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Takabe P, Siiskonen H, Rönkä A, Kainulainen K, Pasonen-Seppänen S. The Impact of Hyaluronan on Tumor Progression in Cutaneous Melanoma. Front Oncol 2022; 11:811434. [PMID: 35127523 PMCID: PMC8813769 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.811434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of cutaneous melanoma is rapidly increasing worldwide. Cutaneous melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer, which originates from malignant transformation of pigment producing melanocytes. The main risk factor for melanoma is ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and thus it often arises from highly sun-exposed skin areas and is characterized by a high mutational burden. In addition to melanoma-associated mutations such as BRAF, NRAS, PTEN and cell cycle regulators, the expansion of melanoma is affected by the extracellular matrix surrounding the tumor together with immune cells. In the early phases of the disease, hyaluronan is the major matrix component in cutaneous melanoma microenvironment. It is a high-molecular weight polysaccharide involved in several physiological and pathological processes. Hyaluronan is involved in the inflammatory reactions associated with UV radiation but its role in melanomagenesis is still unclear. Although abundant hyaluronan surrounds epidermal and dermal cells in normal skin and benign nevi, its content is further elevated in dysplastic lesions and local tumors. At this stage hyaluronan matrix may act as a protective barrier against melanoma progression, or alternatively against immune cell attack. While in advanced melanoma, the content of hyaluronan decreases due to altered synthesis and degradation, and this correlates with poor prognosis. This review focuses on hyaluronan matrix in cutaneous melanoma and how the changes in hyaluronan metabolism affect the progression of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piia Takabe
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Hanna Siiskonen
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Aino Rönkä
- Department of Oncology, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kirsi Kainulainen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Sanna Pasonen-Seppänen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
- *Correspondence: Sanna Pasonen-Seppänen,
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2
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Cabozantinib Is Effective in Melanoma Brain Metastasis Cell Lines and Affects Key Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212296. [PMID: 34830178 PMCID: PMC8621572 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanomas have a high potential to metastasize to the brain. Recent advances in targeted therapies and immunotherapies have changed the therapeutical landscape of extracranial melanomas. However, few patients with melanoma brain metastasis (MBM) respond effectively to these treatments and new therapeutic strategies are needed. Cabozantinib is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitor, already approved for the treatment of non-skin-related cancers. The drug targets several of the proteins that are known to be dysregulated in melanomas. The anti-tumor activity of cabozantinib was investigated using three human MBM cell lines. Cabozantinib treatment decreased the viability of all cell lines both when grown in monolayer cultures and as tumor spheroids. The in vitro cell migration was also inhibited and apoptosis was induced by cabozantinib. The phosphorylated RTKs p-PDGF-Rα, p-IGF-1R, p-MERTK and p-DDR1 were found to be downregulated in the p-RTK array of the MBM cells after cabozantinib treatment. Western blot validated these results and showed that cabozantinib treatment inhibited p-Akt and p-MEK 1/2. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the therapeutic potential of cabozantinib for patients with MBM.
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3
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Zhang G, He Y, Liu Y, Du Y, Yang C, Gao F. Reduced hyaluronan cross-linking induces breast cancer malignancy in a CAF-dependent manner. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:586. [PMID: 34099638 PMCID: PMC8184848 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03875-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Hyaluronan (HA) cross-linking is a conformational state of HA, a covalent complex between HA and heavy chains (HCs) from inter-α-trypsin inhibitor (I-α-I) mediated by tumor necrosis factor-induced protein 6 (TSG6). Cross-linked HA has been identified as a protective factor in physiological and inflammatory conditions. However, the state of HA cross-linking in tumor microenvironment has not been fully elucidated. As a major constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM), HA is mainly synthesized by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Our study aimed to clarify the role of HA cross-linking in breast cancer malignancy. Compared to normal mammary gland tissues, cross-linked HA levels were significantly decreased in breast cancer and associated with tumor malignancy. When NFbs were activated into CAFs, the levels of cross-linked HA and TSG6 were both suppressed. Through upregulating TSG6, CAFs restored the high level of cross-linked HA and significantly inhibited breast cancer malignancy, whereas NFbs promoted the malignancy when the cross-linked HA level was reduced. Furthermore, the inhibitory role of HA cross-linking in tumor malignancy was directly verified using the synthesized HA-HC complex. Collectively, our study found that the deficiency of cross-linked HA induced breast cancer malignancy in a CAF-dependent manner, suggesting that recovering HA cross-linking may be a potential therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoliang Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiqing He
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiwen Liu
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China
| | - Cuixia Yang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China. .,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China.
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China. .,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 600 Yishan Road, 200233, Shanghai, China.
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4
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Sapudom J, Müller CD, Nguyen KT, Martin S, Anderegg U, Pompe T. Matrix Remodeling and Hyaluronan Production by Myofibroblasts and Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in 3D Collagen Matrices. Gels 2020; 6:E33. [PMID: 33008082 PMCID: PMC7709683 DOI: 10.3390/gels6040033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is a key modulator in cancer progression and has become a novel target in cancer therapy. An increase in hyaluronan (HA) accumulation and metabolism can be found in advancing tumor progression and are often associated with aggressive malignancy, drug resistance and poor prognosis. Wound-healing related myofibroblasts or activated cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) are assumed to be the major sources of HA. Both cell types are capable to synthesize new matrix components as well as reorganize the extracellular matrix. However, to which extent myofibroblasts and CAF perform these actions are still unclear. In this work, we investigated the matrix remodeling and HA production potential in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHFB) and CAF in the absence and presence of transforming growth factor beta -1 (TGF-β1), with TGF-β1 being a major factor of regulating fibroblast differentiation. Three-dimensional (3D) collagen matrix was utilized to mimic the extracellular matrix of the tumor microenvironment. We found that CAF appeared to response insensitively towards TGF-β1 in terms of cell proliferation and matrix remodeling when compared to NHFB. In regards of HA production, we found that both cell types were capable to produce matrix bound HA, rather than a soluble counterpart, in response to TGF-β1. However, activated CAF demonstrated higher HA production when compared to myofibroblasts. The average molecular weight of produced HA was found in the range of 480 kDa for both cells. By analyzing gene expression of HA metabolizing enzymes, namely hyaluronan synthase (HAS1-3) and hyaluronidase (HYAL1-3) isoforms, we found expression of specific isoforms in dependence of TGF-β1 present in both cells. In addition, HAS2 and HYAL1 are highly expressed in CAF, which might contribute to a higher production and degradation of HA in CAF matrix. Overall, our results suggested a distinct behavior of NHFB and CAF in 3D collagen matrices in the presence of TGF-β1 in terms of matrix remodeling and HA production pointing to a specific impact on tumor modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiranuwat Sapudom
- Laboratory for Immuno Bioengineering Research and Applications, Division of Engineering, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 129188, UAE
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (C.D.M.); (S.M.); (T.P.)
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (K.-T.N.); (U.A.)
| | - Claudia Damaris Müller
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (C.D.M.); (S.M.); (T.P.)
| | - Khiet-Tam Nguyen
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (K.-T.N.); (U.A.)
| | - Steve Martin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (C.D.M.); (S.M.); (T.P.)
| | - Ulf Anderegg
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (K.-T.N.); (U.A.)
| | - Tilo Pompe
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universität Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (C.D.M.); (S.M.); (T.P.)
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5
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Schnauß J, Schmidt BUS, Brazel CB, Dogan S, Losert W, Anderegg U, Käs JA. Influence of hyaluronic acid binding on the actin cortex measured by optical forces. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e201960215. [PMID: 32246559 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201960215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma cells are often surrounded by hyaluronic acid (HA) rich environments, which are considered to promote tumor progression and metastasis. Induced effects in compound materials consisting of cells embedded in an extracellular matrix have been studied, however, alterations of the single cells have never been addressed. Here, we explicitly addressed single cell properties and measured HA-induced biomechanical changes via deformations induced solely by optical forces. With the optical stretcher setup, cells were deformed after culturing them in either the presence or absence of HA revealing the crucial interplay of HA with the CD44 receptor. To assess the role of CD44 in transducing effects of HA, we compared a CD44 expressing variant of the melanoma cell line RPM-MC to its natural CD44-negative counterpart. Our measurements revealed a significant stiffness change, which we attribute to changes of the actin cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Schnauß
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Physics and Earth Sciences, Peter Debye Institute for Soft Matter Physics, Leipzig, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - B U Sebastian Schmidt
- University of Maryland, Institute for Physical Science and Technology, Physical Sciences Complex, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Christina B Brazel
- Department of Dermatology, Leipzig University, Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Senol Dogan
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Physics and Earth Sciences, Peter Debye Institute for Soft Matter Physics, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Losert
- University of Maryland, Institute for Physical Science and Technology, Physical Sciences Complex, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Ulf Anderegg
- Department of Dermatology, Leipzig University, Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Josef A Käs
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Physics and Earth Sciences, Peter Debye Institute for Soft Matter Physics, Leipzig, Germany
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6
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Rebecca VW, Herlyn M. Nongenetic Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Melanoma. ANNUAL REVIEW OF CANCER BIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030419-033533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to targeted and immune-based therapies limits cures in patients with metastatic melanoma. A growing number of reports have identified nongenetic primary resistance mechanisms including intrinsic microenvironment- and lineage plasticity–mediated processes serving critical functions in the persistence of disease throughout therapy. There is a temporally shifting spectrum of cellular identities fluidly occupied by therapy-persisting melanoma cells responsible for driving therapeutic resistance and metastasis. The key epigenetic, metabolic, and phenotypic reprogramming events requisite for the manifestation and maintenance of so-called persister melanoma populations remain poorly understood and underscore the need to comprehensively investigate actionable vulnerabilities. Here we attempt to integrate the field's observations on nongenetic mechanisms of drug resistance in melanoma. We postulate that the future design of therapeutic strategies specifically addressing therapy-persisting subpopulations of melanoma will improve the curative potential of therapy for patients with metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito W. Rebecca
- Molecular and Cellular Oncogenesis Program and Melanoma Research Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Meenhard Herlyn
- Molecular and Cellular Oncogenesis Program and Melanoma Research Center, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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7
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Sapudom J, Nguyen KT, Martin S, Wippold T, Möller S, Schnabelrauch M, Anderegg U, Pompe T. Biomimetic tissue models reveal the role of hyaluronan in melanoma proliferation and invasion. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:1405-1417. [DOI: 10.1039/c9bm01636h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Biomimetic matrix models demonstrate the role of the size-dependent effect of hyaluronan in melanoma progression and reveal an alternative explanation forin vivofindings of hyaluronan dependent melanoma growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiranuwat Sapudom
- Institute of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Life Sciences
- Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
| | - Khiet-Tam Nguyen
- Department of Dermatology
- Venerology and Allergology
- Medical Faculty, Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
| | - Steve Martin
- Institute of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Life Sciences
- Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
| | - Tom Wippold
- Department of Dermatology
- Venerology and Allergology
- Medical Faculty, Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
| | | | | | - Ulf Anderegg
- Department of Dermatology
- Venerology and Allergology
- Medical Faculty, Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
| | - Tilo Pompe
- Institute of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Life Sciences
- Universität Leipzig
- Leipzig 04103
- Germany
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8
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Melanocyte Hyaluronan Coat Fragmentation Enhances the UVB-Induced TLR-4 Receptor Signaling and Expression of Proinflammatory Mediators IL6, IL8, CXCL1, and CXCL10 via NF-κB Activation. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 139:1993-2003.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2019.03.1135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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9
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Gonçalves JP, Potrich FB, Ferreira Dos Santos ML, Costa Gagosian VS, Rodrigues Rossi G, Jacomasso T, Mendes A, Bonciani Nader H, Brochado Winnischofer SM, Trindade ES, Camargo De Oliveira C. In vitro attenuation of classic metastatic melanoma‑related features by highly diluted natural complexes: Molecular and functional analyses. Int J Oncol 2019; 55:721-732. [PMID: 31364728 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastasis is responsible for the majority of deaths among patients with malignant melanoma. Despite recent advances, the majority of current and modern therapies are ineffective and/or financially unfeasible. Thus, in this study, we investigated two low‑cost highly‑diluted natural complexes (HDNCs) that have been shown to be effective against malignant melanoma in a murine model in vivo. The aim of this study was to determine the mechanisms through which these HDNCs directly affect melanoma cells, either alone or in an artificial tumor microenvironment, suppressing the metastatic phenotype, thus explaining previous in vivo effects. For this purpose, HDNC in vitro treatments of B16‑F10 melanoma cells, alone or in co‑culture with Balb/3T3 fibroblasts, were carried out. Molecular biology techniques and standard functional assays were used to assess the changes in molecule expression and in cell behaviors related to the metastatic phenotype. Melanoma progression features were found to be regulated by HDNCs. Molecules related to cell adhesion (N‑cadherin, β1‑integrin and CD44), and migration, extracellular matrix remodeling and angiogenesis were modulated. The cell migratory, invasive and clonogenic capacities were reduced by the HDNCs. No loss of cell proliferation or viability were observed. On the whole, the findings of this study indicate that HDNCs directly reprogram, molecularly and functionally, melanoma cells in vitro, modulating their metastatic phenotype. Such findings are likely to be responsible for the attenuation of tumor growth and lung colonization previously observed in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenifer Pendiuk Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Francine Bittencourt Potrich
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza Ferreira Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Viviana Stephanie Costa Gagosian
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Rodrigues Rossi
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Thiago Jacomasso
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Aline Mendes
- Biochemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo ‑ SP 04023‑062, Brazil
| | - Helena Bonciani Nader
- Biochemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo ‑ SP 04023‑062, Brazil
| | - Sheila Maria Brochado Winnischofer
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Edvaldo S Trindade
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
| | - Carolina Camargo De Oliveira
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Section of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81530‑980 Curitiba‑PR, Brazil
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10
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Peixoto A, Relvas-Santos M, Azevedo R, Santos LL, Ferreira JA. Protein Glycosylation and Tumor Microenvironment Alterations Driving Cancer Hallmarks. Front Oncol 2019; 9:380. [PMID: 31157165 PMCID: PMC6530332 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have disclosed a plethora of alterations in protein glycosylation that decisively impact in all stages of disease and ultimately contribute to more aggressive cell phenotypes. The biosynthesis of cancer-associated glycans and its reflection in the glycoproteome is driven by microenvironmental cues and these events act synergistically toward disease evolution. Such intricate crosstalk provides the molecular foundations for the activation of relevant oncogenic pathways and leads to functional alterations driving invasion and disease dissemination. However, it also provides an important source of relevant glyco(neo)epitopes holding tremendous potential for clinical intervention. Therefore, we highlight the transversal nature of glycans throughout the currently accepted cancer hallmarks, with emphasis on the crosstalk between glycans and the tumor microenvironment stromal components. Focus is also set on the pressing need to include glycans and glycoconjugates in comprehensive panomics models envisaging molecular-based precision medicine capable of improving patient care. We foresee that this may provide the necessary rationale for more comprehensive studies and molecular-based intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Peixoto
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Tumour and Microenvironment Interactions Group, INEB-Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Relvas-Santos
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Azevedo
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Lúcio Lara Santos
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Surgical Oncology, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal
| | - José Alexandre Ferreira
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, Porto, Portugal.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center, Porto, Portugal
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11
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Fede C, Stecco C, Angelini A, Fan C, Belluzzi E, Pozzuoli A, Ruggieri P, De Caro R. Variations in contents of hyaluronan in the peritumoral micro-environment of human chondrosarcoma. J Orthop Res 2019; 37:503-509. [PMID: 30444002 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A concept consolidated in recent years is that tumor growth depends to a great extent on the micro-environment surrounding the tumor, which has a fundamental role in tumor progression and in determining the effectiveness of therapies. Our analysis focuses on chondrosarcoma, the second primary malignant bone tumor, resistant to both chemotherapeutic and radiation therapy. We quantified hyaluronan, one of the main components of the extracellular matrix, with the aim of comparing its amount in the connective tissue surrounding the tumor with intra-tumoral tissue and healthy fascia of the same anatomic district, viewed as a health control. We demonstrate that hyaluronan increased significantly in the peritumoral stroma compared with the healthy fascia, which showed an average amount according to the physical characteristics of body districts by a mean value of 26.9 μg/g. In the peritumoral stroma, the mean hyaluronan content reached 132.6 μg/g (mean value of 63.2 μg/g). The p-value was less than 0.01, showing a highly significant statistical difference. Surprisingly, no significant differences were detected as a function of age, gender, or tumor grade. The levels of hyaluronan were comparable in peritumoral and tumor tissues, although there were differences depending on the state of necrosis. In addition, data on the expression of hyaluronic acid synthetase showed a decrease of about 50% in peritumoral and tumor tissues, indicating alterations in hyaluronan turnover and synthesis. This work demonstrates a variation in hyaluronan contents around the chondrosarcoma, likely correlated with the aggressiveness and resistance to chemotherapy of this tumors. Statement of Clinical Significance: Deeper knowledge about the composition of the peritumoral stroma, rich in extracellular matrix, will enhance better study and understanding of the metastatic potential of tumors and their prognostic indices. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:503-509, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Fede
- Department of Neuroscience, Anatomy Institute, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Carla Stecco
- Department of Neuroscience, Anatomy Institute, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Andrea Angelini
- Department of Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, University of Padova, via Giustiniani 2, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Chenglei Fan
- Department of Neuroscience, Anatomy Institute, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Elisa Belluzzi
- Department of Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, University of Padova, via Giustiniani 2, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Assunta Pozzuoli
- Department of Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, University of Padova, via Giustiniani 2, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Pietro Ruggieri
- Department of Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, University of Padova, via Giustiniani 2, Padova 35121, Italy
| | - Raffaele De Caro
- Department of Neuroscience, Anatomy Institute, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, Padova 35121, Italy
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12
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Wu RL, Sedlmeier G, Kyjacova L, Schmaus A, Philipp J, Thiele W, Garvalov BK, Sleeman JP. Hyaluronic acid-CD44 interactions promote BMP4/7-dependent Id1/3 expression in melanoma cells. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14913. [PMID: 30297743 PMCID: PMC6175841 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33337-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BMP4/7-dependent expression of inhibitor of differentiation/DNA binding (Id) proteins 1 and 3 has been implicated in tumor progression and poor prognosis of malignant melanoma patients. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a pericellular matrix component, supports BMP7 signalling in murine chondrocytes through its receptor CD44. However, its role in regulating BMP signalling in melanoma is not clear. In this study we found that depletion of endogenously-produced HA by hyaluronidase treatment or by inhibition of HA synthesis by 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU) resulted in reduced BMP4/7-dependent Id1/3 protein expression in mouse melanoma B16-F10 and Ret cells. Conversely, exogenous HA treatment increased BMP4/7-dependent Id1/3 protein expression. Knockdown of CD44 reduced BMP4/7-dependent Id1/3 protein expression, and attenuated the ability of exogenous HA to stimulate Id1 and Id3 expression in response to BMP. Co-IP experiments demonstrated that CD44 can physically associate with the BMP type II receptor (BMPR) ACVR2B. Importantly, we found that coordinate expression of Id1 or Id3 with HA synthases HAS2, HAS3, and CD44 is associated with reduced overall survival of cutaneous melanoma patients. Our results suggest that HA-CD44 interactions with BMPR promote BMP4/7-dependent Id1/3 protein expression in melanoma, contributing to reduced survival in melanoma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Lin Wu
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.,Department of Hepatopancreatobiliary Surgery and Organ Transplantation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230022, Anhui, China
| | - Georg Sedlmeier
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Lenka Kyjacova
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anja Schmaus
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.,KIT Campus Nord, Institute for Toxicology and Genetics, 76344, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Julia Philipp
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Wilko Thiele
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.,KIT Campus Nord, Institute for Toxicology and Genetics, 76344, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Boyan K Garvalov
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Jonathan P Sleeman
- European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Medical Faculty of Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany. .,KIT Campus Nord, Institute for Toxicology and Genetics, 76344, Karlsruhe, Germany.
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13
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D'Arcangelo D, Facchiano F, Nassa G, Stancato A, Antonini A, Rossi S, Senatore C, Cordella M, Tabolacci C, Salvati A, Tarallo R, Weisz A, Facchiano AM, Facchiano A. PDGFR-alpha inhibits melanoma growth via CXCL10/IP-10: a multi-omics approach. Oncotarget 2018; 7:77257-77275. [PMID: 27764787 PMCID: PMC5363585 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive skin-cancer, showing high mortality at advanced stages. Platelet Derived Growth Factor Receptor-alpha (PDGFR-alpha) potently inhibits melanoma- and endothelium-proliferation and its expression is significantly reduced in melanoma-biopsies, suggesting that melanoma progression eliminates cells expressing PDGFR-alpha. In the present study transient overexpression of PDGFR-alpha in endothelial (HUVEC) and melanoma (SKMel-28, A375, Preyer) human-cells shows strong anti-proliferative effects, with profound transcriptome and miRNome deregulation. PDGFR-alpha overexpression strongly affects expression of 82 genes in HUVEC (41 up-, 41 down-regulated), and 52 genes in SKMel-28 (43 up-, 9 down-regulated). CXCL10/IP-10 transcript showed up to 20 fold-increase, with similar changes detectable at the protein level. miRNA expression profiling in cells overexpressing PDGFR-alpha identified 14 miRNAs up- and 40 down-regulated, with miR-503 being the most down-regulated (6.4 fold-reduction). miR-503, miR-630 and miR-424 deregulation was confirmed by qRT-PCR. Interestingly, the most upregulated transcript (i.e., CXCL10/IP-10) was a validated miR-503 target and CXCL10/IP-10 neutralization significantly reverted the anti-proliferative action of PDGFR-alpha, and PDGFR-alpha inhibition by Dasatinb totally reverted the CXCL10/IP10 induction, further supporting a functional interplay of these factors. Finally, integration of transcriptomics and miRNomics data highlighted several pathways affected by PDGFR-alpha. This study demonstrates for the first time that PDGFR-alpha strongly inhibits endothelial and melanoma cells proliferation in a CXCL10/IP-10 dependent way, via miR-503 down-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela D'Arcangelo
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata, IDI-IRCCS, Fondazione Luigi Maria Monti, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Facchiano
- Dipartimento Ematologia, Oncologia e Medicina Molecolare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Nassa
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine and Surgery,University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy.,Genomix4Life srl, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy
| | - Andrea Stancato
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata, IDI-IRCCS, Fondazione Luigi Maria Monti, Rome, Italy
| | - Annalisa Antonini
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata, IDI-IRCCS, Fondazione Luigi Maria Monti, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Rossi
- Dipartimento Ematologia, Oncologia e Medicina Molecolare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Cinzia Senatore
- Dipartimento Ematologia, Oncologia e Medicina Molecolare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Martina Cordella
- Dipartimento Ematologia, Oncologia e Medicina Molecolare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Tabolacci
- Dipartimento Ematologia, Oncologia e Medicina Molecolare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Annamaria Salvati
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine and Surgery,University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy
| | - Roberta Tarallo
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine and Surgery,University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy
| | - Alessandro Weisz
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine and Surgery,University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy
| | | | - Antonio Facchiano
- Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata, IDI-IRCCS, Fondazione Luigi Maria Monti, Rome, Italy
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14
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Li H, Wang Y, Liu H, Shi Q, Li H, Wu W, Zhu D, Amos CI, Fang S, Lee JE, Li Y, Han J, Wei Q. Genetic variants of PDGF signaling pathway genes predict cutaneous melanoma survival. Oncotarget 2017; 8:74595-74606. [PMID: 29088810 PMCID: PMC5650365 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.20245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate whether genetic variants of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) signaling pathway genes are associated with survival of cutaneous melanoma (CM) patients, we assessed associations of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in PDGF pathway with melanoma-specific survival in 858 CM patients of M.D. Anderson Cancer Center (MDACC). Additional data of 409 cases from Harvard University were also included for further analysis. We identified 13 SNPs in four genes (COL6A3, NCK2, COL5A1 and PRKCD) with a nominal P < 0.05 and false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.2 in MDACC dataset. Based on linkage disequilibrium, functional prediction and minor allele frequency, a representative SNP in each gene was selected. In the meta-analysis using MDACC and Harvard datasets, there were two SNPs associated with poor survival of CM patients: rs6707820 C>T in NCK2 (HR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.35-2.59, Pmeta= 1.53E-5); and rs2306574 T>C in PRKCD (HR = 1.73, 95% CI = 1.33-2.24, Pmeta= 4.56E-6). Moreover, CM patients in MDACC with combined risk genotypes of these two loci had markedly poorer survival (HR = 2.47, 95% CI = 1.58-3.84, P < 0.001). Genetic variants of rs6707820 C>T in NCK2 and rs2306574 T>C in PRKCD of the PDGF signaling pathway may be biomarkers for melanoma survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050011, China.,Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Yanru Wang
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Hongliang Liu
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Qiong Shi
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Hongyu Li
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Wenting Wu
- Department of Epidemiology, Fairbanks School of Public Health, Indiana University Melvin and Bren Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Dakai Zhu
- Community and Family Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Christopher I Amos
- Community and Family Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Shenying Fang
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey E Lee
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jiali Han
- Department of Epidemiology, Fairbanks School of Public Health, Indiana University Melvin and Bren Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Qingyi Wei
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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15
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New E-beam-initiated hyaluronan acrylate cryogels support growth and matrix deposition by dermal fibroblasts. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 94:611-620. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.10.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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16
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Izar B, Joyce CE, Goff S, Cho NL, Shah PM, Sharma G, Li J, Ibrahim N, Gold J, Hodi FS, Garraway LA, Novina CD, Bertagnolli MM, Yoon CH. Bidirectional cross talk between patient-derived melanoma and cancer-associated fibroblasts promotes invasion and proliferation. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2016; 29:656-668. [PMID: 27482935 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-stroma interactions are critical for epithelial-derived tumors, and among the stromal cell types, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) exhibit multiple functions that fuel growth, dissemination, and drug resistance. However, these interactions remain insufficiently characterized in non-epithelial tumors such as malignant melanoma. We generated monocultures of melanoma cells and matching CAFs from patients' metastatic lesions, distinguished by oncogenic drivers and immunoblotting of characteristic markers. RNA sequencing of CAFs revealed a homogenous epigenetic program that strongly resembled the signatures from epithelial cancers, including enrichment for an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Melanoma CAFs in monoculture displayed robust invasive behavior while patient-derived melanoma monocultures showed very little invasiveness. Instead, melanoma cells showed increased invasion when co-cultured with CAFs. In turn, CAFs showed increased proliferation when exposed to melanoma conditioned media (CM), mediated in part by melanoma-secreted transforming growth factor-alpha that acted on CAFs via the epidermal growth factor receptor. This study provides evidence that bidirectional interactions between melanoma and CAFs regulate progression of metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Izar
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Cailin E Joyce
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Cancer Immunology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Stephanie Goff
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Nancy L Cho
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Parin M Shah
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gaurav Sharma
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jingjing Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Nageatte Ibrahim
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jason Gold
- Department of Surgery, VA Boston Health Care Service, Surgical Service, West Roxbury, MA, USA
| | - F Stephen Hodi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Levi A Garraway
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Carl D Novina
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Department of Cancer Immunology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Monica M Bertagnolli
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Charles H Yoon
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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17
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Catalani E, Proietti Serafini F, Zecchini S, Picchietti S, Fausto AM, Marcantoni E, Buonanno F, Ortenzi C, Perrotta C, Cervia D. Natural products from aquatic eukaryotic microorganisms for cancer therapy: Perspectives on anti-tumour properties of ciliate bioactive molecules. Pharmacol Res 2016; 113:409-420. [PMID: 27650755 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Several modern drugs, including those for cancer therapy, have been isolated from natural sources, are based on natural products and its derivatives, or mime natural products. Some of them are in clinical use, others in clinical trials. The success of natural products in drug discovery is related to their biochemical characteristics and to the technologic methods used to study their feature. Natural compounds may acts as chemo-preventive agents and as factors that increase therapeutic efficacy of existing drugs, thus overcoming cancer cell drug resistance that is the main factor determining the failure in conventional chemotherapy. Water environment, because of its physical and chemical conditions, shows an extraordinary collection of natural biological substances with an extensive structural and functional diversity. The isolation of bioactive molecules has been reported from a great variety of aquatic organisms; however, the therapeutic application of molecules from eukaryotic microorganisms remains inadequately investigated and underexploited on a systematic basis. Herein we describe the biological activities in mammalian cells of selected substances isolated from ciliates, free-living protozoa common almost everywhere there is water, focusing on their anti-tumour actions and their possible therapeutic activity. In particular, we unveil the cellular and molecular machine mediating the effects of cell type-specific signalling protein pheromone Er-1 and secondary metabolites, i.e. euplotin C and climacostol, in cancer cells. To support the feasibility of climacostol-based approaches, we also present novel findings and report additional mechanisms of action using both in vitro and in vivo models of mouse melanomas, with the scope of highlighting new frontiers that can be explored also in a therapeutic perspective. The high skeletal chemical difference of ciliate compounds, their sustainability and availability, also through the use of new organic synthesis/modifications processes, and the results obtained so far in biological studies provide a rationale to consider some of them a potential resource for the design of new anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Catalani
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Francesca Proietti Serafini
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Silvia Zecchini
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital "Luigi Sacco"-ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Milano, Italy
| | - Simona Picchietti
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Fausto
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Enrico Marcantoni
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, Italy
| | - Federico Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Università degli Studi di Macerata, Italy
| | - Claudio Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Università degli Studi di Macerata, Italy
| | - Cristiana Perrotta
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy.
| | - Davide Cervia
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy; Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy.
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18
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Kretschmer I, Freudenberger T, Twarock S, Yamaguchi Y, Grandoch M, Fischer JW. Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells Modulate Chemokine Expression and Hyaluronan Synthesis in Fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:4091-106. [PMID: 26699196 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.708909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the interaction of KYSE-410, an esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell line, and fibroblasts with respect to the extracellular matrix component hyaluronan (HA) and chemokine expression. KYSE-410 cells induced the mRNA expression of HA synthase 2 (Has2) in normal skin fibroblasts (SF) only in direct co-cultures. Parallel to Has2 mRNA, Has2 antisense RNA (Has2os2) was up-regulated in co-cultures. Knockdown of LEF1, a downstream target of Wnt signaling, abrogated Has2 and Has2os2 induction. After knockdown of Has2 in SF, significantly less α-smooth muscle actin expression was detected in co-cultures. Moreover, it was investigated whether the phenotype of KYSE-410 was affected in co-culture with SF and whether Has2 knockdown in SF had an impact on KYSE-410 cells in co-culture. However, no effects on epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers, proliferation, and migration were detected. In addition to Has2 mRNA, the chemokine CCL5 was up-regulated and CCL11 was down-regulated in SF in co-culture. Furthermore, co-cultures of KYSE-410 cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) were investigated. Similar to SF, Has2 and Ccl5 were up-regulated and Ccl11 was down-regulated in CAF in co-culture. Importantly and in contrast to SF, inhibiting HA synthesis by 4-methylumbelliferone abrogated the effect of co-culture on Ccl5 in CAF. Moreover, HA was found to promote adhesion of CD4(+) but not CD8(+) cells to xenogaft tumor tissues. In conclusion, direct co-culture of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and fibroblasts induced stromal HA synthesis via Wnt/LEF1 and altered the chemokine profile of stromal fibroblasts, which in turn may affect the tumor immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga Kretschmer
- From the Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum der Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany and
| | - Till Freudenberger
- From the Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum der Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany and
| | - Sören Twarock
- From the Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum der Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany and
| | - Yu Yamaguchi
- the Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Maria Grandoch
- From the Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum der Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany and
| | - Jens W Fischer
- From the Institut für Pharmakologie und Klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum der Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany and
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19
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Fedorenko IV, Wargo JA, Flaherty KT, Messina JL, Smalley KSM. BRAF Inhibition Generates a Host-Tumor Niche that Mediates Therapeutic Escape. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:3115-3124. [PMID: 26302068 PMCID: PMC4648653 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The current study defines a fibroblast-derived niche that facilitates the therapeutic escape of melanoma cells from BRAF inhibition. Vemurafenib treatment led to the release of TGF-β from the melanoma cells that increased the differentiation state of the fibroblasts; an affect associated with fibronectin deposition, increase in α-smooth muscle actin (α–SMA) expression and the release of neuregulin (NRG). At the same time, vemurafenib directly activated the fibroblasts through paradoxical stimulation of the MAPK pathway, causing them to secrete hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Treatment with the BRAF/MEK inhibitor combination reversed the release of HGF. Adhesion of melanoma cells to fibronectin was critical in amplifying the fibroblast-derived NRG and HGF-mediated PI3K/AKT survival signaling in the melanoma cells following BRAF inhibition. In co-culture studies, combination treatment with inhibitors of BRAF/MET/HER kinase was ineffective at reversing the fibroblast-mediated therapeutic escape from BRAF inhibition. Instead, it was noted that combined BRAF/PI3K inhibition overcame fibroblast-mediated drug resistance in vitro and was associated with enhanced anti-tumor effects in an in vivo xenograft model. Thus, we show melanoma cells and fibroblasts remodel their microenvironment in response to BRAF inhibition and that these adaptations allow tumor cells to evade therapy through increased PI3K/AKT survival signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna V Fedorenko
- The Department of Tumor Biology, The Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Jennifer A Wargo
- Department of Surgery, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Keith T Flaherty
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachussetts, USA
| | - Jane L Messina
- The Department of Cutaneous Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Keiran S M Smalley
- The Department of Tumor Biology, The Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA; The Department of Cutaneous Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida, USA.
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20
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Saalbach A, Janik T, Busch M, Herbert D, Anderegg U, Simon JC. Fibroblasts support migration of monocyte-derived dendritic cells by secretion of PGE2 and MMP-1. Exp Dermatol 2015; 24:598-604. [PMID: 25865800 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The outcome of a cutaneous immune response is critically dependent upon the ability of dendritic cells (DC) to migrate from skin to the draining lymph nodes - a process that is influenced by the cutaneous tissue microenvironment. Here, the role of fibroblasts - a major component of the dermal microenvironment - on the migratory capacity of monocyte-derived DC (MoDC) was investigated in a 3D collagen I matrix. Indeed, dermal fibroblasts supported the migration of pre-activated MoDC through a 3D collagen I matrix. Activation of human MoDC resulted in the release of TNFα and IL-1β that in turn stimulated MMP-1 (human collagenase) and PGE2 secretion by human dermal fibroblasts. Transmigration assays confirmed the importance of fibroblast-derived MMP-1 and PGE2 for the migration of MoDC through a 3D collagen I matrix. Finally, in mice initiation of inflammation by induction of an irritant contact dermatitis or a psoriasis-like skin inflammation, the expression of the PGE2 generating cox-2 and the mouse collagen I degrading enzyme matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-13 was strongly up-regulated. Our study indicates that MoDC are able to instruct dermal fibroblasts resulting in enhanced migratory capability of MoDC, thus highlighting the role of a crosstalk of DC with their stromal microenvironment for the control of cutaneous immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Saalbach
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tobias Janik
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthias Busch
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Diana Herbert
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ulf Anderegg
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan C Simon
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, Medical Faculty of Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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21
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Abstract
The fate of both endogenous and transplanted stem cells is dependent on the functional status of the regulatory local microenvironment, which is compromised by disease and therapeutic intervention. The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) is a critical component of the hematopoietic microenvironment. We summarize recent advances in our understanding of the role of HA in regulating mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, and endothelium in bone marrow (BM) and their crosstalk within the hematopoietic microenvironment. HA not only determines the volume, hydration, and microfluidics of the BM interstitial space, but also, via interactions with specific receptors, regulates multiple cell functions including differentiation, migration, and production of regulatory factors. The effects of HA are dependent on the polymer size and are influenced by the formation of complexes with other molecules. In healthy BM, HA synthases and hyaluronidases form a molecular network that maintains extracellular HA levels within a discrete physiological window, but HA homeostasis is often perturbed in pathological conditions, including hematological malignancies. Recent studies have suggested that HA synthases may have functions beyond HA production and contribute to the intracellular regulatory machinery. We discuss a possible role for HA synthases, intracellular and extracellular HA in the malignant BM microenvironment, and resistance to therapy.
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22
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Anderegg U, Simon JC, Averbeck M. More than just a filler - the role of hyaluronan for skin homeostasis. Exp Dermatol 2014; 23:295-303. [PMID: 24628940 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, hyaluronan (HA) has become an increasingly attractive substance as a non-immunogenic filler and scaffolding material in cosmetic dermatology. Despite its wide use for skin augmentation and rejuvenation, relatively little is known about the molecular structures and interacting proteins of HA in normal and diseased skin. However, a comprehensive understanding of cutaneous HA homeostasis is required for future the development of HA-based applications for skin regeneration. This review provides an update on HA-based structures, expression, metabolism and its regulation, function and pharmacological targeting of HA in skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Anderegg
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Zhang Y, Wu JZ, Yang YQ, Ma R, Zhang JY, Feng JF. Expression of growth‑regulated oncogene‑1, hepatocyte growth factor, platelet‑derived growth factor‑AA and soluble E‑selectin and their association with high‑risk human papillomavirus infection in squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Mol Med Rep 2014; 10:1013-24. [PMID: 24889672 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the clinical significance and prognostic value of growth‑regulated oncogene‑1 (GRO‑1), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet‑derived growth factor‑AA (PDGF‑AA), soluble E‑selectin (sE‑selectin) and high‑risk human papillomavirus (HPV; types 16, 18/45, 31 and 33/52/58/67) infection in cervical squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC). A total of 426 cases were enrolled in the present study, of which 292 cases were patients with CSCC, 43 were patients with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and 91 were healthy controls. Luminex xMAP technology was used to detect the serum levels of GRO‑1, HGF, PDGF‑AA and sE‑selectin in all cases and two‑channel fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to determine HPV DNA in cervical scrapings from CSCC and CIN patients. The results demonstrated that the serum levels of GRO‑1, HGF and sE‑selectin were significantly higher in patients with CSCC compared with patients with CIN and the healthy controls (P<0.0001). Compared with the CIN patients, the HPV positive rate in the CSCC patients significantly increased (P=0.013). The four factors were correlated with certain clinicopathological variables of CSCC patients to a certain degree (P<0.05) and the levels of HGF were closely associated with HPV infection (P=0.039). The receiver operating characteristic curves demonstrated that HGF obtained the highest diagnostic value compared with the other three factors. Multivariate Cox regression analysis demonstrated that the serum levels of HGF (P<0.0001), FIGO stage (P<0.0001) and pelvic lymph node metastasis (P=0.001) were independent prognostic factors in patients with CSCC, while high‑risk HPV infection did not show any significance in this analysis. These results demonstrated that HGF may be a useful prognostic biomarker rather than high‑risk HPV types in patients with CSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhang
- Department of Chemotherapy, The Affiliated Jiangsu Cancer Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Zhong Wu
- Research Center of Clinical Oncology, The Affiliated Jiangsu Cancer Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, P.R. China
| | - Yong-Qin Yang
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Jiangsu Cancer Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, P.R. China
| | - Rong Ma
- Research Center of Clinical Oncology, The Affiliated Jiangsu Cancer Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Ying Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221000, P.R. China
| | - Ji-Feng Feng
- Department of Chemotherapy, The Affiliated Jiangsu Cancer Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, P.R. China
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Chung HJ, Mahalingam M. Angiogenesis, vasculogenic mimicry and vascular invasion in cutaneous malignant melanoma – implications for therapeutic strategies and targeted therapies. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2014; 14:621-39. [DOI: 10.1586/14737140.2014.883281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Siiskonen H, Poukka M, Tyynelä-Korhonen K, Sironen R, Pasonen-Seppänen S. Inverse expression of hyaluronidase 2 and hyaluronan synthases 1-3 is associated with reduced hyaluronan content in malignant cutaneous melanoma. BMC Cancer 2013; 13:181. [PMID: 23560496 PMCID: PMC3626669 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-13-181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Hyaluronan is an extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan involved in invasion, proliferation and metastasis of various types of carcinomas. In many cancers, aberrant hyaluronan expression implicates disease progression and metastatic potential. Melanoma is an aggressive skin cancer. The role of hyaluronan in melanoma progression including benign nevi and lymph node metastases has not been investigated earlier, nor the details of its synthesis and degradation. Methods The melanocytic and dysplastic nevi, in situ melanomas, superficially and deeply invasive melanomas and their lymph node metastases were analysed immunohistochemically for the amount of hyaluronan, its cell surface receptor CD44, hyaluronan synthases 1–3 and hyaluronidases 1–2. Results Hyaluronan content of tumoral cells in deeply invasive melanomas and metastatic lesions was clearly reduced compared to superficial melanomas or benign lesions. Furthermore, hyaluronan content in the stromal cells of benign nevi was higher than in the premalignant or malignant tumors. The immunopositivity of hyaluronidase 2 was significantly increased in the premalignant and malignant lesions indicating its specific role in the degradation of hyaluronan during tumor progression. Similarly, the expression of hyaluronan synthases 1–2 and CD44 receptor was decreased in the metastases compared to the primary melanomas. Conclusions These findings suggest that the reciprocal relationship between the degrading and synthesizing enzymes account for the alterations in hyaluronan content during the growth of melanoma. These results provide new information about hyaluronan metabolism in benign, premalignant and malignant melanocytic tumors of the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Siiskonen
- Institute of Biomedicine/Anatomy, University of Eastern Finland, P.O.B. 1627, FIN-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
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Kultti A, Li X, Jiang P, Thompson CB, Frost GI, Shepard HM. Therapeutic targeting of hyaluronan in the tumor stroma. Cancers (Basel) 2012; 4:873-903. [PMID: 24213471 PMCID: PMC3712709 DOI: 10.3390/cancers4030873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor stroma, consisting of non-malignant cells and the extracellular matrix, undergoes significant quantitative and qualitative changes throughout malignant transformation and tumor progression. With increasing recognition of the role of the tumor microenvironment in disease progression, stromal components of the tumor have become attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. Stromal accumulation of the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan occurs in many tumor types and is frequently associated with a negative disease prognosis. Hyaluronan interacts with other extracellular molecules as well as cellular receptors to form a complex interaction network influencing physicochemical properties, signal transduction, and biological behavior of cancer cells. In preclinical animal models, enzymatic removal of hyaluronan is associated with remodeling of the tumor stroma, reduction of tumor interstitial fluid pressure, expansion of tumor blood vessels and facilitated delivery of chemotherapy. This leads to inhibition of tumor growth and increased survival. Current evidence shows that abnormal accumulation of hyaluronan may be an important stromal target for cancer therapy. In this review we highlight the role of hyaluronan and hyaluronan-mediated interactions in cancer, and discuss historical and recent data on hyaluronidase-based therapies and the effect of hyaluronan removal on tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Kultti
- Department of Research, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mails: (H.M.S.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-858-704-8339; Fax: +1-858-704-8311
| | - Xiaoming Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Safety Assessment, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mails: (X.L.); (P.J.); (C.B.T.)
| | - Ping Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Safety Assessment, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mails: (X.L.); (P.J.); (C.B.T.)
| | - Curtis B. Thompson
- Department of Pharmacology and Safety Assessment, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mails: (X.L.); (P.J.); (C.B.T.)
| | - Gregory I. Frost
- Department of General and Administrative, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mail: (G.I.F.)
| | - H. Michael Shepard
- Department of Research, Halozyme Therapeutics, 11388 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, CA 92121, USA; E-Mails: (H.M.S.)
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Melanoma cell-derived factors stimulate hyaluronan synthesis in dermal fibroblasts by upregulating HAS2 through PDGFR-PI3K-AKT and p38 signaling. Histochem Cell Biol 2012; 138:895-911. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-012-1000-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Malignant melanoma and its stromal nonimmune microecosystem. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2012; 2012:584219. [PMID: 22811710 PMCID: PMC3395267 DOI: 10.1155/2012/584219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 05/23/2012] [Accepted: 05/27/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, rapid advances were reached in the understanding of a series of biologic signals influencing cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) cells. CMM is in close contact with a peculiar dermal extracellular matrix (ECM). Stromal cells store and release various structural ECM components. The impact on CMM growth and progression is mediated through strong and long-lasting effects of ECM products. This paper summarizes some peculiar aspects of the peri-CMM stroma showing intracytoplasmic loads in Factor XIIIa, CD34, versican, and α (IV) collagen chains. The restricted peri-CMM skin territory exhibiting such changes corresponds to the area showing neoangiogenesis and extravascular unicellular metastatic spread. The latter inconspicuous migratory CMM cells possibly correspond to CMM stem cells or to CMM cells with aberrant HOX gene expression. Their presence is associated with an increased risk for metastases in the regional sentinel lymph nodes. In conclusion, the CMM-stroma connection appears crucial to the growth regulation, invasiveness and initial metastatic spread of CMM cells. Although much remains to be learned in this field, the active intervention of the peri-CMM stroma is likely involved in the inconspicuous early metastatic migration of CMM cells.
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