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Xiao F, Guo F. Impacts of essential amino acids on energy balance. Mol Metab 2021; 57:101393. [PMID: 34785395 PMCID: PMC8829800 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Obesity develops due to an imbalance in energy homeostasis, wherein energy intake exceeds energy expenditure. Accumulating evidence shows that manipulations of dietary protein and their component amino acids affect the energy balance, resulting in changes in fat mass and body weight. Amino acids are not only the building blocks of proteins but also serve as signals regulating multiple biological pathways. Scope of review We present the currently available evidence regarding the effects of dietary alterations of a single essential amino acid (EAA) on energy balance and relevant signaling mechanisms at both central and peripheral levels. We summarize the association between EAAs and obesity in humans and the clinical use of modifying the dietary EAA composition for therapeutic intervention in obesity. Finally, similar mechanisms underlying diets varying in protein levels and diets altered of a single EAA are described. The current review would expand our understanding of the contribution of protein and amino acids to energy balance control, thus helping discover novel therapeutic approaches for obesity and related diseases. Major Conclusions Changes in circulating EAA levels, particularly increased branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), have been reported in obese human and animal models. Alterations in dietary EAA intake result in improvements in fat and weight loss in rodents, and each has its distinct mechanism. For example, leucine deprivation increases energy expenditure, reduces food intake and fat mass, primarily through regulation of the general control nonderepressible 2 (GCN2) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. Methionine restriction by 80% decreases fat mass and body weight while developing hyperphagia, primarily through fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) signaling. Some effects of diets with different protein levels on energy homeostasis are mediated by similar mechanisms. However, reports on the effects and underlying mechanisms of dietary EAA imbalances on human body weight are few, and more investigations are needed in future. Dietary Essential Amino Acids (EAA) alterations affect energy homeostasis via distinct mechanisms. Alterations in dietary EAA intake can reduce fat mass and body weight. Increased circulating BCAAs have been observed in obese human and animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Innovation Center for Intervention of Chronic Disease and Promotion of Health, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Feifan Guo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Innovation Center for Intervention of Chronic Disease and Promotion of Health, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, China.
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Abstract
Sensing and responding to changes in nutrient levels, including those of glucose, lipids, and amino acids, by the body is necessary for survival. Accordingly, perturbations in nutrient sensing are tightly linked with human pathologies, particularly metabolic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and other complications of metabolic syndromes. The conventional view is that amino acids are fundamental elements for protein and peptide synthesis, while recent studies have revealed that amino acids are also important bioactive molecules that play key roles in signaling pathways and metabolic regulation. Different pathways that sense intracellular and extracellular levels of amino acids are integrated and coordinated at the organismal level, and, together, these pathways maintain whole metabolic homeostasis. In this review, we discuss the studies describing how important sensing signals respond to amino acid availability and how these sensing mechanisms modulate metabolic processes, including energy, glucose, and lipid metabolism. We further discuss whether dysregulation of amino acid sensing signals can be targeted to promote metabolic disorders, and discuss how to translate these mechanisms to treat human diseases. This review will help to enhance our overall understanding of the correlation between amino acid sensing and metabolic homeostasis, which have important implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Feifan Guo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Olson B, Marks DL, Grossberg AJ. Diverging metabolic programmes and behaviours during states of starvation, protein malnutrition, and cachexia. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2020; 11:1429-1446. [PMID: 32985801 PMCID: PMC7749623 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our evolutionary history is defined, in part, by our ability to survive times of nutrient scarcity. The outcomes of the metabolic and behavioural adaptations during starvation are highly efficient macronutrient allocation, minimization of energy expenditure, and maximized odds of finding food. However, in different contexts, caloric deprivation is met with vastly different physiologic and behavioural responses, which challenge the primacy of energy homeostasis. METHODS We conducted a literature review of scientific studies in humans, laboratory animals, and non-laboratory animals that evaluated the physiologic, metabolic, and behavioural responses to fasting, starvation, protein-deficient or essential amino acid-deficient diets, and cachexia. Studies that investigated the changes in ingestive behaviour, locomotor activity, resting metabolic rate, and tissue catabolism were selected as the focus of discussion. RESULTS Whereas starvation responses prioritize energy balance, both protein malnutrition and cachexia present existential threats that induce unique adaptive programmes, which can exacerbate the caloric insufficiency of undernutrition. We compare and contrast the behavioural and metabolic responses and elucidate the mechanistic pathways that drive state-dependent alterations in energy seeking and partitioning. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of energetically inefficient metabolic and behavioural responses to protein malnutrition and cachexia reveal a hierarchy of metabolic priorities governed by discrete regulatory networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan Olson
- Medical Scientist Training ProgramOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
- Papé Family Pediatric Research InstituteOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
| | - Daniel L. Marks
- Papé Family Pediatric Research InstituteOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
- Brenden‐Colson Center for Pancreatic CareOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
| | - Aaron J. Grossberg
- Brenden‐Colson Center for Pancreatic CareOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
- Department of Radiation MedicineOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
- Cancer Early Detection Advanced Research CenterOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
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Pech-Pool S, Berumen LC, Martínez-Moreno CG, García-Alcocer G, Carranza M, Luna M, Arámburo C. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) and Somatostatin (SST), but not Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) nor Ghrelin (GHRL), Regulate Expression and Release of Immune Growth Hormone (GH) from Chicken Bursal B-Lymphocyte Cultures. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21041436. [PMID: 32093298 PMCID: PMC7073104 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
It is known that growth hormone (GH) is expressed in immune cells, where it exerts immunomodulatory effects. However, the mechanisms of expression and release of GH in the immune system remain unclear. We analyzed the effect of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), ghrelin (GHRL), and somatostatin (SST) upon GH mRNA expression, intracellular and released GH, Ser133-phosphorylation of CREB (pCREBS133), intracellular Ca2+ levels, as well as B-cell activating factor (BAFF) mRNA expression in bursal B-lymphocytes (BBLs) cell cultures since several GH secretagogues, as well as their corresponding receptors (-R), are expressed in B-lymphocytes of several species. The expression of TRH/TRH-R, ghrelin/GHS-R1a, and SST/SST-Rs (Subtypes 1 to 5) was observed in BBLs by RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry (ICC), whereas GHRH/GHRH-R were absent in these cells. We found that TRH treatment significantly increased local GH mRNA expression and CREB phosphorylation. Conversely, SST decreased GH mRNA expression. Additionally, when added together, SST prevented TRH-induced GH mRNA expression, but no changes were observed in pCREBS133 levels. Furthermore, TRH stimulated GH release to the culture media, while SST increased the intracellular content of this hormone. Interestingly, SST inhibited TRH-induced GH release in a dose-dependent manner. The coaddition of TRH and SST decreased the intracellular content of GH. After 10 min. of incubation with either TRH or SST, the intracellular calcium levels significantly decreased, but they were increased at 60 min. However, the combined treatment with both peptides maintained the Ca2+ levels reduced up to 60-min. of incubation. On the other hand, BAFF cytokine mRNA expression was significantly increased by TRH administration. Altogether, our results suggest that TRH and SST are implicated in the regulation of GH expression and release in BBL cultures, which also involve changes in pCREBS133 and intracellular Ca2+ concentration. It is likely that TRH, SST, and GH exert autocrine/paracrine immunomodulatory actions and participate in the maturation of chicken BBLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Pech-Pool
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico; (S.P.-P.); (M.C.)
- Posgrado en Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Querétaro 76010, Mexico; (L.C.B.); (G.G.-A.)
| | - Laura C. Berumen
- Posgrado en Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Querétaro 76010, Mexico; (L.C.B.); (G.G.-A.)
| | - Carlos G. Martínez-Moreno
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico; (S.P.-P.); (M.C.)
| | - Guadalupe García-Alcocer
- Posgrado en Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Querétaro 76010, Mexico; (L.C.B.); (G.G.-A.)
| | - Martha Carranza
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico; (S.P.-P.); (M.C.)
| | - Maricela Luna
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico; (S.P.-P.); (M.C.)
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (C.A.); Tel.: +52-(55)-5623-4066 (M.L.); +52-(55)-5623-4065 (C.A.); Fax: +52-(55)-5623-4005 (M.L. & C.A.)
| | - Carlos Arámburo
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico; (S.P.-P.); (M.C.)
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (C.A.); Tel.: +52-(55)-5623-4066 (M.L.); +52-(55)-5623-4065 (C.A.); Fax: +52-(55)-5623-4005 (M.L. & C.A.)
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Effects of postnatal overfeeding and fish oil diet on energy expenditure in rats. Pediatr Res 2018; 83:156-163. [PMID: 28846671 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2017.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BackgroudEarly life nutrition may have a role in the regulation of metabolism in adulthood. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of postnatal overfeeding and a postweaning fish oil diet on energy expenditure.MethodsOn postnatal day 3, rat litters were adjusted to a litter size of three (small litters, SLs) or ten (normal litters, NLs). After weaning, SLs were fed the standard diet or a fish oil diet enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids (SL-FOs) for 10 weeks. The metabolic parameters of rats were monitored using the TSE LabMaster at postnatal week 3 (W3) and postnatal week 13 (W13).ResultsAt W3, the O2 consumption and heat production in SLs were lower than those in NLs, while the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was higher than NLs. SLs showed obesity, dyslipidemia, and impaired glucose tolerance at W13. The postweaning fish oil diet in SLs not only increased O2 consumption, CO2 production, heat production, and reduced the RER but it also reduced weight gain, serum triglycerides, and improved glucose tolerance at W13.ConclusionPostnatal overfeeding can decrease the level of body energy expenditure and induce obesity, but a fish oil diet can increase the energy expenditure and prevent the development of metabolic dysregulation in adults.
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Wu L, Meng J, Shen Q, Zhang Y, Pan S, Chen Z, Zhu LQ, Lu Y, Huang Y, Zhang G. Caffeine inhibits hypothalamic A 1R to excite oxytocin neuron and ameliorate dietary obesity in mice. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15904. [PMID: 28654087 PMCID: PMC5490268 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Caffeine, an antagonist of the adenosine receptor A1R, is used as a dietary supplement to reduce body weight, although the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here, we report that adenosine level in the cerebrospinal fluid, and hypothalamic expression of A1R, are increased in the diet-induced obesity (DIO) mouse. We find that mice with overexpression of A1R in the neurons of paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus are hyperphagic, have glucose intolerance and high body weight. Central or peripheral administration of caffeine reduces the body weight of DIO mice by the suppression of appetite and increasing of energy expenditure. We also show that caffeine excites oxytocin expressing neurons, and blockade of the action of oxytocin significantly attenuates the effect of caffeine on energy balance. These data suggest that caffeine inhibits A1Rs expressed on PVN oxytocin neurons to negatively regulate energy balance in DIO mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liufeng Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Jia Meng
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Qing Shen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Susu Pan
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Ling-Qiang Zhu
- Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China.,Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Youming Lu
- Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China.,Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Yuan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Guo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China.,Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
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Morrison CD, Laeger T. Protein-dependent regulation of feeding and metabolism. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2015; 26:256-62. [PMID: 25771038 PMCID: PMC4416985 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Free-feeding animals often face complex nutritional choices that require the balancing of competing nutrients, but the mechanisms driving macronutrient-specific food intake are poorly defined. A large number of behavioral studies indicate that both the quantity and quality of dietary protein can markedly influence food intake and metabolism, and that dietary protein intake may be prioritized over energy intake. This review focuses on recent progress in defining the mechanisms underlying protein-specific feeding. Considering the evidence that protein powerfully regulates both food intake and metabolism, uncovering these protein-specific mechanisms may reveal new molecular targets for the treatment of obesity and diabetes while also offering a more complete understanding of how dietary factors shape both food intake and food choice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas Laeger
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
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Joseph-Bravo P, Jaimes-Hoy L, Charli JL. Regulation of TRH neurons and energy homeostasis-related signals under stress. J Endocrinol 2015; 224:R139-59. [PMID: 25563352 DOI: 10.1530/joe-14-0593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Energy homeostasis relies on a concerted response of the nervous and endocrine systems to signals evoked by intake, storage, and expenditure of fuels. Glucocorticoids (GCs) and thyroid hormones are involved in meeting immediate energy demands, thus placing the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axes at a central interface. This review describes the mode of regulation of hypophysiotropic TRHergic neurons and the evidence supporting the concept that they act as metabolic integrators. Emphasis has been be placed on i) the effects of GCs on the modulation of transcription of Trh in vivo and in vitro, ii) the physiological and molecular mechanisms by which acute or chronic situations of stress and energy demands affect the activity of TRHergic neurons and the HPT axis, and iii) the less explored role of non-hypophysiotropic hypothalamic TRH neurons. The partial evidence gathered so far is indicative of a contrasting involvement of distinct TRH cell types, manifested through variability in cellular phenotype and physiology, including rapid responses to energy demands for thermogenesis or physical activity and nutritional status that may be modified according to stress history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Joseph-Bravo
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología MolecularInstituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), A.P. 510-3, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62250, Mexico
| | - Lorraine Jaimes-Hoy
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología MolecularInstituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), A.P. 510-3, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62250, Mexico
| | - Jean-Louis Charli
- Departamento de Genética del Desarrollo y Fisiología MolecularInstituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), A.P. 510-3, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62250, Mexico
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