activation of pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB in feto-maternal uterine tissues is the major determinant of infection-associated preterm birth (PTB, live births < 37 weeks of gestation).

Objective

To reduce the incidence of PTB by minimizing inflammation, extracellular vesicles (EVs) were electroporetically engineered to contain anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 (eIL-10), and their efficacy was tested in an ascending model of infection (vaginal administration of E. coli) induced PTB in mouse models.

Study design

EVs (size: 30-170 nm) derived from HEK293T cells were electroporated with recombinant IL-10 at 500 volts and 125 Ω, and 6 pulses to generate eIL-10. eIL-10 structural characters (electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, ExoView [size and cargo content] and functional properties (co-treatment of macrophage cells with LPS and eIL-10) were assessed. To test efficacy, CD1 mice were vaginally inoculated with E. coli (1010CFU) and subsequently treated with either PBS, eIL-10 (500ng) or Gentamicin (10mg/kg) or a combination of eIL-10+gentamicin. Fetal inflammatory response in maternal and fetal tissues after the infection or treatment were conducted by suspension Cytometer Time of Flight (CyTOF) using a transgenic mouse model that express red fluorescent TdTomato (mT+) in fetal cells.

Results

Engineered EVs were structurally and functionally stable and showed reduced proinflammatory cytokine production from LPS challenged macrophage cells in vitro. Maternal administration of eIL-10 (10 µg/kg body weight) crossed feto-maternal barriers to delay E. coli-induced PTB to deliver live pups at term. Delay in PTB was associated with reduced feto-maternal uterine inflammation (immune cell infiltration and histologic chorioamnionitis, NF-κB activation, and proinflammatory cytokine production).

Conclusions

eIL-10 administration was safe, stable, specific, delayed PTB by over 72 hrs and delivered live pups. The delivery of drugs using EVs overcomes the limitations of in-utero fetal interventions. Protecting IL-10 in EVs eliminates the need for the amniotic administration of recombinant IL-10 for its efficacy.

T-cell derived extracellular vesicles prime macrophages for improved STING based cancer immunotherapy

A key phenomenon in cancer is the establishment of a highly immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment (TME). Despite advances in immunotherapy, where the purpose is to induce tumour recognition and hence hereof tumour eradication, the majority of patients applicable for such treatment still fail to respond. It has been suggested that high immunological activity in the tumour is essential for achieving effective response to immunotherapy, which therefore have led to exploration of strategies that triggers inflammatory pathways. Here activation of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signalling pathway has been considered an attractive target, as it is a potent trigger of pro-inflammatory cytokines and types I and III interferons. However, immunotherapy combined with targeted STING agonists has not yielded sustained clinical remission in humans. This suggests a need for exploring novel adjuvants to improve the innate immunological efficacy. Here, we demonstrate that extracellular vesicles (EVs), derived from activated CD4+ T cells (T-EVs), sensitizes macrophages to elevate STING activation, mediated by IFNγ carried on the T-EVs. Our work support that T-EVs can disrupt the immune suppressive environment in the tumour by reprogramming macrophages to a pro-inflammatory phenotype, and priming them for a robust immune response towards STING activation.

Lost and Found: The Family of NF-κB Inhibitors Is Larger than Assumed in Salmonid Fish

NF-κB signalling is largely controlled by the family of 'inhibitors of NF-κB' (IκB). The relevant databases indicate that the genome of rainbow trout contains multiple gene copies coding for iκbα (nfkbia), iκbε (nfkbie), iκbδ (nkfbid), iκbζ (nfkbiz), and bcl3, but it lacks iκbβ (nfkbib) and iκbη (ankrd42). Strikingly, three nfkbia paralogs are apparently present in salmonid fish, two of which share a high sequence identity, while the third putative nfkbia gene is significantly less like its two paralogs. This particular nfkbia gene product, iκbα, clusters with the human IκBβ in a phylogenetic analysis, while the other two iκbα proteins from trout associate with their human IκBα counterpart. The transcript concentrations were significantly higher for the structurally more closely related nfkbia paralogs than for the structurally less similar paralog, suggesting that iκbβ probably has not been lost from the salmonid genomes but has been incorrectly designated as iκbα. In the present study, two gene variants coding for iκbα (nfkbia) and iκbε (nfkbie) were prominently expressed in the immune tissues and, particularly, in a cell fraction enriched with granulocytes, monocytes/macrophages, and dendritic cells from the head kidney of rainbow trout. Stimulation of salmonid CHSE-214 cells with zymosan significantly upregulated the iκbα-encoding gene while elevating the copy numbers of the inflammatory markers interleukin-1-beta and interleukin-8. Overexpression of iκbα and iκbε in CHSE-214 cells dose-dependently quenched both the basal and stimulated activity of an NF-κB promoter suggesting their involvement in immune-regulatory processes. This study provides the first functional data on iκbε-versus the well-researched iκbα factor-in a non-mammalian model species.

IKKβ Inhibition Attenuates Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition of Human Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is well known for its role in embryonic development, malignant transformation, and tumor progression, has also been implicated in a variety of retinal diseases, including proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and diabetic retinopathy. EMT of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), although important in the pathogenesis of these retinal conditions, is not well understood at the molecular level. We and others have shown that a variety of molecules, including the co-treatment of human stem cell-derived RPE monolayer cultures with transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), can induce RPE-EMT; however, small molecule inhibitors of RPE-EMT have been less well studied. Here, we demonstrate that BAY651942, a small molecule inhibitor of nuclear factor kapa-B kinase subunit beta (IKKβ) that selectively targets NF-κB signaling, can modulate TGF-β/TNF-α-induced RPE-EMT. Next, we performed RNA-seq studies on BAY651942 treated hRPE monolayers to dissect altered biological pathways and signaling events. Further, we validated the effect of IKKβ inhibition on RPE-EMT-associated factors using a second IKKβ inhibitor, BMS345541, with RPE monolayers derived from an independent stem cell line. Our data highlights the fact that pharmacological inhibition of RPE-EMT restores RPE identity and may provide a promising approach for treating retinal diseases that involve RPE dedifferentiation and EMT.

Current progress on innate immune evasion mediated by Npro protein of pestiviruses

Interferon (IFN), the most effective antiviral cytokine, is involved in innate and adaptive immune responses and is essential to the host defense against virus invasion. Once the host was infected by pathogens, the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) were recognized by the host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which activates interferon regulatory transcription factors (IRFs) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signal transduction pathway to induce IFN expression. Pathogens have acquired many strategies to escape the IFN-mediated antiviral immune response. Pestiviruses cause massive economic losses in the livestock industry worldwide every year. The immune escape strategies acquired by pestiviruses during evolution are among the major difficulties in its control. Previous experiments indicated that Erns, as an envelope glycoprotein unique to pestiviruses with RNase activity, could cleave viral ss- and dsRNAs, therefore inhibiting the host IFN production induced by viral ss- and dsRNAs. In contrast, Npro, the other envelope glycoprotein unique to pestiviruses, mainly stimulates the degradation of transcription factor IRF-3 to confront the IFN response. This review mainly summarized the current progress on mechanisms mediated by Npro of pestiviruses to antagonize IFN production.

Role of Orai-family channels in the activation and regulation of transcriptional activity

Store operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) is a cornerstone for the maintenance of intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis and the regulation of a variety of cellular functions. SOCE is mediated by STIM and Orai proteins following the activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors. Then, a reduction of the endoplasmic reticulum intraluminal Ca²⁺ concentration is sensed by STIM proteins, which undergo a conformational change and activate plasma membrane Ca²⁺ channels comprised by Orai proteins. STIM1/Orai-mediated Ca²⁺ signals are finely regulated and modulate the activity of different transcription factors, including certain isoforms of the nuclear factor of activated T-cells, the cAMP-response element binding protein, the nuclear factor κ-light chain-enhancer of activated B cells, c-fos, and c-myc. These transcription factors associate SOCE with a plethora of signaling events and cellular functions. Here we provide an overview of the current knowledge about the role of Orai channels in the regulation of transcription factors through Ca²⁺ -dependent signaling pathways.

Okadaic Acid Activates JAK/STAT Signaling to Affect Xenobiotic Metabolism in HepaRG Cells

Okadaic acid (OA) is a marine biotoxin that is produced by algae and accumulates in filter-feeding shellfish, through which it enters the human food chain, leading to diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) after ingestion. Furthermore, additional effects of OA have been observed, such as cytotoxicity. Additionally, a strong downregulation of the expression of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the liver can be observed. The underlying mechanisms of this, however, remain to be examined. In this study, we investigated a possible underlying mechanism of the downregulation of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and the nuclear receptors pregnane X receptor (PXR) and retinoid-X-receptor alpha (RXRα) by OA through NF-κB and subsequent JAK/STAT activation in human HepaRG hepatocarcinoma cells. Our data suggest an activation of NF-κB signaling and subsequent expression and release of interleukins, which then activate JAK-dependent signaling and thus STAT3. Moreover, using the NF-κB inhibitors JSH-23 and Methysticin and the JAK inhibitors Decernotinib and Tofacitinib, we were also able to demonstrate a connection between OA-induced NF-κB and JAK signaling and the downregulation of CYP enzymes. Overall, we provide clear evidence that the effect of OA on the expression of CYP enzymes in HepaRG cells is regulated through NF-κB and subsequent JAK signaling.

The good Samaritan glutathione-S-transferase P1: An evolving relationship in nitric oxide metabolism mediated by the direct interactions between multiple effector molecules

Glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) are phase II detoxification isozymes that conjugate glutathione (GSH) to xenobiotics and also suppress redox stress. It was suggested that GSTs have evolved not to enhance their GSH affinity, but to better interact with and metabolize cytotoxic nitric oxide (NO). The interactions between NO and GSTs involve their ability to bind and store NO as dinitrosyl-dithiol iron complexes (DNICs) within cells. Additionally, the association of GSTP1 with inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) results in its inhibition. The function of NO in vasodilation together with studies associating GSTM1 or GSTT1 null genotypes with preeclampsia, additionally suggests an intriguing connection between NO and GSTs. Furthermore, suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activity occurs upon increased levels of GSTP1 or NO that decreases transcription of JNK target genes such as c-Jun and c-Fos, which inhibit apoptosis. This latter effect is mediated by the direct association of GSTs with MAPK proteins. GSTP1 can also inhibit nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling through its interactions with IKKβ and Iκα, resulting in decreased iNOS expression and the stimulation of apoptosis. It can be suggested that the inhibitory activity of GSTP1 within the JNK and NF-κB pathways may be involved in crosstalk between survival and apoptosis pathways and modulating NO-mediated ROS generation. These studies highlight an innovative role of GSTs in NO metabolism through their interaction with multiple effector proteins, with GSTP1 functioning as a "good Samaritan" within each pathway to promote favorable cellular conditions and NO levels.

Modulation of Kinase Activities In Vitro by Hepatitis C Virus Protease NS3/NS4A Mediated-Cleavage of Key Immune Modulator Kinases

Hepatitis C Virus NS3/NS4A, a serine protease complex, has been found to interact with many host proteins and cause various adverse effects on cellular function and immune response. For example, the cleavage of important immune factors by NS3/NS4A has been suggested as a mechanism for the hepatitis C virus to evade innate immunity. The spectrum of susceptible substrates for NS3/NS4A cleavage certainly includes important immune modulator kinases such as IKKα, IKKβ, IKKε, and TBK1, as demonstrated in this paper. We show that the kinase activities of these four host kinases were transformed in unexpected ways by NS3/NS4A. Treatment with NS3/NS4A caused a significant reduction in the kinase activities of both IKKα and IKKβ, suggesting that HCV might use its NS3/NS4A protease activity to deactivate the NF-κB-associated innate immune responses. In contrast, the kinase activities of both IKKε and TBK1 were enhanced after NS3/NS4A treatment, and more strikingly, the enhancement was more than 10-fold within 20 min of treatment. Our mass spectroscopic results suggested that the cleavage after Cys89 in the kinase domain of IKKε by NS3/NS4A led to their higher kinase activities, and three potential mechanisms were discussed. The observed kinase activity enhancement might facilitate the activation of both IKKε- and TBK1-dependent cellular antiviral pathways, likely contributing to spontaneous clearance of the virus and observed acute HCV infection. After longer than 20 min cleavage, both IKKε- and TBK1 gradually lost their kinase activities and the relevant antiviral pathways were expected to be inactivated, facilitating the establishment of chronic HCV infection.

Ageing and the Autonomic Nervous System

The vertebrate nervous system is divided into central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) components. In turn, the PNS is divided into the autonomic (ANS) and enteric (ENS) nervous systems. Ageing implicates time-related changes to anatomy and physiology in reducing organismal fitness. In the case of the CNS, there exists substantial experimental evidence of the effects of age on individual neuronal and glial function. Although many such changes have yet to be experimentally observed in the PNS, there is considerable evidence of the role of ageing in the decline of ANS function over time. As such, this chapter will argue that the ANS constitutes a paradigm for the physiological consequences of ageing, as well as for their clinical implications.

The inhibitor of κB kinase β (IKKβ) phosphorylates IκBα twice in a single binding event through a sequential mechanism

Phosphorylation of Inhibitor of κB (IκB) proteins by IκB Kinase β (IKKβ) leads to IκB degradation and subsequent activation of nuclear factor κB transcription factors. Of particular interest is the IKKβ-catalyzed phosphorylation of IκBα residues Ser32 and Ser36 within a conserved destruction box motif. To investigate the catalytic mechanism of IKKβ, we performed pre-steady-state kinetic analysis of the phosphorylation of IκBα protein substrates catalyzed by constitutively active, human IKKβ. Phosphorylation of full-length IκBα catalyzed by IKKβ was characterized by a fast exponential phase followed by a slower linear phase. The maximum observed rate (kp) of IKKβ-catalyzed phosphorylation of IκBα was 0.32 s-1 and the binding affinity of ATP for the IKKβ•IκBα complex (Kd) was 12 μM. Substitution of either Ser32 or Ser36 with Ala, Asp, or Cys reduced the amplitude of the exponential phase by approximately 2-fold. Thus, the exponential phase was attributed to phosphorylation of IκBα at Ser32 and Ser36, whereas the slower linear phase was attributed to phosphorylation of other residues. Interestingly, the exponential rate of phosphorylation of the IκBα(S32D) phosphomimetic amino acid substitution mutant was nearly twice that of WT IκBα and 4-fold faster than any of the other IκBα amino acid substitution mutants, suggesting that phosphorylation of Ser32 increases the phosphorylation rate of Ser36. These conclusions were supported by parallel experiments using GST-IκBα(1-54) fusion protein substrates bearing the first 54 residues of IκBα. Our data suggest a model wherein, IKKβ phosphorylates IκBα at Ser32 followed by Ser36 within a single binding event.

Effect of apigenin on tryptophan metabolic key enzymes expression in lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial cells and its mechanism

[Aims] Flavonoid apigenin (API) has a wide range of biological functions, particularly anti-inflammation. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and 2-Amino-3-carboxymuconate-6-semialdehyde decarboxylase (ACMSD) are important tryptophan metabolic enzymes that play pivotal roles in the production of toxic metabolite quinolinic acid. However, the relationship between inflammation and ACMSD remains unclear. The present study investigated the relationship between inflammation and tryptophan metabolic key enzymes. Similarly, the anti-inflammatory effect of API on important tryptophan metabolic enzymes was examined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated microglial cells. [Main methods] MG6 cells were exposed to LPS with or without API treatment for 24-48 h. IDO and ACMSD mRNA expression and production of inflammatory mediators were analyzed. Activation of inflammatory signaling pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), was also examined to study the mechanism of API in the inflammatory state. [Key findings] LPS suppressed ACMSD expression and enhanced IDO expression. However, API elevated ACMSD mRNA expression and suppressed IDO mRNA expression in LPS-treated MG6 cells. Furthermore, API suppressed interleukin-6 and nitric oxide production, whereas overproduction of inflammatory mediators enhanced IDO expression and assisted tryptophan degradation. API also inhibited activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK, and degradation of IκBα. [Significance] These results indicate alteration of ACMSD expression under inflammatory conditions. Moreover, API recovers expression of tryptophan metabolic key enzymes, which may be mediated by inhibition of proinflammatory mediator production via inactivation of Erk, JNK MAPK, and NF-κB pathways in LPS-stimulated microglial cells.

Effects of resveratrol and its derivative pterostilbene on hepatic injury and immunological stress of weaned piglets challenged with lipopolysaccharide

The present study was to investigate the protective effects of resveratrol (RSV) and its 3,5-dimethylether derivative pterostilbene (PT) against liver injury and immunological stress of weaned piglets upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Seventy-two weaned piglets were divided into the following groups: control group, LPS-challenged group, and LPS-challenged groups pretreated with either RSV or PT for 14 d (n = 6 pens, three pigs per pen). At the end of the feeding trial, piglets were intraperitoneally injected with either LPS or an equivalent amount of sterile saline. After 6 h of sterile saline or LPS injection, plasma and liver samples were collected. LPS stimulation caused massive apoptosis, activated inflammatory responses, and incited severe oxidative stress in the piglet livers while also promoting the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 (P < 0.001) and the protein expression of Nod-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3; P = 0.001) and cleaved caspase 1 (P < 0.001). PT was more effective than RSV in alleviating LPS-induced hepatic damage by decreasing the apoptotic rate of liver cells (P = 0.045), inhibiting the transcriptional expression of interleukin 1 beta (P < 0.001) and interleukin 6 (P = 0.008), and reducing myeloperoxidase activity (P = 0.010). The LPS-induced increase in hepatic lipid peroxidation accumulation was also reversed by PT (P = 0.024). Importantly, inhibiting protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity in a hepatocellular model largely blocked the ability of PT to prevent tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced increases in NF-κB p65 protein phosphorylation (P = 0.043) and its nuclear translocation (P = 0.029). In summary, PT is a promising agent that may alleviate liver injury and immunological stress of weaned piglets via the PP2A/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

Dysregulated inflammasome activity in intestinal inflammation - Insights from patients with very early onset IBD

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a multifactorial disorder triggered by imbalances of the microbiome and immune dysregulations in genetically susceptible individuals. Several mouse and human studies have demonstrated that multimeric inflammasomes are critical regulators of host defense and gut homeostasis by modulating immune responses to pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns. In the context of IBD, excessive production of pro-inflammatory Interleukin-1β has been detected in patient-derived intestinal tissues and correlated with the disease severity or failure to respond to anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy. Correspondingly, genome-wide association studies have suggested that single nucleotide polymorphisms in inflammasome components might be associated with risk of IBD development. The relevance of inflammasomes in controlling human intestinal homeostasis has been further exemplified by the discovery of very early onset IBD (VEO-IBD) patients with monogenic defects affecting different molecules in the complex regulatory network of inflammasome activity. This review provides an overview of known causative monogenic entities of VEO-IBD associated with altered inflammasome activity. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling inflammasomes in monogenic VEO-IBD may open novel therapeutic avenues for rare and common inflammatory diseases.

The pathophysiology of major depressive disorder through the lens of systems biology: Network analysis of the psycho-immune-neuroendocrine physiome

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The psycho-immune-neuroendocrine (PINE) network is a predominantly physiological (metabolomic) model constructed from the literature, inter-linking multiple biological processes associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), thereby integrating putative mechanistic pathways for MDD into a single network.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Previously published metabolomic pathways for the PINE network based on literature searches conducted in 1991-2021 were used to construct an edge table summarizing all physiological pathways in pairs of origin nodes and target nodes. The Gephi software program was used to calculate network metrics from the edge table, including total degree and centrality measures, to ascertain key network nodes and construct a directed network graph.

RESULTS

An edge table and directional network graph of physiological relationships in the PINE network is presented. The network has properties consistent with complex biological systems, with analysis yielding key network nodes comprising pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF- α, IL6 and IL1), glucocorticoids and corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). These may represent central structural and regulatory elements in the context of MDD.

CONCLUSION

The identified hubs have a high degree of connection and are known to play roles in the progression from health to MDD. These nodes represent strategic targets for therapeutic intervention or prevention. Future work is required to build a weighted and dynamic simulation of the network PINE.

IκBNS expression in B cells is dispensable for IgG responses to T cell-dependent antigens

Mice lacking the atypical inhibitory kappa B (IκB) protein, IκBNS, a regulator of the NF-κB pathway encoded by the nfkbid gene, display impaired antibody responses to both T cell-independent (TI) and T cell-dependent (TD) antigens. To better understand the basis of these defects, we crossed mice carrying floxed nfkbid alleles with mice expressing Cre under the transcriptional control of the Cd79a gene to create mice that lacked IκBNS expression only in B cells. Analyses of these conditional knock-out mice revealed intact CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations, including preserved frequencies of FoxP3+ regulatory T cells, which are known to be reduced in IκBNS knock-out mice. Like IκBNS knock-out mice, mice with conditional IκBNS ablation in B cells displayed defective IgM responses to TI antigens and a severe reduction in peritoneal B-1a cells. However, in contrast to mice lacking IκBNS altogether, the conditional IκBNS knock-out mice responded well to TD antigens compared to the control mice, with potent IgG responses following immunization with the viral antigen, rSFV-βGal or the widely used hapten-protein model antigen, NP-CGG. Furthermore, B cell intrinsic IκBNS expression was dispensable for germinal center (GC) formation and T follicular helper cell responses to NP-CGG immunization. The results presented here suggest that the defect in antibody responses to TD antigens observed in IκBNS knock-out mice results from a B cell extrinsic defect.

Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors: The Next Frontier of B-Cell-Targeted Therapies for Cancer, Autoimmune Disorders, and Multiple Sclerosis

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is an important protein belonging to the tyrosine kinase family that plays a key role in the intracellular signaling and proliferation, migration, and survival of normal and malignant B-lymphocytes and myeloid cells. Understanding the role of BTK in the B-cell signaling pathway has led to the development of BTK inhibitors (BTKi) as effective therapies for malignancies of myeloid origin and exploration as a promising therapeutic option for other cancers. Given its central function in B-cell receptor signaling, inhibition of BTK is an attractive approach for the treatment of a wide variety of autoimmune diseases that involve aberrant B-cell function including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Here, we review the role of BTK in different cell signaling pathways, the development of BTKi in B-cell malignancies, and their emerging role in the treatment of MS and other autoimmune disorders.

Resvega, a Nutraceutical Preparation, Affects NFκB Pathway and Prolongs the Anti-VEGF Effect of Bevacizumab in Undifferentiated ARPE-19 Retina Cells

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an irreversible chronic degenerative pathology that affects the retina. Despite therapeutic advances thanks to the use of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents, resistance mechanisms have been found to accentuate the visual deficit. In the present study, we explored whether a nutraceutical formulation composed of omega-3 fatty acids and resveratrol, called Resvega®, was able to disrupt VEGF-A secretion in human ARPE-19 retina cells. We found that Resvega® inhibits VEGF-A secretion through decreases in both the PI3K-AKT-mTOR and NFκB signaling pathways. In NFκB signaling pathways, Resvega® inhibits the phosphorylation of the inhibitor of NFκB, IκB, which can bind NFκB dimers and sequester them in the cytoplasm. Thus, the NFκB subunits cannot migrate to the nucleus where they normally bind and stimulate the transcription of target genes such as VEGF-A. The IκB kinase complex (IKK) is also affected by Resvega® since the nutraceutical formulation decreases both IKKα and IKKβ subunits and the IKKγ subunit which is required for the stimulation of IKK. Very interestingly, we highlight that Resvega® could prolong the anti-angiogenic effect of Avastin®, which is an anti-VEGF agent typically used in clinical practice. Our results suggest that Resvega® may have potential interest as nutritional supplementation against AMD.

RIOK3 and Its Alternatively Spliced Isoform Have Disparate Roles in the Innate Immune Response to Rift Valley Fever Virus (MP12) Infection

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a pathogenic human and livestock RNA virus that poses a significant threat to public health and biosecurity. During RVFV infection, the atypical kinase RIOK3 plays important roles in the innate immune response. Although its exact functions in innate immunity are not completely understood, RIOK3 has been shown to be necessary for mounting an antiviral interferon (IFN) response to RVFV in epithelial cells. Furthermore, after immune stimulation, the splicing pattern for RIOK3 mRNA changes markedly, and RIOK3's dominant alternatively spliced isoform, RIOK3 X2, exhibits an opposite effect on the IFN response by dampening it. Here, we further investigate the roles of RIOK3 and its spliced isoform in other innate immune responses to RVFV, namely the NFκB-mediated inflammatory response. We find that while RIOK3 is important for negatively regulating this inflammatory pathway, its alternatively spliced isoform, RIOK3 X2, stimulates it. Overall, these data demonstrate that both RIOK3 and its X2 isoform have unique roles in separate innate immune pathways that respond to RVFV infection.

Inflammatory stress signaling via NF-kB alters accessible cholesterol to upregulate SREBP2 transcriptional activity in endothelial cells

There is a growing appreciation that a tight relationship exists between cholesterol homeostasis and immunity in leukocytes; however, this relationship has not been deeply explored in the vascular endothelium. Endothelial cells (ECs) rapidly respond to extrinsic signals, such as tissue damage or microbial infection, by upregulating factors to activate and recruit circulating leukocytes to the site of injury and aberrant activation of ECs leads to inflammatory based diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and atherosclerosis. Here, we studied the role of cholesterol and a key transcription regulator of cholesterol homeostasis, SREBP2, in the EC responses to inflammatory stress. Treatment of primary human ECs with pro-inflammatory cytokines upregulated SREBP2 cleavage and cholesterol biosynthetic gene expression within the late phase of the acute inflammatory response. Furthermore, SREBP2 activation was dependent on NF-κB DNA binding and canonical SCAP-SREBP2 processing. Mechanistically, inflammatory activation of SREBP was mediated by a reduction in accessible cholesterol, leading to heightened sterol sensing and downstream SREBP2 cleavage. Detailed analysis of NF-κB inducible genes that may impact sterol sensing resulted in the identification of a novel RELA-inducible target, STARD10, that mediates accessible cholesterol homeostasis in ECs. Thus, this study provides an in-depth characterization of the relationship between cholesterol homeostasis and the acute inflammatory response in EC.

Viral-mediated activation and inhibition of programmed cell death

Viruses are ubiquitous intracellular genetic parasites that heavily rely on the infected cell to complete their replication life cycle. This dependency on the host machinery forces viruses to modulate a variety of cellular processes including cell survival and cell death. Viruses are known to activate and block almost all types of programmed cell death (PCD) known so far. Modulating PCD in infected hosts has a variety of direct and indirect effects on viral pathogenesis and antiviral immunity. The mechanisms leading to apoptosis following virus infection is widely studied, but several modalities of PCD, including necroptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and paraptosis, are relatively understudied. In this review, we cover the mechanisms by which viruses activate and inhibit PCDs and suggest perspectives on how these affect viral pathogenesis and immunity.

Gabapentin Alleviates Brain Injury in Intracerebral Hemorrhage Through Suppressing Neuroinflammation and Apoptosis

Neuroinflammation plays an important role in brain tissue injury during intracerebral hemorrhage. Gabapentin can reduce inflammation and oxidative stress through inhibiting nuclear factor κB (NFκB) signals. Here, we showed that gabapentin reduced brain tissue injury in ICH through suppressing NFκB-mediated neuroinflammation. ICH was induced by injecting collagenase IV into the right striatum of Sprague-Dawley rats. PC12 and BV2 cells injury induced by Hemin were used to simulate ICH in vitro. Inflammation and apoptosis were assessed in rat brain tissue and in vitro cells. The neurobehavioral scores were significantly decreased in ICH rats compared with sham rats. Phosphorylated IκB-α and cleaved caspase3, and apoptosis rate were significantly higher in tissue surrounding the hematoma than in brain tissues from rats subjected to sham surgery. Furthermore, serum IL-6 levels in ICH rats were higher than in sham rats. Gabapentin treatment significantly improved the behavioral scores, decreased levels of phosphorylated IκB-α and cleaved caspase3, apoptosis rate, and serum IL-6 level in ICH rats. Hemin-treated BV2 cells displayed higher levels of phosphorylated IκB-α, cleaved caspase3, and IL-6 in the supernatant compared with vehicle-treated cells. Hemin treatment induced a significantly lower level of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in BV2 cells. BV2-PC12 co-culture cells treated by hemin displayed higher levels of cleaved caspase3 in PC12 cells. Furthermore, gabapentin treatment could reduce these effects induced by hemin and the protective effects of gabapentin were significantly attenuated by PPARγ inhibitor. Therefore, gabapentin may reduce inflammation and apoptosis induced by the ICH through PPARγ-NFκB pathway.

Ovarian Cancers with Low CIP2A Tumor Expression Constitute an APR-246-Sensitive Disease Subtype

Identification of ovarian cancer patient subpopulations with increased sensitivity to targeted therapies could offer significant clinical benefit. We report that 22% of the high-grade ovarian cancer tumors at diagnosis express CIP2A oncoprotein at low levels. Furthermore, regardless of their significantly lower likelihood of disease relapse after standard chemotherapy, a portion of relapsed tumors retain their CIP2A-deficient phenotype. Through a screen for therapeutics that would preferentially kill CIP2A-deficient ovarian cancer cells, we identified reactive oxygen species inducer APR-246, tested previously in ovarian cancer clinical trials. Consistent with CIP2A-deficient ovarian cancer subtype in humans, CIP2A is dispensable for development of MISIIR-Tag-driven mouse ovarian cancer tumors. Nevertheless, CIP2A-null ovarian cancer tumor cells from MISIIR-Tag mice displayed APR-246 hypersensitivity both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the lack of CIP2A expression hypersensitizes the ovarian cancer cells to APR-246 by inhibition of NF-κB activity. Accordingly, combination of APR-246 and NF-κB inhibitor compounds strongly synergized in killing of CIP2A-positive ovarian cancer cells. Collectively, the results warrant consideration of clinical testing of APR-246 for CIP2A-deficient ovarian cancer tumor subtype patients. Results also reveal CIP2A as a candidate APR-246 combination therapy target for ovarian cancer.

Dimers of isatin derived α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone as potent anti-cancer agents

The IKK-NFκB complex is a key signaling node that facilitates activation of gene expression in response to extracellular signals. The kinase IKKβ and the transcription factor RELA have been targeted by covalent modifiers that bind to surface exposed cysteine residues. A common feature in well characterized covalent modifiers of RELA and IKKβ is the Michael acceptor containing α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone functionality. Through synthesis and evaluation of a focused set of α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone containing spirocyclic dimers (SpiDs) we identified SpiD3 as an anticancer agent with low nanomolar potency. Using cell-free and cell-based studies we show that SpiD3 is a covalent modifier that generates stable RELA containing high molecular weight complexes. SpiD3 inhibits TNFα-induced IκBα phosphorylation resulting in the blockade of RELA nuclear translocation. SpiD3 induces apoptosis, inhibits colony formation and migration of cancer cells. The NCI-60 cell line screen revealed that SpiD3 potently inhibits growth of leukemia cell lines, making it a suitable pre-therapeutic lead for hematological malignancies.

The Contribution of Viral Proteins to the Synergy of Influenza and Bacterial Co-Infection

A severe course of acute respiratory disease caused by influenza A virus (IAV) infection is often linked with subsequent bacterial superinfection, which is difficult to cure. Thus, synergistic influenza-bacterial co-infection represents a serious medical problem. The pathogenic changes in the infected host are accelerated as a consequence of IAV infection, reflecting its impact on the host immune response. IAV infection triggers a complex process linked with the blocking of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms required for effective antiviral defense. Such disbalance of the immune system allows for easier initiation of bacterial superinfection. Therefore, many new studies have emerged that aim to explain why viral-bacterial co-infection can lead to severe respiratory disease with possible fatal outcomes. In this review, we discuss the key role of several IAV proteins-namely, PB1-F2, hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and NS1-known to play a role in modulating the immune defense of the host, which consequently escalates the development of secondary bacterial infection, most often caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Understanding the mechanisms leading to pathological disorders caused by bacterial superinfection after the previous viral infection is important for the development of more effective means of prevention; for example, by vaccination or through therapy using antiviral drugs targeted at critical viral proteins.

Mechanistic insights into the activation of the IKK kinase complex by the Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpes virus oncoprotein vFLIP

Constitutive activation of the canonical NF-κB signaling pathway is a major factor in Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus pathogenesis where it is essential for the survival of primary effusion lymphoma. Central to this process is persistent upregulation of the inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK) complex by the virally encoded oncoprotein vFLIP. Although the physical interaction between vFLIP and the IKK kinase regulatory component essential for persistent activation, IKKγ, has been well characterized, it remains unclear how the kinase subunits are rendered active mechanistically. Using a combination of cell-based assays, biophysical techniques, and structural biology, we demonstrate here that vFLIP alone is sufficient to activate the IKK kinase complex. Furthermore, we identify weakly stabilized, high molecular weight vFLIP–IKKγ assemblies that are key to the activation process. Taken together, our results are the first to reveal that vFLIP-induced NF-κB activation pivots on the formation of structurally specific vFLIP–IKKγ multimers which have an important role in rendering the kinase subunits active through a process of autophosphorylation. This mechanism of NF-κB activation is in contrast to those utilized by endogenous cytokines and cellular FLIP homologues.