Enhancing pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) therapy with targeted carbon nano-onion (CNO)-mediated delivery of gemcitabine (GEM)-derived prodrugs

Nanotechnology's potential in revolutionising cancer treatments is evident in targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs) engineered to optimise therapeutic efficacy and minimise toxicity. This study examines a novel nanocarrier constructed with carbon nano-onions (CNOs), engineered and evaluated for its ability to selectively target cancer cells overexpressing the hyaluronic acid receptor; CD44. Our results highlighted that the CNO-based nanocarrier coupled with hyaluronic acid as the targeting agent demonstrated effective uptake by CD44+ PANC-1 and MIA PaCa-2 cells, while avoiding CD44- Capan-1 cells. The CNO-based nanocarrier also exhibited excellent biocompatibility in all tested pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells, as well as healthy cells. Notably, the CNO-based nanocarrier was successfully loaded with chemotherapeutic 4-(N)-acyl- sidechain-containing prodrugs derived from gemcitabine (GEM). These prodrugs alone exhibited remarkable efficacy in killing PDAC cells which are known to be GEM resistant, and their efficacy was amplified when combined with the CNO-based nanocarrier, particularly in targeting GEM-resistant CD44+ PDAC cells. These findings demonstrate the potential of CNOs as promising scaffolds in advancing targeted DDSs, signifying the translational potential of carbon nanoparticles for cancer therapy.

In Vitro Assessment of Cisplatin/Hyaluronan Complex for Loco-Regional Chemotherapy

Loco-regional chemotherapy is a strategy used to achieve more precise anticancer drug effect directly on tumor mass, while decreasing whole body exposure, which can lead to undesirable side effects. Thus, the loco-regional chemotherapy is conceptually similar to the targeted drug delivery systems for delivering chemotherapeutics to cancer cells in a certain location of the body. Recently, it has been demonstrated that a novel polymeric film containing the complex between cisplatin (cisPt) and hyaluronan (sodium salt of hyaluronic acid; NaHA) enhanced in vivo efficacy and safety of cisplatin (cisPt) by loco-regional delivery in pleural mesothelioma. Biologically, hyaluronic acid (HA) binds with the CD44 receptor, which is a transmembrane glycoprotein overexpressed by other cancer cells. Thus, administering both cisPt and hyaluronan together as a complex loco-regionally to the tumor site could target cancer cells locally and enhance treatment safety. A slight excess of hyaluronan was required to have more than 85% cisPt complexation. In cell monolayers (2D model) the cisPt/NaHA complex in solution demonstrated dose- and time-dependent cytotoxic effect by decreasing the viability of pancreatic, melanoma, and lung cell lines (they all express CD44). At the same concentration in solution, the complex was as effective as cisPt alone. However, when applied as film to melanoma spheroids (3D model), the complex was superior because it prevented the tumor spheroid growth and, more importantly, the formation of new cell colonies. Hence, cisPt/NaHA complex could work in preventing metastases loco-regionally and potentially avoiding systemic relapses.

CD44 targeted delivery of hyaluronic acid-coated polymeric nanoparticles against colorectal cancer

Aim: To develop hyaluronic acid (HA)-coated poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)-polysarcosine (PSAR) coupled sorafenib tosylate (SF) polymeric nanoparticles for targeted colon cancer therapy. Materials & methods: PLGA-PSAR shells were encapsulated with SF via nanoprecipitation. Interactions were examined with transmission electron microscopy, revealing formulation component interactions. Results: The optimized HA-coated polymeric nanoparticles (238.8 nm, -6.1 mV, 68.361% entrapment) displayed enhanced controlled release of SF. These formulations showed superior cytotoxicity against HCT116 cell lines compared with free drug (p < 0.05). In vivo tests on male albino Wistar rats demonstrated improved pharmacokinetics, targeting and biocompatibility. HA-coated PLGA-PSAR-coupled SF polymeric nanoparticles hold potential for effective colorectal therapy. Conclusion: Colon cancer may be precisely targeted by HA-coated PLGA-PSA-coupled SF polymeric nanoparticles.

DOX-loaded mesoporous hydroxyapatite modified by hyaluronic acid can achieve efficient targeted therapy for lung cancer

It is a novel therapeutic strategy to suppress tumour growth and metastasis by regulating the interaction between bioactivity ions and the biological process of tumour cells. This study synthesised a mesoporous hydroxyapatite (MHAP)-based nanocarrier for targeted delivery of the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). To further strengthen the targeting of DOX-loaded nanocarrier to tumour, HA that could specifically identify receptor on the surface of tumours was functionally modified. The drug release properties curve showed that the MHAP-HA@DOX complex showed pH-sensitive and sustained release properties. Also, the MHAP-HA@DOX complex represented high toxicity against lung cancer A549 cells. Besides, it displayed a significant inhibitory effect on tumour growth rate in tumour-bearing mice, while no evident toxicity for mice was observed. This nano-material is hoped to be an effective and novel nano-drug for lung cancer.

CD44-Targeted Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles Enhance Anti-Breast Cancer Effect of Cordyceps militaris Extracts

This study aimed to improve the anticancer effect of Cordyceps militaris herbal extract (CME) on breast cancer cells with hyaluronic acid (HYA) surface-decorated lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNPs) and evaluate the applicability of a synthesized poly(glycerol adipate) (PGA) polymer for LPNP preparation. Firstly, cholesterol- and vitamin E-grafted PGA polymers (PGA-CH and PGA-VE, respectively) were fabricated, with and without maleimide-ended polyethylene glycol. Subsequently, CME, which contained an active cordycepin equaling 9.89% of its weight, was encapsulated in the LPNPs. The results revealed that the synthesized polymers could be used to prepare CME-loaded LPNPs. The LPNP formulations containing Mal-PEG were decorated with cysteine-grafted HYA via thiol-maleimide reactions. The HYA-decorated PGA-based LPNPs substantially enhanced the anticancer effect of CME against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells by enhancing cellular uptake through CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis. This study demonstrated the successful targeted delivery of CME to the CD44 receptors of tumor cells by HYA-conjugated PGA-based LPNPs and the new application of synthesized PGA-CH- and PGA-VE-based polymers in LPNP preparation. The developed LPNPs showed promising potential for the targeted delivery of herbal extracts for cancer treatment and clear potential for translation in in vivo experiments.

Levan nanoparticles with intrinsic CD44-targeting ability for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Existing anticancer therapeutics exhibit short half-lives, non-specificity, and severe side effects. To address this, active-targeting nanoparticles have been developed; however, the complex fabrication procedures, scale-up, and low reproducibility delay FDA approval, particularly for functionalized nanoparticles. We developed levan nanoparticles via simple one-pot nanoprecipitation for specific anticancer drug delivery. Levan is a plant polysaccharide which has a binding affinity to CD44 receptors and amphiphilicity. The nanoparticles are self-assembled and enable active-targeting without chemical modifications. The paclitaxel-loaded levan nanoparticles (PTX@LevNP) demonstrated a sustained PTX release and long-term stability. The LevNP can bind CD44 receptors on cancer cells, and PTX@LevNP showed enhanced anticancer activity in CD44-positive cells (SCC7 cells). In SCC7 tumor-bearing mice, the accumulation of LevNP in tumor tissue was 3.7 times higher than that of the free-dye, resulting in improved anticancer efficacy of PTX@LevNP. This new strategy using levan can produce nanoparticles for effective cancer treatment without complex fabrication procedures.

Synergistic delivery of Imatinib through multifunctional nano-crystalline capsules, in response to redox environment for improved breast cancer therapy

Chondroitin anchored crystalline nano-capsules bearing Imatinib (IMT), and simvastatin (SMV) was developed using Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) by two-step method, i.e., firstly, by synthesizing chondroitin (CSA) anchored simvastatin (SMV) using cystamine as a spacer (SMV-SS-CSA) for disulfide triggered glutathione (GSH) sensitive release and secondly, by developing phenyl boronic ester grafted Pluronic F68 (PEPF) for H₂O₂ responsive release. By combining these conjugates, we have prepared crystalline nano-capsules (CNs) for preferential targeting of CD44 receptors. The developed CNs were spherical when characterized through SEM, TEM, and AFM for surface morphology, while changes in particle size and crystalline structure were confirmed through Quasi-Elastic light scattering (QELS) and Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). The enhanced cellular uptake was noted in chondroitin-modified nano-capsules IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs compared to unmodified nano-capsules IMT+SMV@CNs. IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs displayed significantly higher G2/M phase arrest (76.9%) than unmodified nano-capsules. The prototype formulation (IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs) showed an overall improved pharmacokinetic profile in terms of both half-life and AUC_0-α. When tested in the 4T1 subcutaneously injected tumor-bearing Balb/c mice model, the tumor growth inhibition rate of IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs was significantly higher (91%) than the IMT+SMV combination. Overall, the findings suggest that the proposed dual responsive chondroitin-modified drug delivery could have a step forward in achieving spatial and temporal targeting at the tumor site.

Hyaluronic acid-conjugated liposomes loaded with dexamethasone: a promising approach for the treatment of inflammatory diseases

Dexamethasone is a well-known anti-inflammatory drug readily used to treat many lung diseases. However, its side effects and poor lower airway deposition and retention are significant limitations to its usage. In this work, we developed lipid nanoparticulate platforms loaded with dexamethasone and evaluated their behavior in inflammatory lung models in vitro and in vivo. Dexamethasone-loaded liposomes with an average diameter below 150 nm were obtained using a solvent injection method. Three different formulations were produced with a distinct surface coating (polyethylene glycol, hyaluronic acid, or a mixture of both) as innovative strategies to cross the pulmonary mucus layer and/or target CD44 expressed on alveolar proinflammatory macrophages. Interestingly, while electron paramagnetic spectroscopy showed that surface modifications did not induce any molecular changes in the liposomal membrane, drug loading analysis revealed that adding the hyaluronic acid in the bilayer led to a decrease of dexamethasone loading (from 3.0 to 1.7w/w%). In vitro experiments on LPS-activated macrophages demonstrated that the encapsulation of dexamethasone in liposomes, particularly in HA-bearing ones, improved its anti-inflammatory efficacy compared to the free drug. Subsequently, in vivo data revealed that while intratracheal administration of free dexamethasone led to an important inter-animals variation of efficacy, dexamethasone-loaded liposomes showed an improved consistency within the results. Our data indicate that encapsulating dexamethasone into lipid nanoparticles is a potent strategy to improve its efficacy after lung delivery.

Synthesis, characterization, and in vitro anti-tumor activity studies of the hyaluronic acid-mangiferin-methotrexate nanodrug targeted delivery system

In this study, to increase the accumulation of MTX in the tumor site and reduce the toxicity to normal tissues by MA, a novel nano-drug delivery system comprised of hyaluronic acid (HA)-mangiferin (MA)-methotrexate (MTX) (HA-MA-MTX) was developed by a self-assembly strategy. The advantage of the nano-drug delivery system is that MTX can be used as a tumor-targeting ligand of the folate receptor (FA), HA can be used as another tumor-targeting ligand of the CD44 receptor, and MA serves as an anti-inflammatory agent. ¹HNMR and FT-IR results confirmed that HA, MA, and MTX were well coupled together by the ester bond. DLS and AFM images revealed that the size of HA-MA-MTX nanoparticles was about ~138 nm. In vitro cell experiments proved that HA-MA-MTX nanoparticles have a positive effect on inhibiting K7 cancer cells while having relatively lower toxicity to normal MC3T3-E1 cells than MTX does. All these results indicated that the prepared HA-MA-MTX nanoparticles can be selectively ingested by K7 tumor cells through FA and CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis, thus inhibiting the growth of tumor tissues and reducing the nonspecific uptake toxicity caused by chemotherapy. Therefore, these self-assembled HA-MA-MTX NPs could be a potential anti-tumor drug delivery system.

Sulfation of Heparan and Chondroitin Sulfate Ligands Enables Cell-Specific Homing of Nanoprobes

Demystifying the sulfation code of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) to induce precise homing of nanoparticles in tumor cells or neurons influences the development of a potential drug- or gene-delivery system. However, GAGs, particularly heparan sulfate (HS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS), are structurally highly heterogeneous, and synthesizing well-defined HS/CS composed nanoparticles is challenging. Here, we decipher how specific sulfation patterns on HS and CS regulate receptor-mediated homing of nanoprobes in primary and secondary cells. We discovered that aggressive cancer cells such as MDA-MB-231 displayed a strong uptake of GAG-nanoprobes compared to mild or moderately aggressive cancer cells. However, there was no selectivity towards the GAG sequences, thus indicating the presence of more than one form of receptor-mediated uptake. However, U87 cells, olfactory bulb, and hippocampal primary neurons showed selective or preferential uptake of CS-E-coated nanoprobes compared to other GAG-nanoprobes. Furthermore, mechanistic studies revealed that the 4,6-O-disulfated-CS nanoprobe used the CD44 and caveolin-dependent endocytosis pathway for uptake. These results could lead to new opportunities to use GAG nanoprobes in nanomedicine.

Hyaluronic-Acid-Tagged Cubosomes Deliver Cytotoxics Specifically to CD44-Positive Cancer Cells

Delivery of chemotherapy drugs specifically to cancer cells raises local drug doses in tumors and therefore kills more cancer cells while reducing side effects in other tissues, thereby improving oncological and quality of life outcomes. Cubosomes, liquid crystalline lipid nanoparticles, are potential vehicles for delivery of chemotherapy drugs, presenting the advantages of biocompatibility, stable encapsulation, and high drug loading of hydrophobic or hydrophilic drugs. However, active targeting of drug-loaded cubosomes to cancer cells, as opposed to passive accumulation, remains relatively underexplored. We formulated and characterized cubosomes loaded with potential cancer drug copper acetylacetonate and functionalized their surfaces using click chemistry coupling with hyaluronic acid (HA), the ligand for the cell surface receptor CD44. CD44 is overexpressed in many cancer types including breast and colorectal. HA-tagged, copper-acetylacetonate-loaded cubosomes have an average hydrodynamic diameter of 152 nm, with an internal nanostructure based on the space group Im3m. These cubosomes were efficiently taken up by two CD44-expressing cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and HT29, representing breast and colon cancer) but not by two CD44-negative cell lines (MCF-7 breast cancer and HEK-293 kidney cells). HA-tagged cubosomes caused significantly more cell death than untargeted cubosomes in the CD44-positive cells, demonstrating the value of the targeting. CD44-negative cells were equally relatively resistant to both, demonstrating the specificity of the targeting. Cell death was characterized as apoptotic. Specific targeting and cell death were evident in both 2D culture and 3D spheroids. We conclude that HA-tagged, copper-acetylacetonate-loaded cubosomes show great potential as an effective therapeutic for selective targeting of CD44-expressing tumors.

N-acetylneuraminic acid and chondroitin sulfate modified nanomicelles with ROS-sensitive H2S donor via targeting E-selectin receptor and CD44 receptor for the efficient therapy of atherosclerosis

Currently, very limited therapeutic approaches are available for the drug treatment of atherosclerosis(AS). H₂S-donor is becoming a common trend in much life-threatening research. Several studies have documented that H₂S-lyase is predominantly present in endothelial cells. N-Acetylneuraminic acid (SA), natural carbohydrate, binds specifically to the E-selectin receptor of endothelial cells. Meanwhile, recent studies related to Chondroitin sulfate have excellent target binding ability with CD44 receptor. We conjecture that the N-Acetylneuraminic acid and Chondroitin sulfate modified nanomicelles not only enhances the accumulation of the drug but also cleaves the H₂S donor in the lesion, thus one stone two birds. Given these findings, we synthesized two kinds of nanoparticles, Carrier I (SCCF) and Carrier II (SCTM), for atherosclerosis to validate our guesses. Initially, S-allyl-L-cysteine and 4-methoxyphenylthiourea were used as H₂S donors for SCCF and SCTM, respectively. After the introduction of ROS-sensitive groups. Then, micelles with N-Acetylneuraminic acid and Chondroitin sulfate were prepared to load rapamycin(RAP). Further, in atherosclerosis Oil Red O staining (ORO) results confirmed remarkable treatment effect with SCCF@RAP and SCTM@RAP. Thus, we conclude that the effect of dual-targeting nanomicelles with ROS-sensitive H₂S donor based on N-Acetylneuraminic acid and Chondroitin sulfate will have a better role in atherosclerosis.

CD44 Receptor-Mediated/Reactive Oxygen Species-Sensitive Delivery of Nanophotosensitizers against Cervical Cancer Cells

Stimulus-sensitive, nanomedicine-based photosensitizer delivery has an opportunity to target tumor tissues since oxidative stress and the expression of molecular proteins, such as CD44 receptors, are elevated in the tumor microenvironment. The aim of this study is to investigate the CD44 receptor- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive delivery of nanophotosensitizers of chlorin e6 (Ce6)-conjugated hyaluronic acid (HA) against HeLa human cervical cancer cells. For the synthesis of nanophotosensitizers, thioketal diamine was conjugated with the carboxyl group in HA and then the amine end group of HA-thioketal amine conjugates was conjugated again with Ce6 (Abbreviated as HAthCe6). The HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers were of small diameter, with sizes less than 200. Their morphology was round-shaped in the observations using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers responded to oxidative stress-induced changes in size distribution when H₂O₂ was added to the nanophotosensitizer aqueous solution, i.e., their monomodal distribution pattern at 0 mM H₂O₂ was changed to dual- and/or multi-modal distribution patterns at higher concentrations of H₂O₂. Furthermore, the oxidative stress induced by the H₂O₂ addition contributed to the disintegration of HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers in morphology, and this phenomenon accelerated the release rate of Ce6 from nanophotosensitizers. In a cell culture study using HeLa cells, nanophotosensitizers increased Ce6 uptake ratio, ROS generation and PDT efficacy compared to free Ce6. Since HA specifically bonds with the CD44 receptor of cancer cells, the pretreatment of free HA against HeLa cells decreased the Ce6 uptake ratio, ROS generation and PDT efficacy of HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers. These results indicated that intracellular delivery of HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers can be controlled by the CD44 receptor-mediated pathway. Furthermore, these phenomena induced CD44 receptor-controllable ROS generation and PDT efficacy by HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers. During in vivo tumor imaging using HeLa cells, nanophotosensitizer administration showed that the fluorescence intensity of tumor tissues was relatively higher than that of other organs. When free HA was pretreated, the fluorescence intensity of tumor tissue was relatively lower than those of other organs, indicating that HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers have CD44 receptor sensitivity and that they can be delivered by receptor-specific manner. We suggest that HAthCe6 nanophotosensitizers are promising candidates for PDT in cervical cancer.

Simultaneous targeting of CD44 and MMP9 catalytic and hemopexin domains as a therapeutic strategy

Crosstalk of the oncogenic matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and one of its ligands, CD44, involves cleavage of CD44 by the MMP9 catalytic domain, with the CD44–MMP9 interaction on the cell surface taking place through the MMP9 hemopexin domain (PEX). This interaction promotes cancer cell migration and invasiveness. In concert, MMP9-processed CD44 induces the expression of MMP9, which degrades ECM components and facilitates growth factor release and activation, cancer cell invasiveness, and metastasis. Since both MMP9 and CD44 contribute to cancer progression, we have developed a new strategy to fully block this neoplastic process by engineering a multi-specific inhibitor that simultaneously targets CD44 and both the catalytic and PEX domains of MMP9. Using a yeast surface display technology, we first obtained a high-affinity inhibitor for the MMP9 catalytic domain, which we termed C9, by modifying a natural non-specific MMP inhibitor, N-TIMP2. We then conjugated C9 via a flexible linker to PEX, thereby creating a multi-specific inhibitor (C9-PEX) that simultaneously targets the MMP9 catalytic and PEX domains and CD44. It is likely that, via its co-localization with CD44, C9-PEX may compete with MMP9 localization on the cell surface, thereby inhibiting MMP9 catalytic activity, reducing MMP9 cellular levels, interfering with MMP9 homodimerization, and reducing the activation of downstream MAPK/ERK pathway signaling. The developed platform could be extended to other oncogenic MMPs as well as to other important target proteins, thereby offering great promise for creating novel multi-specific therapeutics for cancer and other diseases.

Hyaluronic acid-based drug nanocarriers as a novel drug delivery system for cancer chemotherapy: A systematic review

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment strategy for cancer patients. Nevertheless, limited drug delivery to cancer cells, intolerable toxicity, and multiple drug resistance are constant challenges of chemotherapy. Novel targeted drug delivery strategies by using nanoparticles have attracted much attention due to reducing side effects and increasing drug efficacy. Therefore, the most important outcome of this study is to answer the question of whether active targeted HA-based drug nanocarriers have a significant effect on improving drug delivery to cancer cells.This study aimed to systematically review studies on the use of hyaluronic acid (HA)-based nanocarriers for chemotherapy drugs. The two databases MagIran and SID from Persian databases as well as international databases PubMed, WoS, Scopus, Science Direct, Embase, as well as Google Scholar were searched for human studies and cell lines and/or xenograft mice published without time limit until 2020. Keywords used to search included Nanoparticle, chemotherapy, HA, Hyaluronic acid, traditional medicine, natural medicine, chemotherapeutic drugs, natural compound, cancer treatment, and cancer. The quality of the studies was assessed by the STROBE checklist. Finally, studies consistent with inclusion criteria and with medium- to high-quality were included in the systematic review.According to the findings of studies, active targeted HA-based drug nanocarriers showed a significant effect on improving drug delivery to cancer cells. Also, the use of lipid nanoparticles with a suitable coating of HA have been introduced as biocompatible drug carriers with high potential for targeted drug delivery to the target tissue without affecting other tissues and reducing side effects. Enhanced drug delivery, increased therapeutic efficacy, increased cytotoxicity and significant inhibition of tumor growth, as well as high potential for targeted chemotherapy are also reported to be benefits of using HA-based nanocarriers for tumors with increased expression of CD44 receptor.

Layer-by-Layer Assembled Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for CD-44 Receptor-Based Targeting in HIV-Infected Macrophages for Efficient HIV-1 Inhibition

Macrophages act as a cellular reservoir in HIV infection. Elimination of HIV from macrophages has been an unfulfilled dream due to the failure of drugs to reach them. To address this, we developed CD44 receptor-targeted, novel hyaluronic acid (HA)-coated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) of efavirenz via washless layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of HA and polyallylamine hydrochloride (PAH). NLCs were subjected to TEM analysis, size and zeta potential, in vitro release and encapsulation efficiency studies. The uptake of NLCs in THP-1 cells was studied using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The anti-HIV efficacy was evaluated using p24 antigen inhibition assay. NLCs were found to be spherical in shape with anionic zeta potential (-23.66 ± 0.87 mV) and 241.83 ± 5.38 nm particle size. NLCs exhibited prolonged release of efavirenz during in vitro drug release studies. Flow cytometry revealed 1.73-fold higher uptake of HA-coated NLCs in THP-1 cells. Cytotoxicity studies showed no significant change in cell viability in presence of NLCs as compared with the control. HA-coated NLCs distributed throughout the cell including cytoplasm, plasma membrane and nucleus, as observed during fluorescence microscopy. HA-coated NLCs demonstrated consistent and significantly higher inhibition (81.26 ± 1.70%) of p24 antigen which was 2.08-fold higher than plain NLCs. The obtained results suggested preferential uptake of HA-coated NLCs via CD44-mediated uptake. The present finding demonstrates that HA-based CD44 receptor targeting in HIV infection is an attractive strategy for maximising the drug delivery to macrophages and achieve effective viral inhibition.

Preparation of hyaluronic acid-decorated mixed nanomicelles for targeted delivery of hydrophobic drugs to CD44-overexpressing cancer cells

Most of the employed methods for preparation of targeted nanoparticles containing hydrophobic herbal drugs have multiple surface modifications with time-consuming steps. The present research was aimed to develop a facile method for preparation of hyaluronic acid (HA)-decorated mixed nanomicelles loaded with curcumin (as a hydrophobic drug model) to provide an efficient drug delivery system for targeted therapy of breast cancer cells with high expression of CD44 receptor. To this end, curcumin was first encapsulated in the hydrophobic core of Pluronic F127/didecyldimethylammonium bromide (PD) mixed nanomicelles using thin-film hydration method. Then, negatively charged HA was coated on the positively charged surface of PD mixed nanomicelles via electrostatic interactions. The drug loading and entrapment efficiency of the targeted nanomicelles were 2.8% and 95.1%, respectively. The average hydrodynamic size of the prepared nanomicelles before and after coating with HA were 19.8 and 35.8 nm, respectively. Moreover, in vitro cytotoxicity analyses showed that, HA-coated PD (HA-PD) mixed nanomicelles can enhance the cytotoxicity of curcumin against MDA-MB-231 cancer cells compared to non-targeted ones (PD mixed nanomicelles), and free curcumin. The IC₅₀ concentrations of free curcumin, curcumin-loaded PD mixed nanomicelles, and curcumin-loaded HA-PD mixed nanomicelles were 4.11, 3.20, and 2.83 μg/mL, respectively, after 48 h incubation with MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. Our results suggest that, curcumin-loaded HA-PD mixed nanomicelles may be considered as a promising targeted anticancer drug delivery system for breast cancer therapy and/or delivering other hydrophobic drugs to different kinds of cancer cells with CD44-receptor overexpression.

Effects of the Molecular Weight of Hyaluronic Acid in a Carbon Nanotube Drug Delivery Conjugate

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a ubiquitous biopolymer involved in many pathophysiological roles. One HA receptor, the cluster of differentiation CD44 protein, is often overexpressed in tumor cells. As such, HA has attracted considerable interest in the development of drug delivery formulations, given its intrinsic targetability toward CD44 overexpressing cells. The present study is focused on examining the correlation of HA molecular weight with its targetability properties. A library of conjugates obtained by linking the amino group of the phospholipid 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DMPE) to the carboxylic residues of HA of different molecular weight (6.4, 17, 51, 200, and 1,500 kDa) were synthesized and fully characterized. The HA-DMPE conjugates were then used to non-covalently functionalize the highly hydrophobic single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT), and further encapsulate the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). Our results show that the complexes DOX/CNT/HA-DMPE maintain very good and stable dispersibility. Drug release studies indicated a pH-responsive release of the drug from the nanocarrier. Cell viability tests demonstrated that all HA modified CNTs have good biocompatibility, and specific targeting toward cells overexpressing the CD44 receptor. Among all the molecular weights tested, the 200 kDa HA showed the highest increase in cellular uptake and cytotoxic activity. All these promising attributes make CNT/HA₂₀₀-DMPE a “smart” platform for tumor-targeted delivery of anticancer agents.

pH-responsive hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles for targeted curcumin delivery and enhanced cancer therapy

Curcumin (CUR) display promising antitumor effects, however, the poor water solubility severely limited its clinical application. To overcome this problem, polymeric nanocarriers have been adopted for targeted CUR delivery and enhanced cancer therapy. In this paper, utilizing an acid-labile hydrazone linkage, hydrophobic CUR was conjugated with hydrophilic hyaluronic acid (HA) to form amphiphilic HA-ADH-CUR conjugates, which could subsequently self-assemble to form nanoparticles (HA@CUR NPs) in aqueous. The in vitro drug release experiments showed that HA@CUR NPs exhibited a pH-responsive CUR release behavior, and the release rate of CUR was 73.5 % in pH 5.0. Further, in vitro cell experiments showed HA@CUR NPs could be efficiently internalized by 4T1 and MCF-7 cancer cells through CD44 receptor mediated endocytosis and successfully release CUR in acidic lysosome environment for chemotherapy. In vivo antitumor experiments showed that, compared to free CUR, HA@CUR NPs could efficiently cumulate in tumor site via EPR effect and CD44 mediated endocytosis, achieve superior therapeutic effect for tumor growth suppression. Therefore, HA@CUR NPs were a highly promising nanocarrier for hydrophobic CUR to realize enhanced cancer therapy with good biosafety.

Chondroitin sulfate-hybridized zein nanoparticles for tumor-targeted delivery of docetaxel

Chondroitin sulfate-hybridized zein nanoparticles (zein/CS NPs) were developed for targeted delivery of docetaxel, which exhibited mean diameters of 157.8 ± 3.6 nm and docetaxel encapsulation efficiency of 64.2 ± 1.9 %. Docetaxel was released from the NPs in a sustained manner (∼72 h), following first-order kinetics. The zein/CS NPs showed improved colloidal stability, maintaining the initial size in serum for 12 h. The pre-treatment of CS reduced the uptake efficiency of the NPs by 23 % in PC-3 cells, suggesting the involvement of CD44-mediated uptake mechanism. The NPs showed 2.79-fold lower IC₅₀ values than free docetaxel. Enhanced tumor accumulation of the NPs was confirmed in PC-3 xenograft mice by near-infrared fluorescence imaging (35.3-fold, versus free Cy5.5). The NPs exhibited improved pharmacokinetic properties (9.5-fold longer terminal half-life, versus free docetaxel) and anti-tumor efficacy comparable to Taxotere with negligible systemic toxicity, suggesting zein/CS NPs could be a promising nanoplatform for targeted cancer therapy.

Hyaluronic Acid-Mediated Drug Delivery System Targeting for Inflammatory Skin Diseases: A Mini Review

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a major component of extracellular matrix has been widely applied in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to its reported pharmacological properties. Various types of HA drug delivery system including nanoparticles, cryogel-based formulations, microneedle patches, and nano-emulsions were developed. There are studies reporting that several HA-based transdermal delivery systems exhibit excellent biocompatibility, enhanced permeability and efficient localized release of anti-psoriasis drugs and have shown to inhibit psoriasis-associated skin inflammation. Similarly HA is found in abundant at epidermis of atopic dermatitis (AD) suggesting its role in atopic AD pathology. Anti-allergenic effect of atopic eczema can be achieved through the inhibition of CD44 and protein kinase C alpha (PKCα) interaction by HA. Herein, we aim to evaluate the current innovation on HA drug delivery system and the other potential applications of HA in inflammatory skin diseases, focusing on atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. HA is typically integrated into different delivery systems including nanoparticles, liposomes, ethosomes and microneedle patches in supporting drug penetration through the stratum corneum layer of the skin. For instance, ethosomes and microneedle delivery system such as curcumin-loaded HA-modified ethosomes were developed to enhance skin retention and delivery of curcumin to CD44-expressing psoriatic cells whereas methotrexate-loaded HA-based microneedle was shown to enhance skin penetration of methotrexate to alleviate psoriasis-like skin inflammation. HA-based nanoparticles and pluronic F-127 based dual responsive (pH/temperature) hydrogels had been described to enhance drug permeation through and into the intact skin for AD treatment.

Influence of hyaluronic acid binding on the actin cortex measured by optical forces

Melanoma cells are often surrounded by hyaluronic acid (HA) rich environments, which are considered to promote tumor progression and metastasis. Induced effects in compound materials consisting of cells embedded in an extracellular matrix have been studied, however, alterations of the single cells have never been addressed. Here, we explicitly addressed single cell properties and measured HA-induced biomechanical changes via deformations induced solely by optical forces. With the optical stretcher setup, cells were deformed after culturing them in either the presence or absence of HA revealing the crucial interplay of HA with the CD44 receptor. To assess the role of CD44 in transducing effects of HA, we compared a CD44 expressing variant of the melanoma cell line RPM-MC to its natural CD44-negative counterpart. Our measurements revealed a significant stiffness change, which we attribute to changes of the actin cytoskeleton.

Polysaccharide Multilayer Films in Sensors for Detecting Prostate Tumor Cells Based on Hyaluronan-CD44 Interactions

The increasing need for point-of-care diagnosis has sparked the development of label-free sensing platforms, some of which are based on impedance measurements with biological cells. Here, interdigitated electrodes were functionalized with layer-by-layer (LbL) films of hyaluronan (HA) and chitosan (CHI) to detect prostatic tumor cells (PC3 line). The deposition of LbL films was confirmed with atomic force microscopy and polarization-modulated infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS), which featured the vibrational modes of the HA top layer capable of interacting specifically with glycoprotein CD44 receptors overexpressed in tumor cells. Though the CHI/HA LbL films cannot be considered as a traditional biosensor due to their limited selectivity, it was possible to distinguish prostate tumor cells in the range from 50 to 600 cells/µL in in vitro experiments with impedance spectroscopy. This was achieved by treating the impedance data with information visualization methods, which confirmed the distinguishing ability of the films by observing the absence of false positives in a series of control experiments. The CD44–HA interactions may, therefore, be exploited in clinical analyses and point-of-care diagnostics for cancer, particularly if computational methods are used to process the data.

Cartilage Tissue-Mimetic Pellets with Multifunctional Magnetic Hyaluronic Acid-Graft-Amphiphilic Gelatin Microcapsules for Chondrogenic Stimulation

Articular cartilage defect is a common disorder caused by sustained mechanical stress. Owing to its nature of avascular, cartilage had less reconstruction ability so there is always a need for other repair strategies. In this study, we proposed tissue-mimetic pellets composed of chondrocytes and hyaluronic acid-graft-amphiphilic gelatin microcapsules (HA-AGMCs) to serve as biomimetic chondrocyte extracellular matrix (ECM) environments. The multifunctional HA-AGMC with specific targeting on CD44 receptors provides excellent structural stability and demonstrates high cell viability even in the center of pellets after 14 days culture. Furthermore, with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIOs) in the microcapsule shell of HA-AGMCs, it not only showed sound cell guiding ability but also induced two physical stimulations of static magnetic field(S) and magnet-derived shear stress (MF) on chondrogenic regeneration. Cartilage tissue-specific gene expressions of Col II and SOX9 were upregulated in the present of HA-AGMC in the early stage, and HA-AGMC+MF+S held the highest chondrogenic commitments throughout the study. Additionally, cartilage tissue-mimetic pellets with magnetic stimulation can stimulate chondrogenesis and sGAG synthesis.

One-pot preparation of hyaluronic acid-coated iron oxide nanoparticles for magnetic hyperthermia therapy and targeting CD44-overexpressing cancer cells

In the present study, a facile one-pot hydrothermal method is introduced for preparation of hyaluronic acid-coated Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄@HA NPs) for theranostic applications. In the proposed method, hyaluronic acid acts simultaneously as a biocompatible coating layer and as a targeting ligand for CD44 receptor overexpressed on the surface of breast cancer cells. The obtained product with narrow hydrodynamic size distribution exhibited a high colloidal stability at physiological pH for more than three months. Cytotoxicity measurements indicated a negligible toxicity of the prepared sample against L929 normal cells. Preferential targeting of Fe₃O₄@HA NPs to CD44-overexpressing cancer cells was studied by comparing the uptake of the prepared nanoparticles by MDA-MB-231 cancer cells (positive CD44 expression) and L929 normal cells (negative CD44 expression). Uptake of the Fe₃O₄@HA NPs by MDA-MB-231 cells was found to be 4-fold higher than the normal cells. Also, the in vitro analysis showed that, the uptake of Fe₃O₄@HA NPs by MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells is significantly enhanced as compared to non-targeted dextran-coated Fe₃O₄ NPs. Moreover, the heat generation capability of the Fe₃O₄@HA NPs for magnetic hyperthermia application was studied by exposing the prepared nanoparticles to different safe alternating magnetic fields (f = 120 kHz, H = 8, 10, and 12 kA/m). The intrinsic loss power obtained for Fe₃O₄@HA NPs was about 3.5 nHm²/kg, which is about 25-fold larger than that of obtained for commercial available Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Good colloidal stability, biocompatibility, high heating efficacy, and targeting specificity to CD44 receptor-overexpressing cancer cells could make the Fe₃O₄@HA NPs as a promising multifunctional platform for diagnosis and therapeutic applications.

Multifunctional, CD44v6-Targeted ORMOSIL Nanoparticles Enhance Drugs Toxicity in Cancer Cells

Drug-loaded, PEGylated, organic-modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles prepared by microemulsion condensation of vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES) were investigated as potential nanovectors for cancer therapy. To target cancer stem cells, anti-CD44v6 antibody and hyaluronic acid (HA) were conjugated to amine-functionalized PEGylated ORMOSIL nanoparticles through thiol-maleimide and amide coupling chemistries, respectively. Specific binding and uptake of conjugated nanoparticles were studied on cells overexpressing the CD44v6 receptor. Cytotoxicity was subsequently evaluated in the same cells after the uptake of the nanoparticles. Internalization of nanocarriers loaded with the anticancer drug 3N-cyclopropylmethyl-7-phenyl-pyrrolo- quinolinone (MG2477) into cells resulted in a substantial increase of the cytotoxicity with respect to the free formulation. Targeting with anti-CD44v6 antibodies or HA yielded nanoparticles with similar effectiveness, in their optimized formulation.

Blood component ridable and CD44 receptor targetable nanoparticles based on a maleimide-functionalized chondroitin sulfate derivative

Chondroitin sulfate A-deoxycholic acid-polyethylene glycol-maleimide (CSA-DOCA-PEG-MAL; CDPM) nanostructures were designed for the transient binding of MAL with thiol in blood components and cell membranes, in addition to the CD44 receptor targeting, for the therapy of breast cancer. The spontaneous binding of free thiol groups in plasma proteins and blood cells with the MAL group of CDPM was significantly higher than that of CSA-DOCA-PEG (CDP). Enhanced cellular uptake and the in vitro antiproliferation efficacy of docetaxel (D)-loaded CDPM (CDPM/D) nanoparticles (NPs) in MCF-7 cells indicated dual-targeting effects based on MAL-thiol reactions and CSA-CD44 receptor interactions. Following intravenous injection in rats, reduced clearance and an elevated half-life of the drug was observed in the CDPM/D NPs compared to the CDP/D NPs. Taken together, MAL modification of CDP NPs could be a promising approach not only to enhance tumor targeting and penetration but also to extend the blood circulation time of anticancer drugs.

Exploring the relationship of hyaluronic acid molecular weight and active targeting efficiency for designing hyaluronic acid-modified nanoparticles

Although it is reported that the targeting ability of hyaluronic acid (HA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) is molecular weight (MW) dependent, the influence of HA MW on targeting efficiency of HA-functionalized NPs and the underlying mechanism remain elusive. In this study, we constituted three HA-functionalized Dox-loaded NPs (Dox/HCVs) different HA MWs (7, 63, and 102 kDa) and attempted to illustrate the effects of HA MW on the targeting efficiency. The three Dox/HCVs had similar physiochemical and pharmaceutical characteristics, but showed different affinity to CD44 receptor. Furthermore, Dox/HCV-63 exerted the best targeting effect and the highest cytotoxicity compared with Dox/HCV-7 and Dox/HCV-102. It was interesting to found that both the HA-CD44 binding affinity and induced CD44 clustering by HA-based NPs were HA MW-dependent, the two of which determine the apparent targeting efficacy of Dox/HCV NPs in the conflicting directions. Those results laid a good foundation for rationally designing HA-based NPs in cancer therapy.

CD44 Receptor-Specific and Redox-Sensitive Nanophotosensitizers of Hyaluronic Acid-Chlorin e6 Tetramer Having Diselenide Linkages for Photodynamic Treatment of Cancer Cells

For reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive and CD44 receptor-mediated delivery of photosensitizers, chlorin e6 (ce6) tetramer was synthesized using tetra acid (TA) via selenocystamine linkages and then conjugated with hyaluronic acid (HA) (abbreviated as HAseseCe6TA). HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers were fabricated by dialysis procedure. HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers showed spherical morphology with small particle sizes less than 100 nm and monomodal pattern. When H₂O₂ was added, size distribution was changed to multimodal pattern and morphological observation showed disintegration of nanophotosensitizers, indicating that HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers have ROS sensitivity. Furthermore, H₂O₂ addition resulted in acceleration of Ce6 release from HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers. In vitro cell culture study, HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers increase Ce6 uptake ratio, ROS production efficiency, and photodynamic therapy efficacy in both B16F10 cells and CT26 cells. Especially, CD44-receptor blocking of cancer cells by pretreatment of HA showed that fluorescence intensity in B16F10 cells was significantly decreased while fluorescence intensity in CT26 cells was not significantly changed, indicating that HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers can be delivered by CD44 receptor-mediated pathway. In vivo animal tumor xenograft study, HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers was selectively delivered to B16F10 tumor rather than CT26 tumor. These results indicated that HAseseCe6TA nanophotosensitizers have ROS sensitivity and have CD44 receptor-recognition properties.

The risk of using monoclonal or polyclonal commercial antibodies: controversial results on porcine sperm CD44 receptor identification

Presence of the hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid, HA) receptor CD44 on spermatozoa has been difficult to pursue, mostly obeying to the use of different commercial mono- and/or polyclonal antibodies, often lacking proper controls. Here, we describe how the presence (Western blotting) and specific location (immunocytochemistry) of the CD44 receptor differs in ejaculated pig spermatozoa depending on the type of antibody and protocol used. While we were able to detect binding to spermatozoa and mark its presence in the sperm membrane, the use of blocking peptides clearly indicated that only the monoclonal antibody could confirm the specific presence and location of the CD44 receptor, whereas the polyclonal antibody was detecting multiple presumed CD44 isoforms or degraded proteins thus proving unspecific. These results call for strict protocols when attempting immunological determination of sperm membrane receptors.

Tumor Targeting and Lipid Rafts Disrupting Hyaluronic Acid-Cyclodextrin-Based Nanoassembled Structure for Cancer Therapy

CD44 receptor targeting and lipid rafts destroying nanoassembly (NA) was developed for breast cancer therapy. Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MbCD), as a cholesterol depletion moiety, was conjugated to hyaluronic acid-ceramide (HACE) structure via an ester linkage. HACE-MbCD NA with 198 nm hydrodynamic size, unimodal size distribution, and spherical shape was fabricated by self-assembly strategy. By filipin III staining, it was identified that HACE-MbCD NA extracted cholesterol from the cellular membrane of MDA-MB-231 (human breast adenocarcinoma) cells more efficiently rather than MbCD and HACE NA. Efficient lipid rafts disruption of HACE-MbCD NA compared to MbCD and HACE NA groups seems to lead to the increment in apoptosis and antiproliferation efficiencies in MDA-MB-231 cells. Improvement in tumor targeting efficiency of HACE-MbCD NA compared to HACE NA in MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing mice can be explained by the extraction process of cellular cholesterol by MbCD. Following intravenous injection in MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing mice, the most efficient suppression of tumor growth and highest apoptotic region were observed in HACE-MbCD NA group rather than MbCD group. All of these findings suggest that CD44 receptor-targetable HACE-MbCD NA retaining cholesterol depletion activity from cancer cells may be one of the remarkable nanosystems for breast cancer therapy.

Emerging Role of CD44 Receptor as a Potential Target in Disease Diagnosis: A Patent Review

BACKGROUND

The CD44 receptor is a cell surface glycoprotein, which mediates many physiological and pathological activities. Its key role is to provide defence against inflammatory reactions by cellular transmigration and cell signalling. In pathological conditions, it gives destructive outcomes by mediating migration of pathogenic cells to vital organs resulting in tissue and organ damage. It binds to several ligands principally the hyaluronan.

OBJECTIVE

This review explores CD44 structure, functions, and its potential as a disease indicator and therapeutic target.

METHOD

From a thorough literature review on the CD44 receptor, several patents of targeting approaches have been identified and herewith reviewed which recommend CD44-binding proteins, CD44-binding antibodies, antibody fragments, pharmaceutical compositions, as well as nucleic acids as a targeting moiety.

RESULT

Applicability of CD44 overexpression and its targeting has now been extensively utilized in the disease diagnosis and real-time bio imaging of pathologic cells.

CONCLUSION

A thorough understanding of CD44-receptor structure, expression and diverse functions towards different cell types would offer an opportunity to develop better therapeutic approaches in the near future by overcoming all the shortcomings of toxicity and efficacy. The present review includes recent patents of CD44 receptor targeting approaches that have been presented in the different agencies: European (EP), US, and World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and a general analysis of the future developments and trends in this emerging area.

Hyaluronan improves neither the long-term storage nor the cryosurvival of liquid-stored CD44-bearing AI boar spermatozoa

Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid, HA) apparently improves sperm survival in vitro and in vivo (oviduct), maintaining sperm motility and inducing capacitation, but not acrosome exocytosis, either by direct action as a macromolecule or via CD44 membrane receptors. This study explored ejaculated, liquid-extended pig spermatozoa to ascertain (i) the presence (Western blotting) and specific location (immunocytochemistry) of the CD44 receptor, using a specific monoclonal commercial antibody; (ii) whether the CD44 receptor changed location when exposed to bicarbonate, a capacitating trigger, in vitro; and (iii) whether the addition of HA, of molecular size comparable to that produced in the oviduct sperm reservoir (0.0625 to 2.0 mg/ml; 0 HA: control), to semen extenders would improve sperm liquid storage in vitro or cryosurvival post-freezing. Variables tested were sperm velocity and progressive motility (Qualisperm^TM), sperm viability and acrosome status, membrane integrity and early destabilization, mitochondrial activation, and superoxide production (flow cytometry). The CD44 receptor presence in ejaculated, liquid-stored AI boar spermatozoa, as confirmed by a porcine-specific monoclonal antibody, maintained its membrane location under in vitro capacitation-inducing conditions. HA exposure to 24-, 48-, or 72-h liquid-stored (17–20ºC) spermatozoa lowered sperm velocity in membrane-intact spermatozoa, but increased mitochondrial superoxide production. Finally, HA addition during cooling did not improve cryosurvival but did increase mitochondrial activation and membrane destabilization in surviving cells. These results confirm the existence of a CD44 receptor in pig spermatozoa, but the usefulness of adding HA for long-term storage or cryopreservation of liquid-stored, extended boar semen remains in question, thereby warranting further non-empirical analyses of HA-sperm membrane interactions.

Nanohybrid magnetic liposome functionalized with hyaluronic acid for enhanced cellular uptake and near-infrared-triggered drug release

The aim of this work is to prepare and evaluate a novel lipid-polymer hybrid liposomal nanoplatform (hyaluronic acid-magnetic nanoparticle-liposomes, HA-MNP-LPs) as a vehicle for targeted delivery and triggered release of an anticancer drug (docetaxel, DTX) in human breast cancer cells. We first synthesize an amphiphilic hyaluronic acid hexadecylamine polymer (HA-C₁₆) to enhance the targeting ability of the hybrid liposome. Next, HA-MNP-LPs are constructed to achieve an average size of 189.93±2.74nm in diameter. In addition, citric acid-coated magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are prepared and embedded in the aqueous cores while DTX is encapsulated in the hydrophobic bilayers of the liposomes. Experiments with coumarin 6 loaded hybrid liposomes (C6/HA-MNP-LPs) show that the hybrid liposomes have superior cellular uptake in comparison with the conventional non-targeting liposomes (C6/MNP-LPs), and the result is further confirmed by Prussian blue staining. Under near-infrared laser irradiation (NIR, 808nm), the HA-MNP-LPs aqueous solution can reach 46.7°C in 10min, and the hybrid liposomes released over 20% more drug than the non-irradiated liposomes. Using a combination of photothermal irradiation and chemotherapy, the DTX-loaded hybrid liposomes (DTX/HA-MNP-LPs) significantly enhance therapeutic efficacy, with the IC₅₀ value of 0.69±0.10μg/mL, which is much lower than the values for DTX monotherapy. Consequently, the prepared hybrid nanoplatform may offer a promising drug delivery vehicle with selective targeting and enhanced drug release in treating CD44-overexpressing cancers.

A hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel enabling CD44-mediated chondrocyte binding and gapmer oligonucleotide release for modulation of gene expression in osteoarthritis

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is an attractive biomaterial for osteoarthritis (OA) treatment due to inherent functional and compatibility properties as an endogenous knee joint component. In this work, we describe a HA-based hydrogel with the dual functionality of increased CD44-dependent chondrocyte binding and controlled release of gapmer antisense oligonucleotides for unassisted cellular entry and subsequent gene silencing activity. A Schiff base-mediated gelation method was used to produce a panel of hydrogels varying in the aldehyde-modified HA (900kDa) to chitosan ratios (3:7, 5:5 and 7:3) for identifying designs displaying optimal engagement of OA patient-derived CD44-expressing chondrocytes. Correlation was found between cell binding and CD44 expression, with maximal binding exhibited at a HA/chitosan ratio of 7:3, that was 181% higher than CD44-negative MCF-7 cell control cells. Transfection agent-free uptake into OA chondrocytes of fluorescent 13-mer DNA oligonucleotides with a flanked locked nucleic acid (LNA) gapmer design, in contrast to naked siRNA, was demonstrated by confocal and flow cytometric analysis. A sustained and complete release over 5days was found with the 7:3 hydrogel, in contrast, the 5:5 and 3:7 hydrogel released 60% and 43% of loaded gapmers, respectively over the same period. A COX-2-specific gapmer designed with maximal chondrocyte gene silencing (~70% silencing efficiency at 500nM compared with a mismatch gapmer sequence) resulted in effective COX-2 silencing over 14days in hydrogels seeded with OA chondrocytes, with significant difference exhibited between day 3 and 10. This work introduces a novel HA-based CD44-mediated cellular binding and gapmer controlled release platform to modulate cellular gene expression.

Molecular weight specific impact of soluble and immobilized hyaluronan on CD44 expressing melanoma cells in 3D collagen matrices

Hyaluronan (HA) and its principal receptor CD44 are known to be involved in regulating tumor cell dissemination and metastasis. The direct correlation of CD44-HA interaction on proliferation and invasion of tumor cells in dependence on the molecular weight and the presentation form of HA is not fully understood because of lack of appropriate matrix models. To address this issue, we reconstituted 3D collagen (Coll I) matrices and functionalized them with HA of molecular weight of 30-50kDa (low molecular weight; LMW-HA) and 500-750kDa (high molecular weight; HMW-HA). A post-modification strategy was applied to covalently immobilize HA to reconstituted fibrillar Coll I matrices, resulting in a non-altered Coll I network microstructure and stable immobilization over days. Functionalized Coll I matrices were characterized regarding topological and mechanical characteristics as well as HA amount using confocal laser scanning microscopy, colloidal probe force spectroscopy and quantitative Alcian blue assay, respectively. To elucidate HA dependent tumor cell behavior, BRO melanoma cell lines with and without CD44 receptor expression were used for in vitro cell experiments. We demonstrated that only soluble LMW-HA promoted cell proliferation in a CD44 dependent manner, while HMW-HA and immobilized LMW-HA did not. Furthermore, an enhanced cell invasion was found only for immobilized LMW-HA. Both findings correlated with a very strong and specific adhesive interaction of LMW-HA and CD44+ cells quantified in single cell adhesion measurements using soft colloidal force spectroscopy. Overall, our results introduce an in vitro biomaterials model allowing to test presentation mode and molecular weight specificity of HA in a 3D fibrillar matrix thus mimicking important in vivo features of tumor microenvironments.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Molecular weight and presentation form (bound vs. soluble) of hyaluronan (HA) are intensively discussed as key regulators in tumor progression and inflammation. We introduce 3D fibrillar collagen matrices with defined microstructure and stiffness allowing the presentation of specific molecular weight forms of HA in soluble and bound manner. Mimicking in that way important in vivo features of tumor microenvironments, we found that only low molecular weight HA (LMW-HA) in soluble form promoted proliferation of a melanoma cell line (BRO), while it enhanced cell invasion in bound form. The molecular weight specificity of LMW-HA was verified to be CD44 receptor dependent and was correlated to adhesive ligand-receptor interactions in quantitative colloidal force spectroscopy at single cell level.

Coadministration of Oligomeric Hyaluronic Acid-Modified Liposomes with Tumor-Penetrating Peptide-iRGD Enhances the Antitumor Efficacy of Doxorubicin against Melanoma

A safe and efficient tumor-targeting strategy based on oligomeric hyaluronic acid (HA) modification and coadministration of tumor-penetrating peptide-iRGD was successfully developed. In this study, common liposomes (cLip) were modified by oligomeric HA to obtain HA-Lip. After injection into rats, HA-Lip showed good stealth in the bloodstream and lower liver distribution compared with cLip. Moreover, our HA-Lip could be internalized into B16F10 cells (CD44-overexpressing tumor cells) through HA-CD44 interaction. After systemic administration to B16F10 melanoma-bearing mice, HA-Lip showed an increased distribution in tumor due to the prolonged blood circulation time and the enhanced penetration and retention effect. When coadministered with iRGD, the tumor penetration of HA-Lip was significantly enhanced, which could promote HA-Lip internalization by tumors cells located in deep tumor regions through receptor-mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded HA-Lip coadministering with iRGD showed much better antitumor effect compared to DOX-loaded cLip and DOX-loaded cLip in combination with iRGD. In systemic toxicity test, DOX-loaded HA-Lip could significantly decrease the cardiotoxicity and myelosuppression of DOX. Taken together, our results demonstrated that coadministration of oligomeric HA-modified liposomes with iRGD could be a promising treatment strategy for targeted therapy of melanoma.

Using hyaluronic acid-functionalized pH stimuli-responsive mesoporous silica nanoparticles for targeted delivery to CD44-overexpressing cancer cells

In this study, novel hyaluronic acid-pH stimuli-responsive lipid membrane mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HA-PL-MSNs) were designed and assembled, with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX) as the model drug. HA-PL-MSNs exhibited a well-defined mesostructure covered by lipid bilayer and particle size of ~150 nm. The drug loading capacity was up to ~18.2%. DOX release could be effectively retained by the lipid bilayer in pH 7.4 buffer and exhibited a pH-triggered burst release in the acidic condition. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting showed that HA-PL-MSNs exhibited higher cellular uptake efficiency via CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis compared with PL-MSNs in HeLa cells. In vitro cytotoxicity studies demonstrated that HA-PL-MSNs could effectively enhance the targeted delivery of DOX and restrain the growth of HeLa cells. This might provide a promising alternative for the development of a targeted anticancer drug delivery system.

Hyaluronic acid conjugated micelles possessing CD44 targeting potential for gene delivery

The high- and low-molecular weight hyaluronic acid (HHA and LHA) were used to conjugate with PLGA-PEG copolymers which were applied to encapsulate DOTAP/pDNA (D/P) lipoplex as a CD44-targeted micelle delivery system. The size and zeta potential of DNA loaded micelles were measured. The cytotoxicity and cellular transfection of DNA loaded micelles were performed in CD44-positive MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cancer cells and CD44-negative HepG2 cells. The endocytosis mechanism of micelles was investigated further. The DNA loaded HA-conjugated micelles possessed negative-charged character which prevented erythrocytes from agglutination. Both LHA-PEG-PLGA and HHA-PEG-PLGA micelles had comparable cellular viability in L929 normal cells. The cellular transfection of HHA-PEG-PLGA micelles was much higher than of LHA-PEG-PLGA micelles in CD44-positive cells. The specific and strong binding of HHA to CD44-positive cells resulted in the cellular transfection of HHA-PEG-PLGA micelles in CD44-positive cells significantly higher than in CD44-negative cells.

Electrosprayed nanocomposites based on hyaluronic acid derivative and Soluplus for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Nanocomposite (NC) based on hyaluronic acid-ceramide (HACE) and Soluplus (SP) was fabricated by electrospraying for the tumor-targeted delivery of resveratrol (RSV). Amphiphilic property of both HACE and SP has been used to entrap RSV in the internal cavity of NC. Electrospraying with established experimental conditions produced HACE/SP/RSV NC with 230nm mean diameter, narrow size distribution, negative zeta potential, and >80% drug entrapment efficiency. Sustained and pH-dependent drug release profiles were observed in drug release test. Cellular uptake efficiency of HACE/SP NC was higher than that of SP NC, mainly based on HA-CD44 receptor interaction, in MDA-MB-231 (CD44 receptor-positive human breast cancer) cells. Selective tumor targetability of HACE/SP NC, compared to SP NC, was also confirmed in MDA-MB-231 tumor-xenograted mouse model using a near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging. According to the results of pharmacokinetic study in rats, decreased in vivo clearance and increased half-life of RSV in NC group, compared to drug solution group, were shown. Given that these experimental results, developed HACE/SP NC can be a promising theranostic nanosystem for CD44 receptor-expressed cancers.

Mechanistic Insight into Receptor-Mediated Delivery of Cationic-β-Cyclodextrin:Hyaluronic Acid-Adamantamethamidyl Host:Guest pDNA Nanoparticles to CD44(+) Cells

Targeted delivery is a key element for improving the efficiency and safety of nonviral vectors for gene therapy. We have recently developed a CD44 receptor targeted, hyaluronic acid-adamantamethamidyl based pendant polymer system (HA-Ad), capable of forming complexes with cationic β-cyclodextrins (CD-PEI(+)) and pDNA. Complexes formed using these compounds (HA-Ad:CD-PEI(+):pDNA) display high water solubility, good transfection efficiency, and low cytotoxicity. Spatial and dynamic tracking of the transfection complexes by confocal microscopy and multicolor flow cytometry techniques was used to evaluate the target specificity, subcellular localization, and endosomal escape process. Our data shows that cells expressing the CD44 receptor undergo enhanced cellular uptake and transfection efficiency with HA-Ad:CD-PEI(+):pDNA complexes. This transfection system, comprised noncovalent assembly of cyclodextrin:adamantamethamidyl-modified hyaluronic acid via host:guest interactions to condense pDNA, is a potentially useful tool for targeted delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics.

Tumor homing indocyanine green encapsulated micelles for near infrared and photoacoustic imaging of tumors

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is an emerging analytical modality that is under intense preclinical development for the early diagnosis of various medical conditions, including cancer. However, the lack of specific tumor targeting by various contrast agents used in PAI obstructs its clinical applications. In this study, we developed indocyanine green (ICG)-encapsulated micelles specific for the CD 44 receptor and used in near infrared and photoacoustic imaging of tumors. ICG was hydrophobically modified prior to loading into hyaluronic acid (HA)-based micelles utilized for CD 44 based-targeting. We investigated the physicochemical characteristics of prepared HA only and ICG-encapsulated HA micelles (HA-ICG micelles). After intravenous injection of tumor-bearing mice, the bio-distribution and in vivo photoacoustic images of ICG-encapsulated HA micelles accumulating in tumors were also investigated. Our study further encourages the application of this HA-ICG-based nano-platform as a tumor-specific contrast agent for PAI.

Bile acid-conjugated chondroitin sulfate A-based nanoparticles for tumor-targeted anticancer drug delivery

Chondroitin sulfate A-deoxycholic acid (CSA-DOCA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) were produced for tumor-targeted delivery of doxorubicin (DOX). The hydrophobic deoxycholic acid (DOCA) derivative was conjugated to the hydrophilic chondroitin sulfate A (CSA) backbone via amide bond formation, and the structure was confirmed by (1)H-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis. Loading the DOX to the CSA-DOCA NPs resulted in NPs with an approximately 230nm mean diameter, narrow size distribution, negative zeta potential, and relatively high drug encapsulation efficiency (up to 85%). The release of DOX from the NPs exhibited sustained and pH-dependent release profiles. The cellular uptake of DOX from the CSA-DOCA NPs in CD44 receptor-positive human breast adenocarcinoma MDA-MB-231 cells was reduced when co-treated with free CSA, indicating the interaction between CSA and the CD44 receptor. The lower IC50 value of DOX from the CSA-DOCA NPs compared to the DOX solution was also probably due to this interaction. Moreover, the ability of the developed NPs to target tumors could be inferred from the in vivo and ex vivo near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging results in the MDA-MB-231 tumor-xenografted mouse model. Both passive and active strategies appear to have contributed to the in vivo tumor targetability of the CSA-DOCA NPs. Therefore, these CSA-DOCA NPs could further be developed into a theranostic nanoplatform for CD44 receptor-positive cancers.