Risk factors and timing of relapse after allogeneic transplantation in pediatric ALL: for whom and when should interventions be tested?

Persistent or New Cytopenias Predict Relapse Better than Routine Bone Marrow Aspirate Evaluations After Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for Acute Leukemia or Myelodysplastic Syndrome in Children and Young Adult Patients

The clinical value of serial routine bone marrow aspirates (rBMAs) in the first year after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (alloHCT) to detect or predict relapse of acute leukemia (AL) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) in pediatric and young adult patients is unclear. The purpose of this analysis was to determine if assessment of minimal residual disease (MRD) by multiparameter flow cytometry (MFC, MFC-MRD) or donor chimerism (DC) in rBMAs or serial complete blood counts (CBCs) done in the year after alloHCT predicted relapse of AL or MDS in pediatric and young adult patients. We completed a retrospective analysis of patients with AL or MDS who had rBMAs performed after alloHCT between January 2012 and June 2018. Bone marrow (BM) was evaluated at approximately 3, 6, and 12 months for disease recurrence by morphology, MFC-MRD, and percent DC by short tandem repeat molecular testing. CBCs were performed at every clinic visit. The main outcome of interest was an assessment of whether MFC-MRD or DC in rBMAs or serial CBCs done in the year after alloHCT predicted relapse in AL or MDS pediatric and young adult patients. A total of 121 recipients with a median age of 13 years (range 1 to 32) were included: 108 with AL and, 13 with MDS. A total of 423 rBMAs (median 3; 0 to 13) were performed. Relapse at 2 years was 23% (95% CI: 16% to 31%) and at 5 years 25% (95% CI: 18% to 33%). One hundred fifty-four of 157 (98%) rBMAs evaluated for MRD by MFC were negative and did not preclude subsequent relapse. Additionally, low DC (<95%) did not predict relapse and high DC (≥95%) did not preclude relapse. For patients alive without relapse at 1 year, BM DC (P = .74) and peripheral T-cell DC (P = .93) did not predict relapse. Six patients with low-level T-cell and/or BM DC had a total of 8 to 20 BM evaluations, none of these patients relapsed. However, CBC results were informative for relapse; 28 of 31 (90%) relapse patients presented with an abnormal CBC with peripheral blood (PB) blasts (16 patients), cytopenias (9 patients), or extramedullary disease (EMD, 3 patients). Two patients with BM blasts >5% on rBMA had circulating blasts within 5 weeks of rBMA. Neutropenia (ANC <1.5 K/mcl) at 1 year was predictive of relapse (P = .01). Neutropenia and thrombocytopenia (<160 K/mcl) were predictive of disease-free survival (DFS) with inferior DFS for ANC <1.5 K/mcl, P = .001, or platelet count <160 K/mcl (P = .04). These results demonstrate rBMAs after alloHCT assessed for MRD by MFC and/or for level of DC are poor predictors for relapse in pediatric and young adult patients with AL or MDS. Relapse in these patients presents with PB blasts, cytopenias, or EMD. ANC and platelet count at 1-year were highly predictive for DFS.

Busulfan with 400 centigray of total body irradiation and higher dose fludarabine: An alternative regimen for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia

BACKGROUND

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation can be curative for children with difficult-to-treat leukemia. The conditioning regimen utilized is known to influence outcomes. We report outcomes of the conditioning regimen used at the Alberta Children's Hospital, consisting of busulfan (with pharmacokinetic target of 3750 μmol*min/L/day ±10%) for 4 days, higher dose (250 mg/m2 ) fludarabine and 400 centigray (cGy) of total body irradiation.

PROCEDURE

This retrospective study involved children receiving transplant for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). It compared children who fell within the target range for busulfan with those who were either not measured or were measured and fell outside this range. All other treatment factors were identical.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine children (17 within target) were evaluated. All subjects engrafted neutrophils with a median [interquartile range] time of 14 days [8-30 days]. The cumulative incidence of acute graft-versus-host disease was 44.8% [95% confidence interval, CI: 35.6%-54.0%], while chronic graft-versus-host disease was noted in 16.0% [95% CI: 8.7%-23.3%]. At 2 years, the overall survival was 78.1% [95% CI: 70.8%-86.4%] and event-free survival was 74.7% [95% CI: 66.4%-83.0%]. Cumulative incidence of relapse was 11.3% [95% CI: 5.1%-17.5%]. There were no statistically significant differences in between the group that received targeted busulfan compared with the untargeted group.

CONCLUSION

Our conditioning regiment for children with ALL resulted in outcomes comparable to standard treatment with acceptable toxicities and significant reduction in radiation dose. Targeting busulfan dose in this cohort did not result in improved outcomes.

Graft-versus-host disease after an outpatient peripheral blood hematopoietic cell transplant using reduced-intensity conditioning: a single-center LATAM experience

BACKGROUND

HLA compatibility predicts allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant (allo-HCT) and graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) outcomes. There is insufficient information regarding GvHD outcomes for outpatient HLA-identical and haploidentical-HCT employing reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We compare GvHD outcomes between donor types and report risk factors associated with GvHD. Stem cell source was T-cell replete peripheral blood. GvHD prophylaxis was post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PT-CY), mycophenolic acid, and calcineurin inhibitors for haploidentical (n = 107) and oral cyclosporine (CsA) plus methotrexate i.v. for HLA-identical (n = 89) recipients.

RESULTS

One hundred and ninety-six HCT transplant patients were included. aGvHD and cGvHD frequency were similar between HCT types. aGvHD severity was comparable, but severe cGvHD was less frequent in the haploidentical group (p = .011). One-hundred-day cumulative incidence (CI) of aGvHD for haploidentical and HLA-identical was 31% and 33% (p = .84); 2-year CI of cGvHD was 32% and 38% (p = .6), respectively. Haploidentical recipients had less steroid-refractory cGvHD (p = .043). Patients with cGvHD had less 2-year relapse (p = .003); both aGvHD and cGvHD conferred higher OS (p = .010 and p = .001), respectively. Male sex was protective for steroid-refractory cGvHD (p = .028).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute and chronic GvHD rates were comparable between HLA-identical and haploidentical transplant groups. cGvHD severity was lower in the haploidentical group.

Stem cell transplantation for ALL: you've always got a donor, why not always use it?

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) represents a consolidated therapeutic strategy for high-risk pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), offering the potential for curative treatment. This manuscript delves into the debate around the more universal application of HSCT for pediatric ALL in the modern era, considering the ubiquitous availability of suitable donors. In fact, despite significant advancements in chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, a subset of pediatric patients with ALL with high-risk features or relapse continue to encounter poor prognostic outcomes. For this subgroup of patients, HSCT often remains the only potentially curative measure, leveraging the graft-versus- leukemia effect for long-term disease control. Nevertheless, the procedure's complexity and associated risks have traditionally curtailed its widespread use. However, the scenario is shifting with improvements in HLA matching, availability of alternative donor sources, less toxic conditioning regimens, and improved supportive care protocols. Concurrently, emerging therapies like CD19+ CAR T cells present new considerations for definitive therapy selection in relapsed/ refractory ALL. This article reviews critical current evidence and debates the potential of HSCT as a more universal treatment for ALL, reevaluating traditional treatment stratification in light of the constant availability of stem cell donors.

The current landscape: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

One of the consistent features in development of hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HCT) for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) is the rapidity with which discoveries in the laboratory are translated into innovations in clinical care. Just a few years after murine studies demonstrated that rescue from radiation induced marrow failure is mediated by cellular not humoral factors, E. Donnall Thomas reported on the transfer of bone marrow cells into irradiated leukemia patients. This was followed quickly by the first descriptions of Graft versus Leukemia (GvL) effect and Graft versus Host Disease (GvHD). Despite the pivotal nature of these findings, early human transplants were uniformly unsuccessful and identified the challenges that continue to thwart transplanters today - leukemic relapse, regimen related toxicity, and GvHD. While originally only an option for young, fit patients with a matched family donor, expansion of the donor pool to include unrelated donors, umbilical cord blood units, and more recently the growing use of haploidentical donors have all made transplant a more accessible therapy for patients with ALL. Novel agents for conditioning, prevention and treatment of GvHD have improved outcomes and investigators continue to develop novel treatment strategies that balance regimen related toxicity with disease control. Our evolving understanding of how to prevent and treat GvHD and how to prevent relapse are incorporated into novel clinical trials that are expected to further improve outcomes. Here we review current considerations and future directions for both adult and pediatric patients undergoing HCT for ALL, including indication for transplant, donor selection, cytoreductive regimens, and outcomes.

Children's Oncology Group's 2023 blueprint for research: Cellular therapy and stem cell transplantation

Since the publication of the last Cellular Therapy and Stem Cell Transplant blueprint in 2013, Children's Oncology Group cellular therapy-based trials advanced the field and created new standards of care across a wide spectrum of pediatric cancer diagnoses. Key findings include that tandem autologous transplant improved survival for patients with neuroblastoma and atypical teratoid/rhabdoid brain tumors, one umbilical cord blood (UCB) donor was safer than two UCB donors, killer immunoglobulin receptor (KIR) mismatched donors did not improve survival for pediatric acute myeloid leukemia when in vivo T-cell depletion is used, and the depth of remission as measured by next-generation sequencing-based minimal residual disease assessment pretransplant was the best predictor of relapse for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Plans for the next decade include optimizing donor selection for transplants for acute leukemia/myelodysplastic syndrome, using novel engineered cellular therapies to target a wide array of malignancies, and developing better treatments for cellular therapy toxicities such as viral infections and graft-vs-host disease.

What is Next in Pediatric B-cell Precursor Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Cure rates now exceed 90% in many contemporary trials for children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, treatment remains suboptimal and therapy is toxic for all patients. New treatment options potentially offer the chance to reduce both treatment resistance and toxicity. Here, we review recent advances in ALL diagnostics, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. In addition to describing recently published results, we also attempt to project the impact of these new developments into the future to imagine what B-ALL therapy may look like in the next few years.

Post-Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Relapsed Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Current Challenges and Future Directions

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) represents an important and potentially curative treatment option for adult patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Relapse continues to remain the most important factor influencing overall survival post allo-HCT. We discuss early identification, clinical manifestations, and management of relapsed disease. Routine evaluation of measurable residual disease (MRD) and change in donor chimerism play a crucial role in early detection. Pivotal clinical trials have led to FDA approval of multiple novel agents like blinatumomab and inotuzumab. Combining targeted therapy with cellular immunotherapy serves as the backbone for prolonging overall survival in these patients. Donor lymphocyte infusions have traditionally been used in relapsed disease with suboptimal outcomes. This review provides insight into use of cellular therapy in MRD positivity and decreasing donor chimerism. It also discusses various modalities of combining cellular therapy with novel agents and discussing the impact of chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy in the setting of post allo-HCT relapse both as consolidative therapy and as a bridge to second transplant.

Haploidentical vs. HLA-matched donor hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in second remission: A collaborative retrospective study of the Spanish Group for Bone Marrow Transplantation in Children (GETMON/GETH) and the Spanish Childhood Relapsed ALL Board (ReALLNet)

Introduction

Studies addressing the role of haploidentical as alternative to HLA-matched donors for stem cell transplantation (SCT) often include patients with diverse hematological malignancies in different remission statuses.

Methods

We compared outcomes of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) undergoing SCT in second complete remission (CR2) from haploidentical (n = 25) versus HLA-matched donor (n = 51).

Results

Patients were equally distributed across both groups according to age, immunophenotype, time to and site of relapse, relapse risk-group allocation, and minimal residual disease (MRD) before SCT. Incidence of graft failure, acute graft versus host disease (GVHD), and other early complications did not differ between both groups. We found no differences in overall survival (58.7% versus 59.5%; p = .8), leukemia free survival (LFS) (48% versus 36.4%; p = .5), event free survival (40% versus 34.4%; p = .69), cumulative incidence (CI) of subsequent relapse (28% versus 40.9%; p = .69), treatment related mortality (24% versus 23.6%; p = .83), CI of cGVHD (4.5% versus 18.7%; p = .2), and chronic GVHD-free and leukemia-free survival (44% versus 26.3%; p = .3) after haploidentical donor SCT. Chronic GVHD (HR = 0.09; p=.02) had protective impact, and MRD ≥ 0.01% before SCT (HR = 2.59; p=.01) had unfavorable impact on LFS.

Discussion

These results support the role of haploidentical donor SCT in children with ALL in CR2.

Therapeutic Role of Carotenoids in Blood Cancer: Mechanistic Insights and Therapeutic Potential

Blood cancers are characterized by pathological disorders causing uncontrolled hematological cell division. Various strategies were previously explored for the treatment of blood cancers, including chemotherapy, Car-T therapy, targeting chimeric antigen receptors, and platelets therapy. However, all these therapies pose serious challenges that limit their use in blood cancer therapy, such as poor metabolism. Furthermore, the solubility and stability of anticancer drugs limit efficacy and bio-distribution and cause toxicity. The isolation and purification of natural killer cells during Car-T cell therapy is a major challenge. To cope with these challenges, treatment strategies from phyto-medicine scaffolds have been evaluated for blood cancer treatments. Carotenoids represent a versatile class of phytochemical that offer therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of cancer, and specifically blood cancer. Carotenoids, through various signaling pathways and mechanisms, such as the activation of AMPK, expression of autophagy biochemical markers (p62/LC3-II), activation of Keap1-Nrf2/EpRE/ARE signaaling pathway, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), increased level of reactive oxygen species, cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (c-PARP), c-caspase-3, -7, decreased level of Bcl-xL, cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase, and decreasing STAT3 expression results in apoptosis induction and inhibition of cancer cell proliferation. This review article focuses the therapeutic potential of carotenoids in blood cancers, addressing various mechanisms and signaling pathways that mediate their therapeutic efficacy.

Adolescent and young adult (AYA) versus pediatric patients with acute leukemia have a significantly increased risk of acute GVHD following unrelated donor (URD) stem cell transplantation (SCT): the Children's Oncology Group experience

Adolescent and young adult (AYA) patients with acute leukemia (AL) have inferior outcomes in comparison to younger patients, and are more likely to develop acute and chronic GVHD than younger children following HLA matched sibling donor stem cell transplant (SCT). We compared the incidence of grade II-IV acute GVHD, chronic GVHD, and survival in AYA (age 13-21 years) to younger children (age 2-12 years) who received an unrelated donor SCT for acute leukemia on Children's Oncology Group trials between 2004-2017. One hundred and eighty-eight children and young adults ages 2-21 years underwent URD SCT. Sixty-three percent were aged 2-12 and 37% were age 13-21. Older age was a risk factor for grade II-IV acute GVHD in multivariate analysis with a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.95 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.23-3.10], but not for chronic GVHD, HR 1.25 [95% CI 0.57-2.71]. Younger patients relapsed more often (34.5 ± 4.4% vs. 22.8 ± 4.0%, p = 0.032), but their Event-Free Survival (42.6 ± 4.7% vs. 51.8 ± 6.1%, p = 0.18) and Overall Survival at 5 years (48.5 ± 4.9% vs. 51.5 ± 6.4%, p = 0.56) were not different than AYA patients. AYA patients who receive an URD SCT for acute leukemia are significantly more likely to develop grade II-IV acute GVHD, though survival is similar.

Bispecific Antibodies and Other Non-CAR Targeted Therapies and HSCT: Decreased Toxicity for Better Transplant Outcome in Paediatric ALL?

This review will address the place of innovative, non-chemotherapy, non-CAR-T targeted therapies in the treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL), focusing on their use in the hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) context. The focus will be on the agent with the most experience to date, namely the bispecific T-cell engater (BiTE) blinatumomab, but references to antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) such as inotuzumab ozogamicin and monoclonal antibodies such as daratumamab will be made as well. Specific issues to be addressed include: (1) The use of these agents to reduce measurable residual disease (MRD) prior to HSCT and their potential for improved transplant outcomes due to reduced toxicity compared to traditional chemotherapy salvage, as well as potentially increased toxicity with HSCT with particular agents; (2) the appropriate sequencing of innovative therapies, i.e., when to use BiTEs or antibodies versus CARs pre- and/or post-HSCT; this will include also the potential for impact on response of one group of agents on response to the other; (3) the role of these agents particularly in the post-HSCT relapse setting, or as maintenance to prevent relapse in this setting; (4) special populations in which these agents may substitute for traditional chemotherapy during induction or consolidation in patients with predisposing factors for toxicity with traditional therapy (e.g., Trisomy 21, infants), or those who develop infectious complications precluding delivery of full standard-of-care (SOC) chemotherapy during induction/consolidation (e.g., fungal infections); (5) the evidence we have to date regarding the potential for substitution of blinatumomab for some of the standard chemotherapy agents used pre-HSCT in patients without the above risk factors for toxicity, but with high risk disease going into transplant, in an attempt to decrease current rates of transplant-related mortality as well as morbidity; (6) the unique toxicity profile of these agents and concerns regarding particular side effects in the HSCT context. The manuscript will include both the data we have to date regarding the above issues, ongoing studies that are trying to explore them, and suggestions for future studies to further refine our knowledge base.

Total Body Irradiation in Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Paediatric Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia: Review of the Literature and Future Directions

Total body irradiation (TBI) has been a pivotal component of the conditioning regimen for allogeneic myeloablative haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in very-high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) for decades, especially in children and young adults. The myeloablative conditioning regimen has two aims: (1) to eradicate leukaemic cells, and (2) to prevent rejection of the graft through suppression of the recipient's immune system. Radiotherapy has the advantage of achieving an adequate dose effect in sanctuary sites and in areas with poor blood supply. However, radiotherapy is subject to radiobiological trade-offs between ALL cell destruction, immune and haematopoietic stem cell survival, and various adverse effects in normal tissue. To diminish toxicity, a shift from single-fraction to fractionated TBI has taken place. However, HSCT and TBI are still associated with multiple late sequelae, leaving room for improvement. This review discusses the past developments of TBI and considerations for dose, fractionation and dose-rate, as well as issues regarding TBI setup performance, limitations and possibilities for improvement. TBI is typically delivered using conventional irradiation techniques and centres have locally developed heterogeneous treatment methods and ways to achieve reduced doses in several organs. There are, however, limitations in options to shield organs at risk without compromising the anti-leukaemic and immunosuppressive effects of conventional TBI. Technological improvements in radiotherapy planning and delivery with highly conformal TBI or total marrow irradiation (TMI), and total marrow and lymphoid irradiation (TMLI) have opened the way to investigate the potential reduction of radiotherapy-related toxicities without jeopardising efficacy. The demonstration of the superiority of TBI compared with chemotherapy-only conditioning regimens for event-free and overall survival in the randomised For Omitting Radiation Under Majority age (FORUM) trial in children with high-risk ALL makes exploration of the optimal use of TBI delivery mandatory. Standardisation and comprehensive reporting of conventional TBI techniques as well as cooperation between radiotherapy centres may help to increase the ratio between treatment outcomes and toxicity, and future studies must determine potential added benefit of innovative conformal techniques to ultimately improve quality of life for paediatric ALL patients receiving TBI-conditioned HSCT.

The Role of Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Pediatric Leukemia

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) offers potentially curative treatment for many children with high-risk or relapsed acute leukemia (AL), thanks to the combination of intense preparative radio/chemotherapy and the graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) effect. Over the years, progress in high-resolution donor typing, choice of conditioning regimen, graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) prophylaxis and supportive care measures have continuously improved overall transplant outcome, and recent successes using alternative donors have extended the potential application of allotransplantation to most patients. In addition, the importance of minimal residual disease (MRD) before and after transplantation is being increasingly clarified and MRD-directed interventions may be employed to further ameliorate leukemia-free survival after allogeneic HSCT. These advances have occurred in parallel with continuous refinements in chemotherapy protocols and the development of targeted therapies, which may redefine the indications for HSCT in the coming years. This review discusses the role of HSCT in childhood AL by analysing transplant indications in both acute lymphoblastic and acute myeloid leukemia, together with current and most promising strategies to further improve transplant outcome, including optimization of conditioning regimen and MRD-directed interventions.

The combination of clofarabine, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide shows limited efficacy as a bridge to transplant for children with refractory acute leukemia: results of a monitored prospective study

Clofarabine has been shown to effectively induce remission in children with refractory leukemia. We conducted a prospective trial (clinicval.trials.gov NCT01025778) to explore the use of clofarabine-based chemotherapy as a bridge-to-transplant approach. Children with refractory acute leukemia were enrolled to receive two induction courses of clofarabine, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide (CloEC). Responding patients were scheduled for T-cell depleted haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The primary objective was to improve survival by achieving sufficient disease control to enable stem cell transplantation. Secondary objectives were to evaluate safety and toxicity. Seven children with active disease entered the study. Two children responded to induction courses and underwent transplantation. Five children did not respond to induction: one died in progression after the first course; two received off-protocol chemotherapy and were transplanted; and two succumbed to progressive leukemia. All transplanted children engrafted and no acute skin graft-versus-host disease > grade I was observed. One child is alive and well 7.5 years after the first CloEC course. One child developed fulminant adenovirus hepatitis and died in continuous complete remission 7 months after start of induction. Two children relapsed and died 6.5 and 7.5 months after enrollment. Infection was the most common toxicity. CloEC can induce responses in some patients with refractory acute leukemia but is highly immunosuppressive, resulting in substantial risk of life-threatening infections. In our study, haploidentical HSCT was feasible with sustained engraftment. No clinically significant organ toxicity was observed. Also, repeating CloEC probably does not increase the chance of achieving remission.

A risk score system for stratifying the risk of relapse in B cell acute lymphocytic leukemia patients after allogenic stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

For patients with B cell acute lymphocytic leukemia (B-ALL) who underwent allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT), many variables have been demonstrated to be associated with leukemia relapse. In this study, we attempted to establish a risk score system to predict transplant outcomes more precisely in patients with B-ALL after allo-SCT.

METHODS

A total of 477 patients with B-ALL who underwent allo-SCT at Peking University People's Hospital from December 2010 to December 2015 were enrolled in this retrospective study. We aimed to evaluate the factors associated with transplant outcomes after allo-SCT, and establish a risk score to identify patients with different probabilities of relapse. The univariate and multivariate analyses were performed with the Cox proportional hazards model with time-dependent variables.

RESULTS

All patients achieved neutrophil engraftment, and 95.4% of patients achieved platelet engraftment. The 5-year cumulative incidence of relapse (CIR), overall survival (OS), leukemia-free survival (LFS), and non-relapse mortality were 20.7%, 70.4%, 65.6%, and 13.9%, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed that patients with positive post-transplantation minimal residual disease (MRD), transplanted beyond the first complete remission (≥CR2), and without chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) had higher CIR (P  < 0.001, P = 0.004, and P  < 0.001, respectively) and worse LFS (P  < 0.001, P = 0.017, and P  < 0.001, respectively), and OS (P  < 0.001, P = 0.009, and P  < 0.001, respectively) than patients without MRD after transplantation, transplanted in CR1, and with cGVHD. A risk score for predicting relapse was formulated with the three above variables. The 5-year relapse rates were 6.3%, 16.6%, 55.9%, and 81.8% for patients with scores of 0, 1, 2, and 3 (P  < 0.001), respectively, while the 5-year LFS and OS values decreased with increasing risk score.

CONCLUSION

This new risk score system might stratify patients with different risks of relapse, which could guide treatment.

Outcomes of Unmanipulated Haploidentical Transplantation Using Post-Transplant Cyclophosphamide (PT-Cy) in Pediatric Patients With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

HLA-haploidentical transplantation (haplo-HCT) using post-transplantation-cyclophosphamide (PT-Cy) is a feasible procedure in children with malignancies. However, large studies on Haplo-HCT with PT-Cy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are lacking. We analyzed haplo-HCT outcomes in 180 children with ALL. Median age was 9 years, and median follow-up was 2.7 years. Disease status was CR1 for 24%, CR2 for 45%, CR+3 for 12%, and active disease for 19%. All patients received PT-Cy day +3 and +4. Bone marrow (BM) was the stem cell source in 115 patients (64%). Cumulative incidence of 42-day engraftment was 88.9%. Cumulative incidence of day-100 acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) grade II-IV was 28%, and 2-year chronic GVHD was 21.9%. At 2 years, cumulative incidence of nonrelapse mortality (NRM) was 19.6%. Cumulative incidence was 41.9% for relapse and 25% for patients in CR1. Estimated 2-year leukemia free survival was 65%, 44%, and 18.8% for patients transplanted in CR1, CR2, CR3+ and 3% at 1 year for active disease. In multivariable analysis for patients in CR1 and CR2, disease status (CR2 [hazard ratio {HR} = 2.19; P = .04]), age at HCT older than 13 (HR = 2.07; P = .03) and use of peripheral blood stem cell (PBSC) (HR = 1.98; P = .04) were independent factors associated with decreased overall survival. Use of PBSC was also associated with higher NRM (HR = 3.13; P = .04). Haplo-HCT with PT-Cy is an option for children with ALL, namely those transplanted in CR1 and CR2. Age and disease status remain the most important factors for outcomes. BM cells as a graft source is associated with improved survival.

Minimal Residual Disease Prior to and After Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Children and Adolescents With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia: What Level of Negativity Is Relevant?

Minimal residual disease (MRD) assessment plays a central role in risk stratification and treatment guidance in paediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). As such, MRD prior to haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a major factor that is independently correlated with outcome. High burden of MRD is negatively correlated with post-transplant survival, as both the risk of leukaemia recurrence and non-relapse mortality increase with greater levels of MRD. Despite growing evidence supporting these findings, controversies still exist. In particular, it is still not clear whether multiparameter flow cytometry and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, which is used to recognise immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor gene rearrangements, can be employed interchangeably. Moreover, the higher sensitivity in MRD quantification offered by next-generation sequencing techniques may further refine the ability to stratify transplant-associated risks. While MRD quantification from bone marrow prior to HSCT remains the state of the art, heavily pre-treated patients may benefit from additional staging, such as using ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography to detect focal residues of disease. Additionally, the timing of MRD detection (i.e., immediately before administration of the conditioning regimen or weeks before) is a matter of debate. Pre-transplant MRD negativity has previously been associated with superior outcomes; however, in the recent For Omitting Radiation Under Majority age (FORUM) study, pre-HSCT MRD positivity was associated with neither relapse risk nor survival. In this review, we discuss the level of MRD that may require pre-transplant therapy intensification, risking time delay and complications (as well as losing the window for HSCT if disease progression occurs), as opposed to an adapted post-transplant strategy to achieve long-term remission. Indeed, MRD monitoring may be a valuable tool to guide individualised treatment decisions, including tapering of immunosuppression, cellular therapies (such as donor lymphocyte infusions) or additional immunotherapy (such as bispecific T-cell engagers or chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy).

Current Prophylaxis and Treatment Approaches for Acute Graft-Versus-Host Disease in Haematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia

Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD) continues to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality following allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). However, higher event-free survival (EFS) was observed in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and grade II aGvHD vs. patients with no or grade I GvHD in the randomised, controlled, open-label, international, multicentre Phase III For Omitting Radiation Under Majority age (FORUM) trial. This finding suggests that moderate-severity aGvHD is associated with a graft-versus-leukaemia effect which protects against leukaemia recurrence. In order to optimise the benefits of HSCT for leukaemia patients, reduction of non-relapse mortality-which is predominantly caused by severe GvHD-is of utmost importance. Herein, we review contemporary prophylaxis and treatment options for aGvHD in children with ALL and the key challenges of aGvHD management, focusing on maintaining the graft-versus-leukaemia effect without increasing the severity of GvHD.

Outcomes after late bone marrow and very early central nervous system relapse of childhood B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the Children's Oncology Group phase III study AALL0433

Outcomes after relapse of childhood B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) are poor, and optimal therapy is unclear. The children’s Oncology Group study AALL0433 evaluated a new platform for relapsed ALL. Between March 2007 and October 2013 AALL0433 enrolled 275 participants with late bone marrow or very early isolated central nervous system (iCNS) relapse of childhood B-ALL. Patients were randomized to receive standard versus intensive vincristine dosing; this randomization was closed due to excess peripheral neuropathy in 2010. Patients with matched sibling donors received allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) after the first three blocks of therapy. The prognostic value of minimal residual disease (MRD) was also evaluated in this study. The 3-year event free and overall survival (EFS/OS) for the 271 eligible patients were 63.6±3.0% and 72.3±2.8% respectively. MRD at the end of Induction-1 was highly predictive of outcome, with 3-year EFS/OS of 84.9±4.0% and 93.8±2.7% for patients with MRD <0.1%, versus 53.7±7.8% and 60.6± 7.8% for patients with MRD ≥0.1% (P<0.0001). Patients who received HCT versus chemotherapy alone had an improved 3-year disease-free survival (77.5±6.2% vs. 66.9 + 4.5%, P=0.03) but not OS (81.5±5.8% for HCT vs. 85.8±3.4% for chemotherapy, P=0.46). Patients with early iCNS relapse fared poorly, with a 3-year EFS/OS of 41.4±9.2% and 51.7±9.3%, respectively. Infectious toxicities of the chemotherapy platform were significant. The AALL0433 chemotherapy platform is efficacious for late bone marrow relapse of B-ALL, but with significant toxicities. The MRD threshold of 0.1% at the end of Induction-1 was highly predictive of the outcome. The optimal role for HCT for this patient population remains uncertain. This trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT# 00381680).

CAR T cells vs allogeneic HSCT for poor-risk ALL

For subgroups of children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) at very high risk of relapse, intensive multiagent chemotherapy has failed. Traditionally, the field has turned to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for patients with poor outcomes. While HSCT confers a survival benefit for several B-ALL populations, often HSCT becomes standard-of-care in subsets of de novo ALL with poor risk features despite limited or no data showing a survival benefit in these populations, yet the additive morbidity and mortality can be substantial. With the advent of targeted immunotherapies and the transformative impact of CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells on relapsed or refractory B-ALL, this approach is currently under investigation in frontline therapy for a subset of patients with poor-risk B-ALL: high-risk B-ALL with persistent minimal residual disease at the end of consolidation, which has been designated very high risk. Comparisons of these 2 approaches are fraught with issues, including single-arm trials, differing eligibility criteria, comparisons to historical control populations, and vastly different toxicity profiles. Nevertheless, much can be learned from available data and ongoing trials. We will review data for HSCT for pediatric B-ALL in first remission and the efficacy of CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in relapsed or refractory B-ALL, and we will discuss an ongoing international phase 2 clinical trial of CD19 CAR T cells for very-high-risk B-ALL in first remission.

Evolution of the Epigenetic Landscape in Childhood B Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Its Role in Drug Resistance

Although B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is the most common malignancy in children and while highly curable, it remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality. The outgrowth of tumor subclones carrying mutations in genes responsible for resistance to therapy has led to a Darwinian model of clonal selection. Previous work has indicated that alterations in the epigenome might contribute to clonal selection, yet the extent to which the chromatin state is altered under the selective pressures of therapy is unknown. To address this, we performed chromatin immunoprecipitation, gene expression analysis, and enhanced reduced representation bisulfite sequencing on a cohort of paired diagnosis and relapse samples from individual patients who all but one relapsed within 36 months of initial diagnosis. The chromatin state at diagnosis varied widely among patients, while the majority of peaks remained stable between diagnosis and relapse. Yet a significant fraction was either lost or newly gained, with some patients showing few differences and others showing massive changes of the epigenetic state. Evolution of the epigenome was associated with pathways previously linked to therapy resistance as well as novel candidate pathways through alterations in pyrimidine biosynthesis and downregulation of polycomb repressive complex 2 targets. Three novel, relapse-specific superenhancers were shared by a majority of patients including one associated with S100A8, the top upregulated gene seen at relapse in childhood B-ALL. Overall, our results support a role of the epigenome in clonal evolution and uncover new candidate pathways associated with relapse. SIGNIFICANCE: This study suggests a major role for epigenetic mechanisms in driving clonal evolution in B-ALL and identifies novel pathways associated with drug resistance.

More precisely defining risk peri-HCT in pediatric ALL: pre- vs post-MRD measures, serial positivity, and risk modeling

Detection of minimal residual disease (MRD) pre- and post-hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) for pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has been associated with relapse and poor survival. Published studies have had insufficient numbers to: (1) compare the prognostic value of pre-HCT and post-HCT MRD; (2) determine clinical factors post-HCT associated with better outcomes in MRD+ patients; and (3) use MRD and other clinical factors to develop and validate a prognostic model for relapse in pediatric patients with ALL who undergo allogeneic HCT. To address these issues, we assembled an international database including sibling (n = 191), unrelated (n = 259), mismatched (n = 56), and cord blood (n = 110) grafts given after myeloablative conditioning. Although high and very high MRD pre-HCT were significant predictors in univariate analysis, with bivariate analysis using MRD pre-HCT and post-HCT, MRD pre-HCT at any level was less predictive than even low-level MRD post-HCT. Patients with MRD pre-HCT must become MRD low/negative at 1 to 2 months and negative within 3 to 6 months after HCT for successful therapy. Factors associated with improved outcome of patients with detectable MRD post-HCT included acute graft-versus-host disease. We derived a risk score with an MRD cohort from Europe, North America, and Australia using negative predictive characteristics (late disease status, non-total body irradiation regimen, and MRD [high, very high]) defining good, intermediate, and poor risk groups with 2-year cumulative incidences of relapse of 21%, 38%, and 47%, respectively. We validated the score in a second, more contemporaneous cohort and noted 2-year cumulative incidences of relapse of 13%, 26%, and 47% (P < .001) for the defined risk groups.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Pediatric Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The remarkable improvement in the prognosis of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has been mainly achieved through the administration of risk-adapted therapy, including allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). This paper reviews the current indications to HSCT in ALL children, as well as the type of donor and conditioning regimens commonly used. Finally, it will focus on future challenges in immunotherapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

As our comprehension of disease-specific risk factors improves, indications to HSCT continue to evolve. Future studies will answer the year-old question on the best conditioning regimen to be used in this setting, while a recent randomized controlled study fixed the optimal anti-thymocyte globulin dose in unrelated donor HSCT. HSCT, the oldest immunotherapy used in clinical practice, still represents the gold standard consolidation treatment for a number of pediatric patients with high-risk/relapsed ALL. New immunotherapies hold the promise of further improving outcomes in this setting.

Cutting to the Front of the Line: Immunotherapy for Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Although many children and young adults with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) are cured with modern, risk-adapted chemotherapy regimens, 10% to 15% of patients will experience relapse or have refractory disease. Recent efforts to further intensify cytotoxic chemotherapy regimens in the frontline setting have failed as a result of excessive toxicity or lack of improvement in efficacy. As a result, novel approaches will be required to achieve cures in more newly diagnosed patients. Multiple immune-based therapies have demonstrated considerable efficacy in the setting of relapsed or refractory (R/R) disease, including CD19 targeting with blinatumomab and tisagenlecleucel and CD22 targeting with inotuzumab ozogamicin. These agents are now under investigation by the Children's Oncology Group (COG) in clinical trials for newly diagnosed B-ALL, with integration into standard chemotherapy regimens based on clinically and biology-based risk stratification as well as disease response.

Transplantation in Children and Adolescents with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia from a Matched Donor versus an HLA-Identical Sibling: Is the Outcome Comparable? Results from the International BFM ALL SCT 2007 Study

Eligibility criteria for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) vary according to disease characteristics, response to treatment, and type of available donor. As the risk profile of the patient worsens, a wider degree of HLA mismatching is considered acceptable. A total of 138 children and adolescents who underwent HSCT from HLA-identical sibling donors (MSDs) and 210 who underwent HSCT from matched donors (MDs) (median age, 9 years; 68% male) in 10 countries were enrolled in the International-BFM ALL SCT 2007 prospective study to assess the impact of donor type in HSCT for pediatric ALL. The 4-year event-free survival (65 ± 5% vs 61 ± 4%; P = .287), overall survival (72 ± 4% versus 68 ± 4%; P = .235), cumulative incidence of relapse (24 ± 4% versus 25 ± 3%; P = .658) and nonrelapse mortality (10 ± 3% versus 14 ± 3%; P = .212) were not significantly different between MSD and MD graft recipients. The risk of extensive chronic (cGVHD) was lower in MD graft recipients than in MSD graft recipients (hazard ratio [HR], .38; P = .002), and the risks of severe acute GVHD (aGVHD) and cGVHD were higher in peripheral blood stem cell graft recipients than in bone marrow graft recipients (HR, 2.06; P = .026). Compared with the absence of aGVHD, grade I-II aGVHD was associated with a lower risk of graft failure (HR, .63; P = .042) and grade III-IV aGVHD was associated with a higher risk of graft failure (HR, 1.85; P = .020) and nonleukemic death (HR, 8.76; P < .0001), despite a lower risk of relapse (HR, .32; P = .021). Compared with the absence of cGVHD, extensive cGVHD was associated with a higher risk of nonleukemic death (HR, 8.12; P < .0001). Because the outcomes of transplantation from a matched donor were not inferior to those of transplantation from an HLA-identical sibling, eligibility criteria for transplantation might be reviewed in pediatric ALL and possibly in other malignancies as well. Bone marrow should be the preferred stem cell source, and the addition of MTX should be considered in MSD graft recipients.

CD22 CAR T-cell therapy in refractory or relapsed B acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Despite worldwide promising clinical outcome of CD19 CAR-T therapy, relapse after this therapy is associated with poor prognosis and has become an urgent problem to be solved. We conducted a CD22 CAR T-cell therapy in 34 relapsed or refractory (r/r) B-ALL pediatric and adult patients who failed from previous CD19 CAR T-cell therapy. Complete remission (CR) or CR with incomplete count recovery (CRi) was achieved in 24 of 30 patients (80%) that could be evaluated on day 30 after infusion, which accounted for 70.5% of all 34 enrolled patients. Most patients only experienced mild cytokine-release syndrome and neurotoxicity. Seven CR patients received no further treatment, and 3 of them remained in remission at 6, 6.6, and 14 months after infusion. Eleven CR patients were promptly bridged to transplantation, and 8 of them remained in remission at 4.6 to 13.3 months after transplantation, resulted in 1-year leukemia-free survival rate of 71.6% (95% CI, 44.2-99.0). CD22 antigen loss or mutation was not observed to be associated with relapsed patients. Our study demonstrated that our CD22 CAR T-cells was highly effective in inducing remission in r/r B-ALL patients, and also provided a precious window for subsequent transplantation to achieve durable remission.

Higher Reported Lung Dose Received During Total Body Irradiation for Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Is Associated With Inferior Survival: A Report from the Children's Oncology Group

PURPOSE

To examine the relationship between lung radiation dose and survival outcomes in children undergoing total body irradiation (TBI)-based hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for acute lymphoblastic leukemia on the Children's Oncology Group trial.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

TBI (1200 or 1320 cGy given twice daily in 6 or 8 fractions) was used as part of 3 HSCT preparative regimens, allowing institutional flexibility regarding TBI techniques, including lung shielding. Lung doses as reported by each participating institution were calculated for different patient setups, with and without shielding, with a variety of dose calculation techniques. The association between lung dose and transplant-related mortality, relapse-free survival, and overall survival (OS) was examined using the Cox proportional hazards regression model controlling for the following variables: TBI dose rate, TBI fields, patient position during TBI, donor type, and pre-HSCT minimal residual disease level.

RESULTS

Of a total of 143 eligible patients, 127 had lung doses available for this analysis. The TBI techniques were heterogeneous. The mean lung dose was reported as 904.5 cGy (standard deviation, ±232.3). Patients treated with lateral fields were more likely to receive lung doses ≥800 cGy (P < .001). The influence of lung dose ≥800 cGy on transplant-related mortality was not significant (hazard ratio [HR], 1.78; P = .21). On univariate analysis, lung dose ≥800 cGy was associated with inferior relapse-free survival (HR, 1.76; P = .04) and OS (HR, 1.85; P = .03). In the multivariate analysis, OS maintained statistical significance (HR, 1.85; P = .04).

CONCLUSIONS

The variability in TBI techniques resulted in uncertainty with reported lung doses. Lateral fields were associated with higher lung dose, and thus they should be avoided. Patients treated with lung dose <800 cGy in this study had better outcomes. This approach is currently being investigated in the Children's Oncology Group AALL1331 study. Additionally, the Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core Group is evaluating effects of TBI techniques on lung doses using a phantom.

Advances in hematopoietic cell transplant for the treatment of hematologic malignancies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Incorporation of minimal residual disease (MRD) testing in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML) has transformed the landscape of hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Pre-HCT MRD has allowed prognostication of HCT outcomes for high-risk leukemia patients, whereas the detection of post-HCT MRD has allowed for interventions to decrease relapse.

RECENT FINDINGS

In this review, we emphasize studies from the past two decades that highlight the critical role of MRD in HCT in pediatric ALL and AML. Advances in MRD detection methodology, using next-generation sequencing, have improved the sensitivity of MRD testing allowing for more accurate predictions of HCT outcomes for patients with relapsed and refractory ALL and AML. In addition, novel pre-HCT therapies, especially immunotherapy in ALL, have dramatically increased the number of patients who achieve MRD-negative remissions pre-HCT, resulting in improved HCT outcomes. Post-HCT MRD remains a challenge and new therapeutic interventions are needed to reduce post-HCT relapse.

SUMMARY

As immunotherapy increases pre-HCT MRD-negative remissions, and next-generation sequencing-MRD is incorporated to improve the sensitivity of MRD detection, future clinical studies will investigate less toxic HCT approaches to reduce long-term sequelae and to identify which patients may benefit most from early post-HCT intervention to reduce relapse.

Are CAR T cells better than antibody or HCT therapy in B-ALL?

Multicenter trials in children and young adults using second-generation CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have shown dramatic levels of remission in patients with multiply relapsed/refractory disease (80% to ≥90%). Early results in adult trials have also shown significant responses, and strategies aimed at mitigating toxicities associated with the therapy have improved tolerability. Therefore, if available, CAR T-cell therapy deserves consideration for salvage of children and adults with B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) who are multiply relapsed, refractory, or relapsed after a previous allogeneic transplantation. For patients with a first relapse or who have persistent minimal residual disease (MRD) after initial or relapse therapy, treatment with blinatumomab or inotuzumab is reasonable to help patients achieve MRD- remission before definitive therapy with allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). A number of studies in younger patients using 4-1BB-based CAR T-cell constructs lentivirally transduced into patient T cells and then optimally expanded have resulted in long-term persistence without further therapy. In 1 study using CD28-based CARs in adults, the benefit of HCT after CAR T-cell therapy was not clear, because a group of patients experienced long-term remissions without HCT. These data suggest that CAR T-cell therapy may be able to substitute for transplantation in many patients, avoiding the risks and long-term consequences of HCT. With this is mind, and with emerging data better defining ways of enhancing CAR T-cell persistence and avoiding relapse through antigen escape, CAR T cells will have a growing role in treatment of both pediatric and adult B-ALLs in the coming years.

Methods and role of minimal residual disease after stem cell transplantation

Relapse is the major cause of treatment failure after stem cell transplantation. Despite the fact that relapses occurred even if transplantation was performed in complete remission, it is obvious that minimal residual disease is present though not morphologically evident. Since adaptive immunotherapy by donor lymphocyte infusion or other novel cell therapies as well as less toxic drugs, which can be used after transplantation, the detection of minimal residual disease (MRD) has become a clinical important variable for outcome. Besides the increasing options to treat MRD, the most advanced technologies currently allow to detect residual malignant cells with a sensitivity of 10^-5 to 10^-6.Under the patronage of the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) and the American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (ASBMT) the 3rd workshop was held on 4/5 November 2016 in Hamburg/Germany, with the aim to present an up-to-date status of epidemiology and biology of relapse and to summarize the currently available options to prevent and treat post-transplant relapse. Here the current methods and role of minimal residual disease for myeloid and lymphoid malignancies are summarized.

Dasatinib Plus Intensive Chemotherapy in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults With Philadelphia Chromosome-Positive Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Results of Children's Oncology Group Trial AALL0622

Purpose Addition of imatinib to intensive chemotherapy improved survival for children and young adults with Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Compared with imatinib, dasatinib has increased potency, CNS penetration, and activity against imatinib-resistant clones. Patients and Methods Children's Oncology Group (COG) trial AALL0622 (Bristol Myers Squibb trial CA180-204) tested safety and feasibility of adding dasatinib to intensive chemotherapy starting at induction day 15 in patients with newly diagnosed Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia age 1 to 30 years. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) was recommended for patients at high risk based on slow response and for those with a matched family donor regardless of response after at least 11 weeks of therapy. Patients at standard risk based on rapid response received chemotherapy plus dasatinib for an additional 120 weeks. Patients with overt CNS leukemia received cranial irradiation. Results Sixty eligible patients were enrolled. Five-year overall (OS) and event-free survival rates (± standard deviations [SD]) were 86% ± 5% and 60% ± 7% overall, 87% ± 5% and 61% ± 7% for standard-risk patients (n = 48; 19% underwent HSCT), and 89% ± 13% and 67% ± 19% for high-risk patients (n = 9; 89% underwent HSCT), respectively. Five-year cumulative incidence (± SD) of CNS relapse was 15% ± 6%. Outcomes (± SDs) were similar to those in COG AALL0031, which used the same chemotherapy with continuous imatinib: 5-year OS of 81% ± 6% versus 86% ± 5% ( P = .63) and 5-year disease-free survival of 68% ± 7% versus 60% ± 7% ( P = 0.31) for AALL0031 versus AALL0622, respectively. IKZF1 deletions, present in 56% of tested patients, were associated with significantly inferior OS and event-free survival overall and in standard-risk patients. Conclusion Dasatinib was well tolerated with chemotherapy and provided outcomes similar to those with imatinib in COG AALL0031, where all patients received cranial irradiation. Our results support limiting HSCT to slow responders and suggest a potential role for transplantation in rapid responders with IKZF1 deletions.

Impact of graft-versus-host disease on relapse and survival after allogeneic stem cell transplantation for pediatric leukemia

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) occasionally leads to morbidity and mortality but is thought to reduce the risk of relapses in patients with a hematological malignancy. However, information on the effect of GVHD in pediatric leukemia is limited. Using a nationwide registry, we retrospectively analyzed 1526 children who underwent allogeneic stem cell transplantation for leukemia. Grades 0-I acute GVHD were associated with a higher relapse rate at three years after transplantation, at 25.4 and 24.3%, respectively, than grades II, III, or IV acute GVHD at 18.9%, 21.2%, and 2.6%, respectively. In contrast, the overall survival curve of the grades 0 and I GVHD groups (79.0% and 79.5%, respectively) approximated that of the grade II GVHD group (76.3%), and the probability of survival was worst in the severe GVHD groups (66.9% for grade III and 42.5% for grade IV). Chronic GVHD also reduced the relapse risk but conferred no survival advantage. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia was more sensitive to acute GVHD than acute myeloid leukemia (AML) while AML was more sensitive to chronic GVHD. Our study reproduced the preventive effects of GVHD against pediatric leukemia relapses but failed to demonstrate a significant survival advantage.

Factors Associated with Long-Term Risk of Relapse after Unrelated Cord Blood Transplantation in Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Remission

For pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), relapse is an important cause of treatment failure after unrelated cord blood transplant (UCBT). Compared with other donor sources, relapse is similar or even reduced after UCBT despite less graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). We performed a retrospective analysis to identify risk factors associated with the 5-year cumulative incidence of relapse after UCBT. In this retrospective, registry-based study, we examined the outcomes of 640 children (<18 years) with ALL in first complete remission (CR1; n = 257, 40%) or second complete remission (CR2; n = 383, 60%) who received myeloablative conditioning followed by a single-unit UCBT from 2000 to 2012. Most received antithymocyte globulin (88%) or total body irradiation (TBI; 69%), and cord blood grafts were primarily mismatched at 1 (50%) or 2+ (34%) HLA loci. Considering patients in CR1, the rates of 5-year overall survival (OS), leukemia-free survival (LFS), and relapse were 59%, 52%, and 23%, respectively. In multivariate analysis (MVA), acute GVHD (grades II to IV) and TBI protected against relapse. In patients in CR2, rates of 5-year OS, LFS, and the cumulative incidence of relapse were 46%, 44%, and 28%, respectively. In MVA, longer duration from diagnosis to UCBT (≥30 months) and TBI were associated with decreased relapse risk. Importantly, receiving a fully HLA matched graft was a strong risk factor for increased relapse in MVA. An exploratory analysis of all 640 patients supported the important association between the presence of acute GVHD and less relapse but also demonstrated an increased risk of nonrelapse mortality. In conclusion, the impact of GVHD as a graft-versus-leukemia marker is evident in pediatric ALL after UCBT. Strategies that promote graft-versus-leukemia while harnessing GVHD should be further investigated.

When Less Is Good, Is None Better? The Prognostic and Therapeutic Significance of Peri-Transplant Minimal Residual Disease Assessment in Pediatric Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

The measurement of minimal residual disease (MRD) in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has become the most important prognostic tool of, and the backbone to, upfront risk stratification. While MRD assessment is the standard of care for assessing response and predicting outcomes for pediatric patients with ALL receiving chemotherapy, its use in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) has been less clearly defined. Herein, we discuss the importance of MRD assessment during the peri-HSCT period and its role in prognostication and management.

New targeted therapies for relapsed pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia

INTRODUCTION

The improvement in outcomes for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is one of the greatest success stories of modern oncology however the prognosis for patients who relapse remains dismal. Recent discoveries by high resolution genomic technologies have characterized the biology of relapsed leukemia, most notably pathways leading to the drug resistant phenotype. These observations open the possibility of targeting such pathways to prevent and/or treat relapse. Likewise, early experiences with new immunotherapeutic approaches have shown great promise. Areas covered: We performed a literature search on PubMed and recent meeting abstracts using the keywords below. We focused on the biology and clonal evolution of relapsed disease highlighting potential new targets of therapy. We further summarized the results of early trials of the three most prominent immunotherapy agents currently under investigation. Expert commentary: Discovery of targetable pathways that lead to drug resistance and recent breakthroughs in immunotherapy show great promise towards treating this aggressive disease. The best way to treat relapse, however, is to prevent it which makes incorporation of these new approaches into frontline therapy the best approach. Challenges remain to balance efficacy with toxicity and to prevent the emergence of resistant subclones which is why combining these newer agents with conventional chemotherapy will likely become standard of care.

Impact of post-transplant minimal residual disease on the clinical outcome of pediatric acute leukemia

This retrospective study examined the clinical significance of FCM-MRD in 36 patients with ALL and 29 patients with AML after their first allogeneic HSCT. Hematological (FCM-MRD ≥5.0%) and molecular relapse (FCM-MRD <5.0%) were first detected in 10 and two patients with ALL and in seven and eight patients with AML, respectively. Eight of 10 patients with molecular relapse eventually progressed to hematological relapse, although most were treated with immunological intervention by aggressive discontinuation of immunosuppressive therapy or donor lymphocyte infusion. Among these 12 patients, four of seven patients that obtained MRD^neg CR following post-transplant chemotherapy remain alive and disease-free after their second HSCT; however, all five patients who underwent a second HSCT in non-CR died of disease or treatment-related complications. As the FCM-MRD monitoring system used in the current study was probably not sensitive enough to detect MRD, which could be elucidated by immunological intervention, more sensitive diagnostic tools are mandatory for post-transplant MRD monitoring. Additional studies are required to address the impact of presecond transplant MRD on the clinical outcome of second HSCT.

Comparison of outcomes after donor lymphocyte infusion with or without prior chemotherapy for minimal residual disease in acute leukemia/myelodysplastic syndrome after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

The efficacy of donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) without chemotherapy was investigated and compared with that of chemotherapy prior to DLI (Chemo-DLI) in patients who were minimal residual disease (MRD)-positive after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We enrolled 115 consecutive patients who received either DLI (n = 20) or Chemo-DLI (n = 95) during the same period. For each DLI recipient, three recipients matched for age at the HSCT, underlying diseases, and the year of the HSCT were randomly selected from the Chemo-DLI cohort (n = 60). The 2-year cumulative incidence of severe acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and chronic GVHD was comparable between the groups. Fifteen (75.0%) and 47 (78.3%) patients in the DLI and Chemo-DLI groups turned MRD-negative, respectively. The 2-year cumulative incidences of relapse and non-relapse mortality after intervention were 30.7 versus 39.6% (P = 0.582) and 10.3 versus 6.0% (P = 0.508) in the DLI and Chemo-DLI groups, respectively. The 2-year probabilities of disease-free, overall, and GVHD-free/relapse-free survival after preemptive intervention were 58.9 versus 54.3% (P = 0.862), 69.3 versus 78.1% (P = 0.361), and 44.4 versus 35.1% (P = 0.489) in the DLI and Chemo-DLI groups, respectively. In multivariate analysis, the intervention method did not significantly influence the clinical outcomes. In summary, preemptive DLI alone may be effective for patients who are MRD-positive and may be a potential alternative for patients who refuse or are unable to receive Chemo-DLI after HSCT.

Allogeneic CD19-CAR-T cell infusion after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in B cell malignancies

Background

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is considered the cornerstone in treatment of hematological malignancies. However, relapse of the hematological disease after allo-HSCT remains a challenge and is associated with poor long-term survival. Chimeric antigen receptor redirected T cells (CAR-T cells) can lead to disease remission in patients with relapsed/refractory hematological malignancies. However, the therapeutic window for infusion of CAR-T cells post allo-HSCT and its efficacy are debatable.

Main body

In this review, we first discuss the use of CAR-T cells for relapsed cases after allo-HSCT. We then review the toxicities and the occurrence of graft-versus-host disease in relapsed patients who received CAR-T cells post allo-HSCT. Finally, we review clinical trial registrations and the therapeutic time window for infusion of CAR-T cells post allo-HSCT.

Conclusions

The treatment of allogeneic CAR-T cells is beneficial for patients with relapsed B cell malignancies after allo-HSCT with low toxicities and complications. However, multicenter clinical trials with larger sample sizes should be performed to select the optimal therapeutic window and confirm its efficacy.

Timing and Utility of Relapse Surveillance after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation in Children with Leukemia

The utility and optimal timing of routine bone marrow (BM) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surveillance after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (alloHCT) in children with leukemia have not been previously studied. To examine the current practice concerning relapse surveillance in this population, we conducted a national survey of pediatric bone marrow transplant physicians. Sixty-two of 152 potential participants (41%) completed the survey. For acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients, 41 physicians (66%) reported performing routine BM analysis in all such patients, 15 (24%) in some patients and 6 (10%) in no patients. Data were similar for acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Among those who do such screening in the ALL population, 11 physicians (24%) reported performing 1 BM analysis in the first year, 11 (24%) performed 2, 6 (13%) performed 3, 12 (27%) performed 4, and 5 (12%) performed 5 to 10. Data were similar for AML. The most common time point for screening in both diseases was day 100, followed closely by day 365. With respect to central nervous system (CNS) screening in ALL, 11 physicians (18%) screened all patients, 28 (45%) screened no patients, and 23 (37%) screened only patients with prior CNS disease. Use of intrathecal chemotherapy in these patients also varied, with 7 (12%) doing so in all patients, 17 (29%) only in previously CNS-positive patients, and 35 (59%) in no patients. To assess the utility of surveillance procedures, we performed a retrospective review of 108 childhood leukemia patients after alloHCT at our center. Forty-one relapses (38%) occurred with a median time to relapse of 171 days. Five (12%) occurred after day 365. Of the 36 relapses within the first year, 20 (56%) were identified by clinical suspicion, whereas 16 (44%) were identified by routine screening procedures. The percentages of patients in whom routine screening detected relapse at days 100, 180, 270, and 365, respectively, was 6.7%, 11.1%, 11.9%, and 0%. That is, by day 365, no patient (of 38) who had routine BM surveillance had evidence of relapse on analysis of the BM. Our survey confirms a lack of standardization regarding routine BM and CSF relapse surveillance after alloHCT in children with leukemia. We have demonstrated that while day 365 post-alloHCT is a very commonly utilized time point for routine screening, the yield of such screening at this time is very low, such that the performance of these procedures may not be justified at that time. Prospective collaboration among pediatric alloHCT centers may help to provide more robust evidence-based guidelines designed to maximize utility and minimize risk.