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Fernández Alvaro E, Voong Vinh P, de Cozar C, Wille D, Urones B, Cortés A, Price A, Tran Do Hoang N, Ha Thanh T, McCloskey M, Shaheen S, Dayao D, de Mercado J, Castañeda P, García-Perez A, Singa B, Pavlinac P, Walson J, Martínez-Martínez MS, Arnold SLM, Saul T, Ballell L, Baker S. The repurposing of Tebipenem pivoxil as alternative therapy for severe gastrointestinal infections caused by extensively drug resistant Shigella spp. eLife 2022; 11:69798. [PMID: 35289746 PMCID: PMC8959600 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Diarrhoea remains one of the leading causes of childhood mortality globally. Recent epidemiological studies conducted in low-middle income countries (LMICs) identified Shigella spp. as the first and second most predominant agent of dysentery and moderate diarrhoea, respectively. Antimicrobial therapy is often necessary for Shigella infections; however, we are reaching a crisis point with efficacious antimicrobials. The rapid emergence of resistance against existing antimicrobials in Shigella spp. poses a serious global health problem. Methods: Aiming to identify alternative antimicrobial chemicals with activity against antimicrobial resistant Shigella, we initiated a collaborative academia-industry drug discovery project, applying high-throughput phenotypic screening across broad chemical diversity and followed a lead compound through in vitro and in vivo characterisation. Results: We identified several known antimicrobial compound classes with antibacterial activity against Shigella. These compounds included the oral carbapenem Tebipenem, which was found to be highly potent against broadly susceptible Shigella and contemporary MDR variants for which we perform detailed pre-clinical testing. Additional in vitro screening demonstrated that Tebipenem had activity against a wide range of other non-Shigella enteric bacteria. Cognisant of the risk for the development of resistance against monotherapy, we identified synergistic behaviour of two different drug combinations incorporating Tebipenem. We found the orally bioavailable prodrug (Tebipenem pivoxil) had ideal pharmacokinetic properties for treating enteric pathogens and was effective in clearing the gut of infecting organisms when administered to Shigella-infected mice and gnotobiotic piglets. Conclusions: Our data highlight the emerging antimicrobial resistance crisis and shows that Tebipenem pivoxil (licenced for paediatric respiratory tract infections in Japan) should be accelerated into human trials and could be repurposed as an effective treatment for severe diarrhoea caused by MDR Shigella and other enteric pathogens in LMICs. Funding: Tres Cantos Open Lab Foundation (projects TC239 and TC246), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (grant OPP1172483) and Wellcome (215515/Z/19/Z).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Phat Voong Vinh
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nhu Tran Do Hoang
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Tuyen Ha Thanh
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Molly McCloskey
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Disease, Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, United States
| | - Shareef Shaheen
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Disease, Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, United States
| | - Denise Dayao
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Tufts University, North Grafton, United States
| | | | | | | | - Benson Singa
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Patricia Pavlinac
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Judd Walson
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Disease, Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, United States
| | | | - Samuel L M Arnold
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Disease, Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, United States
| | - Tzipori Saul
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Tufts University, North Grafton, United States
| | | | - Stephen Baker
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Dickie EA, Giordani F, Gould MK, Mäser P, Burri C, Mottram JC, Rao SPS, Barrett MP. New Drugs for Human African Trypanosomiasis: A Twenty First Century Success Story. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5010029. [PMID: 32092897 PMCID: PMC7157223 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5010029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The twentieth century ended with human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) epidemics raging across many parts of Africa. Resistance to existing drugs was emerging, and many programs aiming to contain the disease had ground to a halt, given previous success against HAT and the competing priorities associated with other medical crises ravaging the continent. A series of dedicated interventions and the introduction of innovative routes to develop drugs, involving Product Development Partnerships, has led to a dramatic turnaround in the fight against HAT caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. The World Health Organization have been able to optimize the use of existing tools to monitor and intervene in the disease. A promising new oral medication for stage 1 HAT, pafuramidine maleate, ultimately failed due to unforeseen toxicity issues. However, the clinical trials for this compound demonstrated the possibility of conducting such trials in the resource-poor settings of rural Africa. The Drugs for Neglected Disease initiative (DNDi), founded in 2003, has developed the first all oral therapy for both stage 1 and stage 2 HAT in fexinidazole. DNDi has also brought forward another oral therapy, acoziborole, potentially capable of curing both stage 1 and stage 2 disease in a single dosing. In this review article, we describe the remarkable successes in combating HAT through the twenty first century, bringing the prospect of the elimination of this disease into sight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A. Dickie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (E.A.D.); (F.G.); (M.K.G.)
| | - Federica Giordani
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (E.A.D.); (F.G.); (M.K.G.)
| | - Matthew K. Gould
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (E.A.D.); (F.G.); (M.K.G.)
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; (P.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Christian Burri
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; (P.M.); (C.B.)
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4000 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jeremy C. Mottram
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK;
| | - Srinivasa P. S. Rao
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, 5300 Chiron Way, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA;
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (E.A.D.); (F.G.); (M.K.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Mendes EP, Goulart CM, Chaves OA, Faiões VDS, Canto-Carvalho MM, Machado GC, Torres-Santos EC, Echevarria A. Evaluation of Novel Chalcone-Thiosemicarbazones Derivatives as Potential Anti- Leishmania amazonensis Agents and Its HSA Binding Studies. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9110643. [PMID: 31652866 PMCID: PMC6920794 DOI: 10.3390/biom9110643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of seven chalcone-thiosemicarbazones (5a-5g) were synthesized and evaluated as potential new drugs (anti-leishmanial effect). Although four of the chalcone-thiosemicarbazones are already known, none of them or any compound in this class has been previously investigated for their effects on parasites of the Leishmania genus. The compounds were prepared in satisfactory yields (40-75%) and these compounds were evaluated against promastigotes, axenic amastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of L. amazonensis after 48 h of culture. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of the intracellular amastigotes were determined to be in the range of 3.40 to 5.95 µM for all compounds assayed. The selectivity index showed value of 15.05 for 5a, whereas pentamidine (reference drug) was more toxic in our model (SI = 2.32). Furthermore, to understand the preliminary relationship between the anti-leishmanial activity of the chalcone-thiosemicarbazones, their electronic (σ), steric (MR) and lipophilicity (π) properties were correlated, and the results indicated that moieties with electronic withdrawing effects increase the anti-leishmanial activity. The preliminary pharmacokinetic evaluation of one of the most active compound (5e) was studied via interaction to human serum albumin (HSA) using multiple spectroscopic techniques combined with molecular docking. The results of antiparasitic effects against L. amazonensis revealed the chalcone-thiosemicarbazone class to be novel prototypes for drug development against leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edinéia Pastro Mendes
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica-Rio de Janeiro 23.890-000, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação em Agropecuária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Seropédica-Rio de Janeiro 23890-000, Brazil.
| | - Carla Marins Goulart
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica-Rio de Janeiro 23.890-000, Brazil.
| | - Otávio Augusto Chaves
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica-Rio de Janeiro 23.890-000, Brazil.
- Instituto SENAI de Inovação em Química Verde, Maracanã-Rio de Janeiro 20271-030, Brazil.
| | - Viviane Dos S Faiões
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro-Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil.
| | - Marilene M Canto-Carvalho
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro-Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil.
| | - Gerzia C Machado
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro-Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil.
| | - Eduardo Caio Torres-Santos
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro-Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil.
| | - Aurea Echevarria
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica-Rio de Janeiro 23.890-000, Brazil.
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Roquero I, Cantizani J, Cotillo I, Manzano MP, Kessler A, Martín JJ, McNamara CW. Novel chemical starting points for drug discovery in leishmaniasis and Chagas disease. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2019; 10:58-68. [PMID: 31158574 PMCID: PMC6545338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and Chagas disease (CD) are caused by kinetoplastid parasites that affect millions of people worldwide and impart a heavy burden against human health. Due to the partial efficacy and toxicity-related limitations of the existing treatments, there is an urgent need to develop novel therapies with superior efficacy and safety profiles to successfully treat these diseases. Herein we report the application of whole-cell phenotypic assays to screen a set of 150,000 compounds against Leishmania donovani, a causative agent of VL, and Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of CD, with the objective of finding new starting points to develop novel drugs to effectively treat and control these diseases. The screening campaign, conducted with the purpose of global open access, identified twelve novel chemotypes with low to sub-micromolar activity against T. cruzi and/or L. donovani. We disclose these hit structures and associated activity with the goal to contribute to the drug discovery community by providing unique chemical tools to probe kinetoplastid biology and as hit-to-lead candidates for drug discovery. An open source drug discovery screen between The Tres Cantos Open Lab Foundation and Calibr at Scripps Research. High-throughput phenotypic screen of a 150,000-compound library against T. cruzi and L. donovani. Identification and characterization of 12 novel chemical series. 7 of those 12 chemical series are active against both T. cruzi and L. donovani. These chemical series may be valuable tools to identify new drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Roquero
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - Juan Cantizani
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - Ignacio Cotillo
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - M Pilar Manzano
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - Albane Kessler
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain
| | - J Julio Martín
- Diseases of the Developing World (DDW), Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GSK, Tres Cantos, Spain.
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Cabrera AC. Collaborative drug discovery and the Tres Cantos Antimalarial Set (TCAMS). Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:1304-1310. [PMID: 30980903 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Malaria affects a population of over 200 million people worldwide. New drugs are needed because of widespread resistance, and the hunt for such drugs involves a coordinated research effort from the scientific community. The release of the Tres Cantos Antimalarial Set (TCAMS) in 2010 represented a landmark in the field of collaborative drug discovery for malaria. This set of >13 000 molecules with confirmed activity against several strains of Plasmodium falciparum was publicly released with the goal of fostering additional research beyond the GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) network of collaborators. Here, we examine the outcomes realized from TCAMS over the past 8 years and whether the expectations surrounding this initiative have become a reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Cortes Cabrera
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidad de Alcalá, Crta Madrid-Zaragoza Km 33.6, Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
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6
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Weng HB, Chen HX, Wang MW. Innovation in neglected tropical disease drug discovery and development. Infect Dis Poverty 2018; 7:67. [PMID: 29950174 PMCID: PMC6022351 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-018-0444-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are closely related to poverty and affect over a billion people in developing countries. The unmet treatment needs cause high mortality and disability thereby imposing a huge burden with severe social and economic consequences. Although coordinated by the World Health Organization, various philanthropic organizations, national governments and the pharmaceutical industry have been making efforts in improving the situation, the control of NTDs is still inadequate and extremely difficult today. The lack of safe, effective and affordable medicines is a key contributing factor. This paper reviews the recent advances and some of the challenges that we are facing in the fight against NTDs. MAIN BODY In recent years, a number of innovations have demonstrated propensity to promote drug discovery and development for NTDs. Implementation of multilateral collaborations leads to continued efforts and plays a crucial role in drug discovery. Proactive approaches and advanced technologies are urgently needed in drug innovation for NTDs. However, the control and elimination of NTDs remain a formidable task as it requires persistent international cooperation to make sustainable progresses for a long period of time. Some currently employed strategies were proposed and verified to be successful, which involve both mechanisms of 'Push' which aims at cutting the cost of research and development for industry and 'Pull' which aims at increasing market attractiveness. Coupled to this effort should be the exercise of shared responsibility globally to reduce risks, overcome obstacles and maximize benefits. Since NTDs are closely associated with poverty, it is absolutely essential that the stakeholders take concerted and long-term measures to meet multifaceted challenges by alleviating extreme poverty, strengthening social intervention, adapting climate changes, providing effective monitoring and ensuring timely delivery. CONCLUSIONS The ongoing endeavor at the global scale will ultimately benefit the patients, the countries they are living and, hopefully, the manufacturers who provide new preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Bo Weng
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Hai-Xia Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Ming-Wei Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 201203 China
- The National Center for Drug Screening and the CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), 189 Guoshoujing Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 201203 China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 393 Middle Huaxia Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 201210 China
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Campaniço A, Moreira R, Lopes F. Drug discovery in tuberculosis. New drug targets and antimycobacterial agents. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 150:525-545. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Ramón-García S, González Del Río R, Villarejo AS, Sweet GD, Cunningham F, Barros D, Ballell L, Mendoza-Losana A, Ferrer-Bazaga S, Thompson CJ. Repurposing clinically approved cephalosporins for tuberculosis therapy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34293. [PMID: 27678056 PMCID: PMC5039641 DOI: 10.1038/srep34293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
While modern cephalosporins developed for broad spectrum antibacterial activities have never been pursued for tuberculosis (TB) therapy, we identified first generation cephalosporins having clinically relevant inhibitory concentrations, both alone and in synergistic drug combinations. Common chemical patterns required for activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis were identified using structure-activity relationships (SAR) studies. Numerous cephalosporins were synergistic with rifampicin, the cornerstone drug for TB therapy, and ethambutol, a first-line anti-TB drug. Synergy was observed even under intracellular growth conditions where beta-lactams typically have limited activities. Cephalosporins and rifampicin were 4- to 64-fold more active in combination than either drug alone; however, limited synergy was observed with rifapentine or rifabutin. Clavulanate was a key synergistic partner in triple combinations. Cephalosporins (and other beta-lactams) together with clavulanate rescued the activity of rifampicin against a rifampicin resistant strain. Synergy was not due exclusively to increased rifampicin accumulation within the mycobacterial cells. Cephalosporins were also synergistic with new anti-TB drugs such as bedaquiline and delamanid. Studies will be needed to validate their in vivo activities. However, the fact that cephalosporins are orally bioavailable with good safety profiles, together with their anti-mycobacterial activities reported here, suggest that they could be repurposed within new combinatorial TB therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Ramón-García
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Life Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z3, Canada.,GlaxoSmithKline-Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Gaye D Sweet
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Life Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Fraser Cunningham
- GlaxoSmithKline-Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Barros
- GlaxoSmithKline-Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lluís Ballell
- GlaxoSmithKline-Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Charles J Thompson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Life Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z3, Canada
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Rožman K, Sosič I, Fernandez R, Young RJ, Mendoza A, Gobec S, Encinas L. A new 'golden age' for the antitubercular target InhA. Drug Discov Today 2016; 22:492-502. [PMID: 27663094 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2016.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the main contributing factor in unfavorable outcomes in the treatment of tuberculosis. Studies suggest that direct inhibitors of InhA, an enoyl-ACP-reductase, might yield promising clinical candidates that can be developed into new antitubercular drugs. In this review, we describe the application of different hit-identification strategies to InhA, which clearly illustrate the druggability of its active site through distinct binding mechanisms. We further characterize four classes of InhA inhibitors that show novel binding modes, and provide evidence of their successful target engagement as well as their in vivo activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaja Rožman
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Izidor Sosič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Raquel Fernandez
- Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GlaxoSmithKline, Severo Ochoa 2, 28760 Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Robert J Young
- GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, Herfordshire SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Alfonso Mendoza
- Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GlaxoSmithKline, Severo Ochoa 2, 28760 Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Stanislav Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Lourdes Encinas
- Diseases of the Developing World, Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GlaxoSmithKline, Severo Ochoa 2, 28760 Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain.
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