RAF inhibitor LY3009120 sensitizes RAS or BRAF mutant cancer to CDK4/6 inhibition by abemaciclib via superior inhibition of phospho-RB and suppression of cyclin D1

Targeting RAF dimers in RAS mutant tumors: From biology to clinic

RAS mutations occur in approximately 30% of tumors worldwide and have a poor prognosis due to limited therapies. Covalent targeting of KRAS G12C has achieved significant success in recent years, but there is still a lack of efficient therapeutic approaches for tumors with non-G12C KRAS mutations. A highly promising approach is to target the MAPK pathway downstream of RAS, with a particular focus on RAF kinases. First-generation RAF inhibitors have been authorized to treat BRAF mutant tumors for over a decade. However, their use in RAS-mutated tumors is not recommended due to the paradoxical ERK activation mainly caused by RAF dimerization. To address the issue of RAF dimerization, type II RAF inhibitors have emerged as leading candidates. Recent clinical studies have shown the initial effectiveness of these agents against RAS mutant tumors. Promisingly, type II RAF inhibitors in combination with MEK or ERK inhibitors have demonstrated impressive efficacy in RAS mutant tumors. This review aims to clarify the importance of RAF dimerization in cellular signaling and resistance to treatment in tumors with RAS mutations, as well as recent progress in therapeutic approaches to address the problem of RAF dimerization in RAS mutant tumors.

Identification and validation of a glycosyltransferase gene signature as a novel prognostic model for lung adenocarcinoma

Background

The role of glycosyltransferase (GT) genes in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) needs further elucidation. Thus, our study aims to identify the prognostic gene signature of LUAD and explore its molecular functions.

Methods

We initially extracted GT gene sets from the database, and obtained mRNA expression levels and clinical data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. For constructing a prognostic model for GT genes, we utilized univariate, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), and multivariate Cox regression analyses. Using the model, patients were categorized into high- and low-risk groups. Additionally, we evaluated differences in tumor immune infiltration between these groups and identified potential therapeutic drugs. Finally, we experimentally validated the expression levels of these crucial prognostic genes.

Results

We developed a risk score comprising nine GT genes (C1GALT1, FUT1, GALNT2, PLOD2, POMK, PYGB, ST3GAL6, UGT2B11, UGT3A1). Patients were then categorized into low- and high-risk groups based on this score. The low-risk group showed superior overall survival (OS) compared to the high-risk group. There were significantly distinct tumor immune microenvironment statuses observed between the two groups. We identified potential therapeutic drugs, including the MEK inhibitor (PD-184352). Finally, we verified the expression of these nine GT genes through immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR).

Conclusion

We identified a distinct LUAD GT gene signature, and these differentially expressed mRNAs could serve as valuable prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Furthermore, we experimentally validated their expression levels and identified potential therapeutic agents.

RAF and MEK Inhibitors in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Lung cancer, despite recent advancements in survival rates, represents a significant global health burden. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the most prevalent type, is driven largely by activating mutations in Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homologue (KRAS) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), and less in v-RAF murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (BRAF) and mitogen-activated protein-kinase kinase (MEK), all key components of the RTK-RAS-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Learning from melanoma, the identification of BRAFV600E substitution in NSCLC provided the rationale for the investigation of RAF and MEK inhibition as a therapeutic strategy. The regulatory approval of two RAF-MEK inhibitor combinations, dabrafenib-trametinib, in 2017, and encorafenib-binimetinib, in 2023, signifies a breakthrough for the management of BRAFV600E-mutant NSCLC patients. However, the almost universal emergence of acquired resistance limits their clinical benefit. New RAF and MEK inhibitors, with distinct biochemical characteristics, are in preclinical and clinical development. In this review, we aim to provide valuable insights into the current state of RAF and MEK inhibition in the management of NSCLC, fostering a deeper understanding of the potential impact on patient outcomes.

Investigational Approaches for Treatment of Melanoma Patients Progressing After Standard of Care

ABSTRACT

The advent of effective immunotherapy, specifically cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4 and programmed cell death 1 inhibitors, as well as targeted therapy including BRAF/MEK inhibitors, has dramatically changed the prognosis for metastatic melanoma patients. Up to 50% of patients may experience long-term survival currently. Despite these advances in melanoma treatment, many patients still progress and die of their disease. As such, there are many studies aimed at providing new treatment options for this population. Therapies currently under investigation include, but are not limited to, novel immunotherapies, targeted therapies, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and other cellular therapies, oncolytic viral therapy and other injectables, and fecal microbiota transplant. In this review, we discuss the emerging treatment options for metastatic melanoma patients who have progressed on standard of care treatments.

BRAF - a tumour-agnostic drug target with lineage-specific dependencies

In June 2022, the FDA granted Accelerated Approval to the BRAF inhibitor dabrafenib in combination with the MEK inhibitor trametinib for the treatment of adult and paediatric patients (≥6 years of age) with unresectable or metastatic BRAFV600E-mutant solid tumours, except for BRAFV600E-mutant colorectal cancers. The histology-agnostic approval of dabrafenib plus trametinib marks the culmination of two decades of research into the landscape of BRAF mutations in human cancers, the biochemical mechanisms underlying BRAF-mediated tumorigenesis, and the clinical development of selective RAF and MEK inhibitors. Although the majority of patients with BRAFV600E-mutant tumours derive clinical benefit from BRAF inhibitor-based combinations, resistance to treatment develops in most. In this Review, we describe the biochemical basis for oncogenic BRAF-induced activation of MAPK signalling and pan-cancer and lineage-specific mechanisms of intrinsic, adaptive and acquired resistance to BRAF inhibitors. We also discuss novel RAF inhibitors and drug combinations designed to delay the emergence of treatment resistance and/or expand the population of patients with BRAF-mutant cancers who benefit from molecularly targeted therapies.

Pharmacological modulation of RB1 activity mitigates resistance to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer

Resistance to neoadjuvant chemotherapy leads to poor prognosis of locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC), representing an unmet clinical need that demands further exploration of therapeutic strategies to improve clinical outcomes. Here, we identified a noncanonical role of RB1 for modulating chromatin activity that contributes to oxaliplatin resistance in colorectal cancer (CRC). We demonstrate that oxaliplatin induces RB1 phosphorylation, which is associated with the resistance to neoadjuvant oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in LARC. Inhibition of RB1 phosphorylation by CDK4/6 inhibitor results in vulnerability to oxaliplatin in both intrinsic and acquired chemoresistant CRC. Mechanistically, we show that RB1 modulates chromatin activity through the TEAD4/HDAC1 complex to epigenetically suppress the expression of DNA repair genes. Antagonizing RB1 phosphorylation through CDK4/6 inhibition enforces RB1/TEAD4/HDAC1 repressor activity, leading to DNA repair defects, thus sensitizing oxaliplatin treatment in LARC. Our study identifies a RB1 function in regulating chromatin activity through TEAD4/HDAC1. It also provides the combination of CDK4/6 inhibitor with oxaliplatin as a potential synthetic lethality strategy to mitigate oxaliplatin resistance in LARC, whereby phosphorylated RB1/TEAD4 can serve as potential biomarkers to guide the patient stratification.

RIPK1 inhibitors: A key to unlocking the potential of necroptosis in drug development

Within the field of medical science, there is a great deal of interest in investigating cell death pathways in the hopes of discovering new drugs. Over the past two decades, pharmacological research has focused on necroptosis, a cell death process that has just been discovered. Receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), an essential regulator in the cell death receptor signalling pathway, has been shown to be involved in the regulation of important events, including necrosis, inflammation, and apoptosis. Therefore, researching necroptosis inhibitors offers novel ways to treat a variety of disorders that are not well-treated by the therapeutic medications now on the market. The research and medicinal potential of RIPK1 inhibitors, a promising class of drugs, are thoroughly examined in this study. The journey from the discovery of Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) to the recent advancements in RIPK1 inhibitors is marked by significant progress, highlighting the integration of traditional medicinal chemistry approaches with modern technologies like high-throughput screening and DNA-encoded library technology. This review presents a thorough exploration of the development and therapeutic potential of RIPK1 inhibitors, a promising class of compounds. Simultaneously, this review highlights the complex roles of RIPK1 in various pathological conditions and discusses potential inhibitors discovered through diverse pathways, emphasizing their efficacy against multiple disease models, providing significant guidance for the expansion of knowledge about RIPK1 and its inhibitors to develop more selective, potent, and safe therapeutic agents.

Cross-Species Comparison of the Pan-RAF Inhibitor LY3009120's Anti-Tumor Effects in Equine, Canine, and Human Malignant Melanoma Cell Lines

Malignant melanomas (MMs) are the abnormal proliferation of melanocytes and are one of the lethal skin cancers in humans, equines, and canines. Accordingly, MMs in companion animals can serve as naturally occurring animal models, completing conventional cancer models. The common constitutive activation of the MAPK and PI3K pathways in MMs has been described in all three species. Targeting the related pathways is considered a potential option in comparative oncologic approaches. Herein, we present a cross-species comparative analysis exposing a set of ten melanoma cell lines (one human, three equine, and six canine) derived from primary tumors or metastasis to a pan-RAF and RAF dimer inhibitor (LY3009120). Cellular response (proliferation, biomass, metabolism, early and late apoptosis/necrosis, and morphology) and the presence of pathogenic single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) within the mutational hotspot genes BRAF exon 11 and 15, NRAS exon 2 and 3, KRAS exon 2, and KIT exon 11 were analyzed. This study showed that equine malignant melanoma (EMM) cells (MelDuWi) harbor the KRAS p.Q61H mutation, while canine malignant melanoma (CMM) cells (cRGO1 and cRGO1.2) carry NRAS p.G13R. Except for EMM metastasis cells eRGO6 (wild type of the above-mentioned hotspot genes), all melanoma cell lines exhibited a decrease in dose dependence after 48 and 72 h of exposure to LY3009120, independent of the mutation hotspot landscape. Furthermore, LY3009120 caused significant early apoptosis and late apoptosis/necrosis in all melanoma cell lines except for eRGO6. The anti-tumor effects of LY3009120 were observed in nine melanoma cell lines, indicating the potential feasibility of experimental trials with LY3009120. The present study reveals that the irradiation-resistant canine metastasis cells (cRGO1.2) harboring the NRAS p.G13R mutation are significantly LY3009120-sensitive, while the equine metastases-derived eRGO6 cells show significant resistance to LY3009120, which make them both valuable tools for studying resistance mechanisms in comparative oncology.

Prognostic Significance of Cyclin D1 Expression in Small Intestinal Adenocarcinoma

Cyclin D1, a critical cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6-dependent regulator of G1/S transition, has attracted much interest as a therapeutic target. The cyclin D1 expression in small intestinal adenocarcinomas (SIACs) has not yet been comprehensively studied, owing to the rarity of this tumor. We investigated the clinicopathological and prognostic significance of the cyclin D1 expression in 232 surgically resected primary SIACs through a multi-institutional study. A high expression of cyclin D1 (cyclin D1High) was detected in 145 SIAC cases (63%), which was significantly higher than that in normal small intestinal mucosa (11%). Cyclin D1High was more commonly found in SIACs with a lower T-category and disease stage and KRAS mutation and predicted better patient survival. Multivariate analysis revealed that cyclin D1High, the absence of retroperitoneal seeding and lymphovascular invasion, and the lower N-category were identified as independent prognostic indicators for patients with SIACs. Specifically, cyclin D1High affected patient survival in the lower stage group (stages I and II). In conclusion, cyclin D1 was commonly overexpressed in SIACs, and cyclin D1High acted as a favorable prognostic indicator in patients with SIACs. These findings in SIACs may, thus, be important to further comprehend the mechanism of cyclin D1 in carcinogenesis and to strategize appropriate patient therapies.

New Approaches to Targeted Therapy in Melanoma

It was just slightly more than a decade ago when metastatic melanoma carried a dismal prognosis with few, if any, effective therapies. Since then, the evolution of cancer immunotherapy has led to new and effective treatment approaches for melanoma. However, despite these advances, a sizable portion of patients with advanced melanoma have de novo or acquired resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors. At the same time, therapies (BRAF plus MEK inhibitors) targeting the BRAF^V600 mutations found in 40-50% of cutaneous melanomas have also been critical for optimizing management and improving patient outcomes. Even though immunotherapy has been established as the initial therapy in most patients with cutaneous melanoma, subsequent effective therapy is limited to BRAF^V600 melanoma. For all other melanoma patients, driver mutations have not been effectively targeted. Numerous efforts are underway to target melanomas with NRAS mutations, NF-1 LOF mutations, and other genetic alterations leading to activation of the MAP kinase pathway. In this era of personalized medicine, we will review the current genetic landscape, molecular classifications, emerging drug targets, and the potential for combination therapies for non-BRAF^V600 melanoma.

Selected Approaches to Disrupting Protein-Protein Interactions within the MAPK/RAS Pathway

Within the MAPK/RAS pathway, there exists a plethora of protein-protein interactions (PPIs). For many years, scientists have focused efforts on drugging KRAS and its effectors in hopes to provide much needed therapies for patients with KRAS-mutant driven cancers. In this review, we focus on recent strategies to inhibit RAS-signaling via disrupting PPIs associated with SOS1, RAF, PDEδ, Grb2, and RAS.

Developing SHP2-based combination therapy for KRAS-amplified cancer

Gastroesophageal adenocarcinomas (GEAs) harbor recurrent amplification of KRAS, leading to marked overexpression of WT KRAS protein. We previously demonstrated that SHP2 phosphatase, which acts to promote KRAS and downstream MAPK pathway activation, is a target in these tumors when combined with MEK inhibition. We hypothesized that SHP2 inhibitors may serve as a foundation for developing novel combination inhibitor strategies for therapy of KRAS-amplified GEA, including with targets outside the MAPK pathway. Here, we explore potential targets to effectively augment the efficacy of SHP2 inhibition, starting with genome-wide CRISPR screens in KRAS-amplified GEA cell lines with and without SHP2 inhibition. We identify candidate targets within the MAPK pathway and among upstream RTKs that may enhance SHP2 efficacy in KRAS-amplified GEA. Additional in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated the potent cytotoxicity of pan-ERBB kinase inhibitions in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, beyond targets within the MAPK pathway, we demonstrate that inhibition of CDK4/6 combines potently with SHP2 inhibition in KRAS-amplified GEA, with greater efficacy of this combination in KRAS-amplified, compared with KRAS-mutant, tumors. These results suggest therapeutic combinations for clinical study in KRAS-amplified GEAs.

Molecular Pathways and Mechanisms of BRAF in Cancer Therapy

With the identification of activating mutations in BRAF across a wide variety of malignancies, substantial effort was placed in designing safe and effective therapeutic strategies to target BRAF. These efforts have led to the development and regulatory approval of three BRAF inhibitors as well as five combinations of a BRAF inhibitor plus an additional agent(s) to manage cancer such as melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, anaplastic thyroid cancer, and colorectal cancer. To date, each regimen is effective only in patients with tumors harboring BRAFV600 mutations and the duration of benefit is often short-lived. Further limitations preventing optimal management of BRAF-mutant malignancies are that treatments of non-V600 BRAF mutations have been less profound and combination therapy is likely necessary to overcome resistance mechanisms, but multi-drug regimens are often too toxic. With the emergence of a deeper understanding of how BRAF mutations signal through the RAS/MAPK pathway, newer RAF inhibitors are being developed that may be more effective and potentially safer and more rational combination therapies are being tested in the clinic. In this review, we identify the mechanics of RAF signaling through the RAS/MAPK pathway, present existing data on single-agent and combination RAF targeting efforts, describe emerging combinations, summarize the toxicity of the various agents in clinical testing, and speculate as to where the field may be headed.

Recent advances in targeting protein kinases and pseudokinases in cancer biology

Kinases still remain the most favorable members of the druggable genome, and there are an increasing number of kinase inhibitors approved by the FDA to treat a variety of cancers. Here, we summarize recent developments in targeting kinases and pseudokinases with some examples. Targeting the cell cycle machinery garnered significant clinical success, however, a large section of the kinome remains understudied. We also review recent developments in the understanding of pseudokinases and discuss approaches on how to effectively target in cancer.

CDK 4/6 inhibitors for the treatment of meningioma

Meningiomas are the most common non-metastatic brain tumors, and although the majority are relatively slow-growing and histologically benign, a subset of meningiomas are aggressive and remain challenging to treat. Despite a standard of care that includes surgical resection and radiotherapy, and recent advances in meningioma molecular grouping, there are no systemic medical options for patients with meningiomas that are resistant to standard interventions. Misactivation of the cell cycle at the level of CDK4/6 is common in high-grade or molecularly aggressive meningiomas, and CDK4/6 has emerged as a potential target for systemic meningioma treatments. In this review, we describe the preclinical evidence for CDK4/6 inhibitors as a treatment for high-grade meningiomas and summarize evolving clinical experience with these agents. Further, we highlight upcoming clinical trials for patients meningiomas, and discuss future directions aimed at optimizing the efficacy of these therapies and selecting patients most likely to benefit from their use.

Gilteritinib Enhances Anti-Tumor Efficacy of CDK4/6 Inhibitor, Abemaciclib in Lung Cancer Cells

Abemaciclib is a cyclin-dependent kinases 4/6 (CDK4/6) inhibitor approved for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Preclinical studies suggest that abemaciclib has the potential for lung cancer treatment. However, several clinical trials demonstrate that monotherapy with abemaciclib has no obvious superiority than erlotinib to treat lung cancer patients, limiting its therapeutic options for lung cancer treatment. Here, we show that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug, gilteritinib, enhances the cytotoxicity of abemaciclib through inducing apoptosis and senescence in lung cancer cells. Interestingly, abemaciclib in combination with gilteritinib leads to excessive accumulation of vacuoles in lung cancer cells. Mechanistically, combined abemaciclib and gilteritinib induces complete inactivation of AKT and retinoblastoma (Rb) pathways in lung cancer cells. In addition, RNA-sequencing data demonstrate that combination of abemaciclib and gilteritinib treatment induces G2 phase cell-cycle arrest, inhibits DNA replication, and leads to reduction in homologous recombination associated gene expressions. Of note, abemaciclib-resistant lung cancer cells are more sensitive to gilteritinib treatment. In a mouse xenograft model, combined abemaciclib and gilteritinib is more effective than either drug alone in suppressing tumor growth and appears to be well tolerated. Together, our findings support the combination of abemaciclib with gilteritinib as an effective strategy for the treatment of lung cancer, suggesting further evaluation of their efficacy is needed in a clinical trial.

Exploring biological heterogeneity and implications on novel treatment paradigm in BRAF-mutant metastatic colorectal cancer

Approximatively 8-15% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) harbor mutation in BRAF gene. Recent advances in molecular biology enabled a better knowledge of the molecular heterogeneity within BRAF mutant (BRAF^MT) CRCs, including high rate of overlapping with MSI-H status and detection of non-V600E mutations related to more favorable behavior. Treatment armamentarium has been rapidly growing in this subgroup and includes targeted combinations and immunotherapy for concomitant MSI-H patients, thereby making BRAF^MT mCRC an innovative model for precision oncology. Nevertheless, duration of responses to targeted strategies remains unsatisfactory due to the development of secondary resistance, which is currently the field of major clinical research on BRAF^MT mCRC. This review explores the molecular, clinical and therapeutic landscape of BRAF^MT mCRC as well as an update on current treatment strategies and future perspectives in light of the heterogeneity of BRAF-mutated disease. Furthermore, a novel treatment algorithm for BRAF^MT mCRC will be proposed.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors and Their Therapeutic Potential in Colorectal Cancer Treatment

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are key players in cell cycle regulation. So far, more than ten CDKs have been described. Their direct interaction with cyclins allow progression through G1 phase, transitions to S and G2 phase and finally through mitosis (M). While CDK activation is important in cell renewal, its aberrant expression can lead to the development of malignant tumor cells. Dysregulations in CDK pathways are often encountered in various types of cancer, including all gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors. This prompted the development of CDK inhibitors as novel therapies for cancer. Currently, CDK inhibitors such as CDK4/6 inhibitors are used in pre-clinical studies for cancer treatment. In this review, we will focus on the therapeutic role of various CDK inhibitors in colorectal cancer, with a special focus on the CDK4/6 inhibitors.

Recent Developments in Targeting RAS Downstream Effectors for RAS-Driven Cancer Therapy

Aberrant activity of oncogenic rat sarcoma virus (RAS) protein promotes tumor growth and progression. RAS-driven cancers comprise more than 30% of all human cancers and are refractory to frontline treatment strategies. Since direct targeting of RAS has proven challenging, efforts have been centered on the exploration of inhibitors for RAS downstream effector kinases. Two major RAS downstream signaling pathways, including the Raf/MEK/Erk cascade and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, have become compelling targets for RAS-driven cancer therapy. However, the main drawback in the blockade of a single RAS effector is the multiple levels of crosstalk and compensatory mechanisms between these two pathways that contribute to drug resistance against monotherapies. A growing body of evidence reveals that the sequential or synergistic inhibition of multiple RAS effectors is a more convenient route for the efficacy of cancer therapy. Herein, we revisit the recent developments and discuss the most promising modalities targeting canonical RAS downstream effectors for the treatment of RAS-driven cancers.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 upregulation mediates acquired resistance of dabrafenib plus trametinib in BRAF V600E-mutated lung cancer

Background

Combination therapy with the B-Raf inhibitor, dabrafenib, and the MEK inhibitor, trametinib (DT) is commonly used to treat patients with B-Raf proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase V600E (BRAF V600E)-mutated non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, the mechanisms through which cancer develops DT resistance are unclear. Here, we investigated new mechanisms underlying acquired DT-resistant NSCLC with the BRAF V600E mutation.

Methods

We compared genomic signatures before and after DT treatment in patients with NSCLC.

Results

Two of four patients treated with DT developed carcinomatous pleuritis within 3 months. Target DNA sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analyses revealed the increased expression level of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4). We also found prominent protein expression of CDK4 after DT treatment. Induction of CDK4 expression in a cell line derived from a patient with the BRAF V600E mutation resulted in partial resistance to dabrafenib.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest a possible relationship between CDK4 upregulation and acquired resistance to DT therapy.

TM7SF2 regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis by activation of C-Raf/ERK pathway in cervical cancer

Transmembrane 7 superfamily member 2 (TM7SF2) coding an enzyme involved in cholesterol metabolism has been found to be differentially expressed in kinds of tissues. Nevertheless, the role of TM7SF2 in the regulation of growth and progression among various cancers is unclear. In this study, the immunohistochemistry (IHC) assay, real-time RT-PCR and western blotting analysis were used to determine the TM7SF2 expression in cervical cancer tissues. Next, we used multiple methods to determine the ability of cell proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and cell cycle in cervical cancer cells after TM7SF2 modulation, such as CCK8 assay, colony formation assay, Transwell assay, wound healing assay, and flow cytometry. Our results revealed that upregulation of TM7SF2 facilitated cell proliferation and metastasis, suppressed cell apoptosis and prevented G0/G1 phase arrests in C33A and SiHa cells. Consistently, the opposite effects were observed after TM7SF2 knockout in cervical cancer cells. Further, we found that TM7SF2 participated in promoting tumorigenesis and progression via activation of C-Raf/ERK pathway in cervical cancer, which can be partly reversed by Raf inhibitor LY3009120. Moreover, TM7SF2 overexpression contributed to enhancement of xenograft tumor growth in vivo. Our findings indicated that TM7SF2 plays a vital role in tumor promotion by involving in C-Raf/ERK activation. Therefore, TM7SF2 could serve as a therapeutic target in future cervical cancer treatment.

Cyclin-dependent kinases-based synthetic lethality: Evidence, concept, and strategy

Synthetic lethality is a proven effective antitumor strategy that has attracted great attention. Large-scale screening has revealed many synthetic lethal genetic phenotypes, and relevant small-molecule drugs have also been implemented in clinical practice. Increasing evidence suggests that CDKs, constituting a kinase family predominantly involved in cell cycle control, are synthetic lethal factors when combined with certain oncogenes, such as MYC, TP53, and RAS, which facilitate numerous antitumor treatment options based on CDK-related synthetic lethality. In this review, we focus on the synthetic lethal phenotype and mechanism related to CDKs and summarize the preclinical and clinical discoveries of CDK inhibitors to explore the prospect of CDK inhibitors as antitumor compounds for strategic synthesis lethality in the future.

Mechanisms and Implications of CDK4/6 Inhibitors for the Treatment of NSCLC

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are key regulators of cell cycle progression in malignant tumor cells and play an important role through complex molecular interactions. Dysregulation of CDK dependent pathways is often found in non-small cell lung cancer, which indicates its vulnerability and can be used in clinical benefit. CDK4/6 inhibitors can prevent tumor cells from entering the G approved 1 and S phases, which have been studied in a series of explorations and brought great clinical effect to patients and encouragement to both physicians and researchers, thereby showing potential as a new therapeutic agent. A series of preclinical and clinical studies have been carried out on CDK4/6 inhibitors in NSCLC, and have been achieved some results, which may become a new potential treatment in the future. This review focuses on the research progress on CDK4/6 inhibitors in NSCLC, particularly the mechanisms of action, drugs, clinical research progress, and future application.

Targeting CDK4 overcomes EMT-mediated tumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance in KRAS mutant lung cancer

Lack of sustained response to therapeutic agents in patients with KRAS-mutant lung cancer poses a major challenge and arises partly due to intratumor heterogeneity that defines phenotypically distinct tumor subpopulations. To attain better therapeutic outcomes, it is important to understand the differential therapeutic sensitivities of tumor cell subsets. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition is a biological phenomenon that can alter the state of cells along a phenotypic spectrum and cause transcriptional rewiring to produce distinct tumor cell subpopulations. We utilized functional shRNA screens, in in vitro and in vivo models, to identify and validate an increased dependence of mesenchymal tumor cells on cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) for survival, as well as a mechanism of resistance to MEK inhibitors. High zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 levels in mesenchymal tumor cells repressed p21, leading to perturbed CDK4 pathway activity. Increased dependence on CDK4 rendered mesenchymal cancer cells particularly vulnerable to selective CDK4 inhibitors. Coadministration of CDK4 and MEK inhibitors in heterogeneous tumors effectively targeted different tumor subpopulations, subverting the resistance to either single-agent treatment.

CDK4/6 inhibition synergizes with inhibition of P21-Activated Kinases (PAKs) in lung cancer cell lines

Theoretically, small molecule CDK4/6 inhibitors (CDK4/6is) represent a logical therapeutic option in non-small cell lung cancers since most of these malignancies have wildtype RB, the key target of CDKs and master regulator of the cell cycle. Unfortunately, CDK4/6is are found to have limited clinical activity as single agents in non-small cell lung cancer. To address this problem and to identify effective CDK4/6i combinations, we screened a library of targeted agents for efficacy in four non-small cell lung cancer lines treated with CDK4/6 inhibitors Palbociclib or Abemaciclib. The pan-PAK (p21-activated kinase) inhibitor PF03758309 emerged as a promising candidate with viability ratios indicating synergy in all 4 cell lines and for both CDK4/6is. It is noteworthy that the PAKs are downstream effectors of small GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42 and are overexpressed in a wide variety of cancers. Individually the compounds primarily induced cell cycle arrest; however, the synergistic combination induced apoptosis, accounting for the synergy. Surprisingly, while the pan-PAK inhibitor PF03758309 synergizes with CDK4/6is, no synergy occurs with group I PAK inhibitors FRAX486 or FRAX597. Cell lines treated only with Ribociclib, FRAX486 or FRAX597 underwent G1/G0 arrest, whereas combination treatment with these compounds predominantly resulted in autophagy. Combining high concentrations of FRAX486, which weakly inhibits PAK4, and Ribociclib, mimics the autophagy and apoptotic effect of PF03758309 combined with Ribociclib. FRAX597, a PAKi that does not inhibit PAK4 did not reduce autophagy in combination with Ribociclib. Our results suggest that a unique combination of PAKs plays a crucial role in the synergy of PAK inhibitors with CDK4/6i. Targeting this unique PAK combination, could greatly improve the efficacy of CDK4/6i and broaden the spectrum of cancer treatment.

Bergamottin Induces DNA Damage and Inhibits Malignant Progression in Melanoma by Modulating miR-145/Cyclin D1 Axis

Background

Melanoma is a prevalent skin cancer with the high rate of metastasis and mortality, affecting the increasing number of people worldwide. Bergamottin (BGM) is a natural furanocoumarin derived from grapefruits and presents the potential anti-cancer activity in several tumor models. However, the role of BGM in the development of melanoma remains unclear. Here, we aimed to explore the effect of BGM on the DNA damage and progression of melanoma.

Methods

The effect of BGM on the melanoma progression was analyzed by CCK-8 assays, colony formation assays, transwell assays, Annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit, cell-cycle analysis, in vivo tumorigenicity analysis. The mechanism investigation was performed using luciferase reporter gene assays, qPCR assays, and Western blot analysis.

Results

We identified that BGM repressed cell proliferation, migration, and invasion of melanoma cells. BGM induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase and enhanced apoptosis of melanoma cells. The DNA damage in the melanoma cells was stimulated by the BGM treatment. Meanwhile, BGM was able to up-regulate the expression of miR-145 and miR-145 targeted Cyclin D1 in the melanoma cells. Furthermore, BGM inhibited the progression of melanoma by targeting miR-145/Cyclin D1 axis in vitro. BGM attenuated the tumor growth of melanoma in vivo.

Conclusion

Thus, we conclude that BGM induces DNA damage and inhibits tumor progression in melanoma by modulating the miR-145/Cyclin D1 axis. Our finding provides new insights into the mechanism by which BGM modulates the development of melanoma. BGM may be applied as a potential anti-tumor candidate for the clinical treatment of melanoma.

Yes-activated protein promotes primary resistance of BRAF V600E mutant metastatic colorectal cancer cells to mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway inhibitors

Background

Most colorectal cancer (CRC) patients with the BRAF V600E mutation display resistance to chemotherapy and targeted medicinal treatments. Thus, exploring new drugs and drug resistance mechanisms for the BRAF V600E mutation has become an urgent clinical priority.

Methods

MTS experiment, cell cloning experiment, cell scratching experiment, Transwell experiment, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and flow cytometry are used. Detect the transcription and protein expression of YAP in colorectal cancer cell lines, establish a transient cell line with YAP gene overexpression and knockdown, and detect the effect of YAP gene expression on the biological functions of colorectal cancer cells RKO and HT-29. And further study the mechanism of YAP regulating the response of RAF and MEK targeted therapy.

Results

In this study, for the first time, we verified that the expression of transcription factor yes-associated protein (YAP) was upregulated in BRAF V600E mutant CRC cells. After knocking down YAP, we observed a reduction in the growth rate, proliferation, and invasion ability of colon cancer cells. We further verified that YAP knockdown increased sensitivity of BRAF V600E mutant CRC cells to mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway inhibitors. In addition, we clarified the mechanism underlying YAP regulation of RAF and MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK)-targeted therapy response: YAP cooperates with RAF→MEK pathway inhibitors to regulate the cell cycle, increase cell G1/S phase arrest, and increase apoptosis.

Conclusions

These results suggest that YAP expression may be related to the primary resistance of MAPK inhibitors in metastatic CRC with the BRAF V600E mutation. Therefore, the combination of YAP and MAPK pathway inhibitors in BRAF V600E mutant metastatic CRC may present a promising treatment method.

Low-dose CDK4/6 inhibitors induce presentation of pathway specific MHC ligands as potential targets for cancer immunotherapy

Cyclin dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors (CDK4/6i) lead to cell-cycle arrest but also trigger T cell-mediated immunity, which might be mediated by changes in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) ligands. We investigated the effects of CDK4/6i, abemaciclib and palbociclib, on the immunopeptidome at nontoxic levels in breast cancer cell lines by biochemical identification of HLA ligands followed by network analyses. This treatment led to upregulation of HLA and revealed hundreds of induced HLA ligands in breast cancer cell lines. These new ligands were significantly enriched for peptides derived from proteins involved in the “G1/S phase transition of cell cycle” including HLA ligands from CDK4/6, Cyclin D1 and the 26S regulatory proteasomal subunit 4 (PSMC1). Interestingly, peptides from proteins targeted by abemaciclib and palbociclib, were predicted to be the most likely to induce a T cell response. In strong contrast, peptides induced by solely one of the drugs had a lower T cell recognition score compared to the DMSO control suggesting that the observed effect is class dependent. This general hypothesis was exemplified by a peptide from PSMC1 which was among the HLA ligands with highest prediction scores and which elicited a T cell response in healthy donors. Overall, these data demonstrate that CDK4/6i treatment gives rise to drug-induced HLA ligands from G1/S phase transition, that have the highest chance for being recognized by T cells, thus providing evidence that inhibition of a distinct cellular process leads to increased presentation of the involved proteins that may be targeted by immunotherapeutic agents.

Targeting KRAS Mutant Cancers via Combination Treatment: Discovery of a Pyridopyridazinone pan-RAF Kinase Inhibitor

Structure-based optimization of a set of aryl urea RAF inhibitors has led to the identification of Type II pan-RAF inhibitor GNE-9815 (7), which features a unique pyrido[2,3-d]pyridazin-8(7H)-one hinge-binding motif. With minimal polar hinge contacts, the pyridopyridazinone hinge binder moiety affords exquisite kinase selectivity in a lipophilic efficient manner. The improved physicochemical properties of GNE-9815 provided a path for oral dosing without enabling formulations. In vivo evaluation of GNE-9815 in combination with the MEK inhibitor cobimetinib demonstrated synergistic MAPK pathway modulation in an HCT116 xenograft mouse model. To the best of our knowledge, GNE-9815 is among the most highly kinase-selective RAF inhibitors reported to date.

Find the Flame: Predictive Biomarkers for Immunotherapy in Melanoma

Immunotherapy has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape of melanoma. In particular, checkpoint inhibition has shown to increase long-term outcome, and, in some cases, it can be virtually curative. However, the absence of clinically validated predictive biomarkers is one of the major causes of unpredictable efficacy of immunotherapy. Indeed, the availability of predictive biomarkers could allow a better stratification of patients, suggesting which type of drugs should be used in a certain clinical context and guiding clinicians in escalating or de-escalating therapy. However, the difficulty in obtaining clinically useful predictive biomarkers reflects the deep complexity of tumor biology. Biomarkers can be classified as tumor-intrinsic biomarkers, microenvironment biomarkers, and systemic biomarkers. Herein we review the available literature to classify and describe predictive biomarkers for checkpoint inhibition in melanoma with the aim of helping clinicians in the decision-making process. We also performed a meta-analysis on the predictive value of PDL-1.

Targeting KRAS Mutant Cancers via Combination Treatment: Discovery of a 5-Fluoro-4-(3H)-quinazolinone Aryl Urea pan-RAF Kinase Inhibitor

Optimization of a series of aryl urea RAF inhibitors led to the identification of type II pan-RAF inhibitor GNE-0749 (7), which features a fluoroquinazolinone hinge-binding motif. By minimizing reliance on common polar hinge contacts, this hinge binder allows for a greater contribution of RAF-specific residue interactions, resulting in exquisite kinase selectivity. Strategic substitution of fluorine at the C5 position efficiently masked the adjacent polar NH functionality and increased solubility by impeding a solid-state conformation associated with stronger crystal packing of the molecule. The resulting improvements in permeability and solubility enabled oral dosing of 7. In vivo evaluation of 7 in combination with the MEK inhibitor cobimetinib demonstrated synergistic pathway inhibition and significant tumor growth inhibition in a KRAS mutant xenograft mouse model.

Prognostic and Clinicopathological Significance of CCND1/Cyclin D1 Upregulation in Melanomas: A Systematic Review and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis

Our objective was to evaluate the prognostic and clinicopathological significance of cyclin D1 (CD1) overexpression/CCND1 amplification in melanomas. We searched studies published before September 2019 (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus). We evaluated the quality of the studies included (QUIPS tool). The impact of CD1 overexpression/CCND1 amplification on overall survival and relevant clinicopathological characteristic were meta-analyzed. We performed heterogeneity, sensitivity, small-study effects, and subgroup analyses. Forty-one studies and 3451 patients met inclusion criteria. Qualitative evaluation demonstrated that not all studies were performed with the same rigor, finding the greatest risk of bias in the study confounding domain. Quantitative evaluation showed that immunohistochemical CD1 overexpression had a statistical association with Breslow thickness (p = 0.007; OR = 2.09,95% CI = 1.23-3.57), significantly higher frequency of CCND1/cyclin D1 abnormalities has been observed in the primary tumor compared to distant metastases (p = 0.004), revealed also by immunohistochemical overexpression of the protein (p < 0.001; OR = 0.53,95% CI = 0.40-0.71), while the CCND1 gene amplification does not show association (p = 0.43); while gene amplification, on the contrary, appeared more frequently in distant metastases (p = 0.04; OR = 1.70,95% CI = 1.01-2.85) and not in the primary tumor. In conclusion, CCND1/cyclin D1 upregulation is a common molecular oncogenic alteration in melanomas that probably favors the growth and expansion of the primary tumor. This upregulation is mainly consequence to the overexpression of the cyclin D1 protein, and not to gene amplification.

Intrinsic and acquired resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors and potential overcoming strategies

Abnormal activation of the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which result in aberrant cell proliferation, is one of the inherent characteristics of tumor. Thus targeting the activity of CDKs represents a promising tumor therapeutic strategy. Currently, the specific inhibitors that target CDK4 and CDK6 have been approved for the treatment of estrogen receptor positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 negative (ER⁺ HER2^-) breast cancer in combination with endocrine therapy; other combination strategies are being tested in a number of clinical trials. However, the acquired resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors has emerged. As the cell cycle is orchestrated by a series of biological events, the alterations of other molecular events that regulate the cell cycle progression may be involved in intrinsic resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors. In this review we mainly discuss the mechanisms underlying intrinsic resistance and acquired resistance to CDK4/6 inhibitors as well as combination strategies with other signal pathway inhibitors being tested in clinical and pre-clinical studies, to extend the use of CDK4/6 inhibitors in tumor treatment.

Combined blockade of polo-like kinase and pan-RAF is effective against NRAS-mutant non-small cell lung cancer cells

NRAS mutation is rarely observed in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, and there are no approved treatments for NRAS-mutant NSCLC. Here, we evaluated the effect of pan-RAF inhibitors on human NRAS-mutant NSCLC cell lines and performed high-throughput screening using human kinome small interfering (si)RNA or CRISPR/Cas9 libraries to identify new targets for combination NSCLC treatment. Our results indicate that human NRAS-mutant NSCLC cells are moderately sensitive to pan-RAF inhibitors. High-throughput kinome screenings further showed that G2/M arrest, particularly following knockdown of polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), can inhibit the growth of human NRAS-mutant NSCLC cells and those treated with the type II pan-RAF inhibitor LXH254. In addition, treatment with volasertib plus LXH254, resulting in dual blockade of PLK1 and pan-RAF, was found to be more effective than LXH254 monotherapy for inhibiting long-term cell viability, suggesting that this combination therapeutic strategy may lead to promising results in the clinic.

Abemaciclib, A Selective CDK4/6 Inhibitor, Restricts the Growth of Pediatric Ependymomas

Simple Summary

Pediatric ependymomas are malignant pediatric brain tumors, and one-third of patients exhibit recurrence within two years of initial treatment. Therefore, this study aimed to find new agents to overcome these chemoresistant tumors and defer radiotherapy treatment. By using integrated bioinformatics and experimental validation, we demonstrated that abemaciclib, a CDK4/6 inhibitor, effectively inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell death. Therefore, treatment with abemaciclib showed encouraging results in preclinical pediatric ependymoma models and provide a new therapeutic strategy in the future.

Abstract

Pediatric ependymomas are a type of malignant brain tumor that occurs in children. The overall 10-year survival rate has been reported as being 45–75%. Maximal safe surgical resection combined with adjuvant chemoradiation therapy is associated with the highest overall and progression-free survival rates. Despite aggressive treatment, one-third of ependymomas exhibit recurrence within 2 years of initial treatment. Therefore, this study aimed to find new agents to overcome chemoresistance and defer radiotherapy treatment since, in addition, radiation exposure may cause long-term side effects in the developing brains of young children. By using integrated bioinformatics and through experimental validation, we found that at least one of the genes CCND1 and CDK4 is overexpressed in ependymomas. The use of abemaciclib, a highly selective CDK4/6 inhibitor, effectively inhibited cell proliferation and reduced the expression of cell-cycle-related and DNA-repair-related gene expression via the suppression of RB phosphorylation, which was determined through RNA-seq and Western blot analyses. Furthermore, abemaciclib effectively induced cell death in vitro. The efficiency of abemaciclib was validated in vivo using subcutaneously implanted ependymoma tissues from patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) in mouse models. Treatment with abemaciclib showed encouraging results in preclinical pediatric ependymoma models and represents a potential therapeutic strategy for treating challenging tumors in children.

CDK4/6 and MAPK-Crosstalk as Opportunity for Cancer Treatment

Despite the development of targeted therapies and novel inhibitors, cancer remains an undefeated disease. Resistance mechanisms arise quickly and alternative treatment options are urgently required, which may be partially met by drug combinations. Protein kinases as signaling switchboards are frequently deregulated in cancer and signify vulnerable nodes and potential therapeutic targets. We here focus on the cell cycle kinase CDK6 and on the MAPK pathway and on their interplay. We also provide an overview on clinical studies examining the effects of combinational treatments currently explored for several cancer types.

Inhibition of Glutamine Utilization Synergizes with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor to Promote Antitumor Immunity

Despite its outstanding clinical success, immune checkpoint blockade remains ineffective in many patients. Accordingly, combination therapy capable of achieving greater antitumor immunity is urgently required. Here, we report that limiting glutamine metabolism in cancer cells bolsters the effectiveness of anti-programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) antibody. Inhibition of glutamine utilization increased PD-L1 levels in cancer cells, thereby inactivating co-cultured T cells. Under glutamine-limited conditions, reduced cellular GSH levels caused an upregulation of PD-L1 expression by impairing SERCA activity, which activates the calcium/NF-κB signaling cascade. Consequently, in tumors grown in immunocompetent mice, inhibition of glutamine metabolism decreased the antitumor activity of T cells. In combination with anti-PD-L1, however, glutamine depletion strongly promoted the antitumor efficacy of T cells in vitro and in vivo due to simultaneous increases in Fas/CD95 levels. Our results demonstrate the relevance of cancer glutamine metabolism to antitumor immunity and suggest that co-targeting of glutamine metabolism and PD-L1 represents a promising therapeutic approach.

A first-in-class CDK4 inhibitor demonstrates in vitro, ex-vivo and in vivo efficacy against ovarian cancer

INTRODUCTION

Cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) are fundamental drivers of the cell cycle and are involved in the initiation and progression of various cancers. Deregulation of the CDK4/6-cyclin D-retinoblastoma (Rb) pathway is common in ovarian cancer and is associated with an aggressive phenotype and poor prognosis. Patients with advanced ovarian cancer whose tumor demonstrates Rb-positivity, a low expression of p16 and overexpression of cyclin D1 are most likely to benefit from CDK4/6 inhibition.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Anti-proliferative activity and mechanistic investigations for CDDD2-94, employing palbociclib as comparator, were evaluated by MTT assay, cell cycle and apoptosis analysis, western blotting as well as senescence and colony formation assay. In vivo safety and efficacy studies were done in A2780 tumor-bearing nude mice. Combinations of CDDD2-94 with mTOR, MEK, PI3K or PARP inhibitors were evaluated in A2780 and OVCAR5 ovarian cancer cells.

RESULTS

Consistent with a CDK4-targeted mechanism, CDDD2-94 arrested the G1/G0 cell cycle, induced senescence and inhibited the proliferation of Rb-proficient ovarian cancer cells. CDDD2-94 exhibited synergistic anti-proliferative activities with mTOR, MEK, PI3K or PARP inhibitors. Importantly, unlike palbociclib which caused significant reductions in the number of lymphocytes and neutrophils, CDDD2-94 had little effect. CDDD2-94, as single agent and in combination with everolimus, delayed tumor growth and significantly increased survival of mice.

CONCLUSION

Given its high specificity in targeting CDK4 and excellent anti-tumor efficacy with low toxicity, CDDD2-94 has potential to be developed as a standalone agent or in combination with targeted therapeutics for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

CDK4/6 inhibitors: a novel strategy for tumor radiosensitization

Recently, the focus of enhancing tumor radiosensitivity has shifted from chemotherapeutics to targeted therapies. Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) inhibitors are a novel class of selective cell cycle therapeutics that target the cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex and induce G1 phase arrest. These agents have demonstrated favorable effects when used as monotherapy or combined with endocrine therapy and targeted inhibitors, stimulating further explorations of other combination strategies. Multiple preclinical studies have indicated that CDK4/6 inhibitors exhibit a synergistic effect with radiotherapy both in vitro and in vivo. The principal mechanisms of radiosensitization effects include inhibition of DNA damage repair, enhancement of apoptosis, and blockade of cell cycle progression, which provide the rationale for clinical use. CDK4/6 inhibitors also induce cellular senescence and promote anti-tumor immunity, which might represent potential mechanisms for radiosensitization. Several small sample clinical studies have preliminarily indicated that the combination of CDK4/6 inhibitors and radiotherapy exhibited well-tolerated toxicity and promising efficacy. However, most clinical trials in combined therapy remain in the recruitment stage. Further work is required to seek optimal radiotherapy-drug combinations. In this review, we describe the effects and underlying mechanisms of CDK4/6 inhibitors as a radiosensitizer and discuss previous clinical studies to evaluate the prospects and challenges of this combination.

Targeting Mutant KRAS in Pancreatic Cancer: Futile or Promising?

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most fatal cancers with a dismal prognosis for the patient. This is due to limited diagnostic options for the early detection of the disease as well as its rather aggressive nature. Despite major advances in oncologic research in general, the treatment options in the clinic for PDAC have only undergone minor changes in the last decades. One major treatment advance would be the successful targeting of the oncogenic driver KRASmut. In the past, the indirect targeting of KRAS has been exploited, e. g., via upstream inhibition of receptor tyrosine kinases or via downstream MEK or PI3K inhibition. However, the experience gained from clinical trials and from the clinic itself in the treatment of KRASmut cancer entities has dampened the initial euphoria. Lately, with the development of KRASG12C-specific inhibitors, not only the direct but also the indirect targeting of KRASmut has gained momentum again. Though preclinical studies and preliminary early clinical studies of monotherapies have shown promising results, they have been overshadowed by the swift development of resistances resulting in inconsistent responses in patient cohorts. Currently, several different combination therapies for KRASmut cancer are being explored. If they hold the promise they have made in preclinical studies, they might also be suitable treatment options for patients suffering from PDAC.

MDM2 antagonists overcome intrinsic resistance to CDK4/6 inhibition by inducing p21

Intrinsic resistance of unknown mechanism impedes the clinical utility of inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6i) in malignancies other than breast cancer. Here, we used melanoma patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) to study the mechanisms for CDK4/6i resistance in preclinical settings. We observed that melanoma PDXs resistant to CDK4/6i frequently displayed activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT pathway, and inhibition of this pathway improved CDK4/6i response in a p21-dependent manner. We showed that a target of p21, CDK2, was necessary for proliferation in CDK4/6i-treated cells. Upon treatment with CDK4/6i, melanoma cells up-regulated cyclin D1, which sequestered p21 and another CDK inhibitor, p27, leaving a shortage of p21 and p27 available to bind and inhibit CDK2. Therefore, we tested whether induction of p21 in resistant melanoma cells would render them responsive to CDK4/6i. Because p21 is transcriptionally driven by p53, we coadministered CDK4/6i with a murine double minute (MDM2) antagonist to stabilize p53, allowing p21 accumulation. This resulted in improved antitumor activity in PDXs and in murine melanoma. Furthermore, coadministration of CDK4/6 and MDM2 antagonists with standard of care therapy caused tumor regression. Notably, the molecular features associated with response to CDK4/6 and MDM2 inhibitors in PDXs were recapitulated by an ex vivo organotypic slice culture assay, which could potentially be adopted in the clinic for patient stratification. Our findings provide a rationale for cotargeting CDK4/6 and MDM2 in melanoma.

Getting under the skin: The role of CDK4/6 in melanomas

Melanoma is the deadliest type of cancer that affects the largest organ of our body, the skin. In recent years, there is an increase in the incidence and aggressiveness of melanomas. The number of treatment options has grown considerably in the past few years, leading to significant improvements in both overall and progression-free survival. One of the attractive candidates in this wave of treatment options is a cell cycle controller: cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) 4/6 inhibitors. CDK4/6, a class of serine/threonine kinases expressed in most cell types, controls the first gap phase (G1 to S) of the cell cycle, indicating its vital importance in both normal cellular processes as well as tumorigenesis. Up to 90% of melanoma patients have genomic mutations affecting various parts of CDK4/6 pathway. Noticeably, with the help of next-generation sequencing technology, mutations with high frequency in the CDK4 pathway were also identified in relatively rare subtypes of melanoma including acral melanoma and mucosal melanoma. Therefore, CDK4/6 inhibitors have emerged as powerful and promising anticancer therapies, especially in combination treatment with immunotherapies or other targeted therapies. In this review, we will provide an overview of current scientific knowledge regarding the oncogenic properties of CDK4/6 in melanomas, we mainly discuss the latest genomic and preclinical findings of CDK4 signaling in melanoma, the progress of CDK4 inhibition as combined with other therapies for overcoming resistance and summarize recent advances from clinical trials as well as ongoing studies which gives us a better scope into the effectiveness of CDK4/6 therapy in treating malignant melanomas.

The application and prospect of CDK4/6 inhibitors in malignant solid tumors

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 (CDK4/6) inhibitors, which block the transition from the G1 to S phase of the cell cycle by interfering with Rb phosphorylation and E2F release, have shown potent antitumor activity and manageable toxicity in HR+/HER2− breast cancer patients. Some clinical trials involving CDK4/6 inhibitors in other tumors have achieved preliminary impressive efficacy. Whether CDK4/6 inhibitors possess great potential as broad-spectrum antitumor drugs and how to maximize their clinical benefits remain uncertain. TCGA database analysis showed that CDK4/6 genes and related genes are widely expressed among various tumors, and high or moderate expression of CDK4/6 genes commonly indicates poor survival. CDK4/6 gene expression is significantly higher in COAD, ESCA, STAD, LIHC, and HNSC, suggesting that CDK4/6 inhibitors could be more efficacious in those tumors. Moreover, network analysis with the STRING database demonstrated that CDK4/6-related proteins were co-expressed or co-occurred with the classical tumor signaling pathways, such as the cell cycle pathway, RAS pathway, PI3K pathway, Myc pathway, and p53 pathway. The extensive antitumor effects of CDK4/6 inhibitors may be achieved by synergizing or antagonizing with other signaling molecule inhibitors, and combination therapy might be the most effective treatment strategy. This article analyzed the feasibility of expanding the application of CDK4/6 inhibitors at the genetic level and further summarized the associated clinical/preclinical studies to collect supportive evidence. This is the first study that presents a theoretical foundation for CDK4/6 inhibitor precision therapy via combined analysis of comprehensive gene information and clinical research results.

RAS, wanted dead or alive: Advances in targeting RAS mutant cancers

Oncogenic RAS proteins, which are mutated in approximately 24% of all human cancers, have earned a well-deserved reputation as being "undruggable." However, several studies have challenged that reputation. With the first small molecules that directly target one oncogenic RAS mutant (G12C) undergoing clinical evaluation, there have been substantial advances in finding anti-RAS therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, new insights have come from the growing appreciation that neither all RAS proteins (HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS4A/KRAS4B) nor all oncogenic RAS mutations (such as at residues Gly¹², Gly¹³, and Gln⁶¹) have the same impact on RAS signaling and function. The role of the nonmutated, wild-type RAS proteins in the context of mutant RAS is increasingly considered to be targetable, with reports of strategies that directly disrupt either the RAS interaction with activating guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) or receptor tyrosine kinase-mediated and GEF-dependent RAS activation (such as by targeting the scaffolding phosphatase SHP2). Last, the development of agents that target downstream effectors of RAS signaling has advanced substantially. In this review, we highlight some important trends in the targeting of RAS proteins in cancer.

Dihydromethysticin, a natural molecule from Kava, suppresses the growth of colorectal cancer via the NLRC3/PI3K pathway

Dihydromethysticin (DHM), a natural compound derived from Kava, has been reported to be effective against mental disorders and some malignant tumors. However, little is known about the inhibitory effect of DHM on colorectal cancer (CRC). First, we examined the impact of DHM on human colon cancer cell lines, which demonstrated that DHM inhibits proliferation, migration, and invasion and promotes apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in colon cancer cells in vitro. Using small hairpin RNA, we inhibited nucleotide-oligomerization domain-like receptor subfamily C3 (NLRC3)/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway to elucidate the partial signaling of DHM-mediated tumor suppression. Additionally, using an ectopic human CRC model, we verified whether DHM inhibits tumor growth and angiogenesis via the NLRC3/PI3K pathway in vivo. Overall, DHM showed an inhibitory effect on CRC by altering cell proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, cell cycle, and angiogenesis, possibly via the NLRC3/PI3K pathway. Thus, DHM may be a promising candidate for CRC therapy.

A unique CDK4/6 inhibitor: Current and future therapeutic strategies of abemaciclib

Cell cycle dysregulation, characterised by aberrant activation of cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs), is a hallmark of cancer. After years of research on the first and second generations of less selective CDK inhibitors with unfavourable clinical activity and toxicity profiles, CDK4/6 inhibitors become the first and only class of highly specific CDK inhibitors being approved for cancer treatment to date. CDK4/6 inhibitors have transformed the treatment paradigm of estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer, dramatically improving the survival outcomes of these patients when incorporated with conventional endocrine therapies in both the first and later-line settings. Currently, the efficacies of CDK4/6 inhibitors in other breast cancer subtypes and cancers are being actively explored. All three CDK4/6 inhibitors have demonstrated very similar clinical efficacies. However, being the least similar structurally, abemaciclib is the only CDK4/6 inhibitor with single agent activity in refractory metastatic ER + breast cancer, the ability to cross the blood brain barrier efficiently, and a distinct toxicity profile of lower myelosuppression such that it can be dosed continuously. Here, we further discuss the distinguishing features of abemaciclib as compared to the other two CDK4/6 inhibitors, palbociclib and ribociclib. Besides being the most potent inhibitor of CDK4/6, abemaciclib exhibits a wider selectivity towards other CDKs and kinases, and functions through additional mechanisms of action besides inducing G1 cell cycle arrest, in a dose dependent manner. Hence, abemaciclib has the potential to act independently of the CDK4/6-cyclin D-RB pathway, resulting in crucial implications on the possibly expanded clinical indications and predictive biomarkers of abemaciclib, in contrast to the other CDK4/6 inhibitors. The current status of preclinical evidence and clinical studies of abemaciclib as a single agent and in combination treatment in breast and other cancers, together with its potential predictive biomarkers, is also summarised in this review.

Low and High Molecular Weight FGF-2 Have Differential Effects on Astrocyte Proliferation, but Are Both Protective Against Aβ-Induced Cytotoxicity

Astrocytes are the most abundant type of glial cells in the brain, and they play a key role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Fibroblast Growth Factor-2 (FGF-2) has been implicated as a potential therapeutic agent for treating AD. In the present study, we investigated the protective effects of low molecular weight (LMW; 17 KDa) and high molecular weight (HMW; 23 KDa) forms of FGF-2 on Aβ_1–42-induced toxicity, and proliferation in astrocytes. We show that both isoforms of FGF-2 have similar protective effects against Aβ_1–42-induced cytotoxicity in primary cultured cortical astrocytes as measured by Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) release assay. Additionally, 17 KDa FGF-2 significantly promoted astrocyte proliferation as measured by Trypan Blue, DRAQ5 and 5-ethynyl-2’-deoxyuridine (EdU) staining, but not 23 kDa FGF-2. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that AKT signaling pathway was required for the protective and proliferative effects of FGF-2. Downstream effector studies indicated that 17 kDa FGF-2 promoted astrocyte proliferation by enhanced expression of c-Myc, Cyclin D1, Cyclin E. Furthermore, our data suggested that Cyclin D1 was required for the proliferative effect of LMW FGF2 in astrocytes. Taken together, our findings provide important information for the similarities and differences between 23 kDa and17 kDa isoforms of FGF-2 on astrocyte survival and proliferation.

Direct targeting of oncogenic RAS mutants with a tumor-specific cytosol-penetrating antibody inhibits RAS mutant-driven tumor growth

Oncogenic RAS mutant (RASMUT) proteins have been considered undruggable via conventional antibody regimens owing to the intracellular location restricting conventional-antibody accessibility. Here, we report a pan-RAS-targeting IgG antibody, inRas37, which directly targets the intracellularly activated form of various RASMUT subtypes after tumor cell-specific internalization into the cytosol to block the interactions with effector proteins, thereby suppressing the downstream signaling. Systemic administration of inRas37 exerted a potent antitumor activity in a subset of RASMUT tumor xenografts in mice, but little efficacy in RASMUT tumors with concurrent downstream PI3K mutations, which were overcome by combination with a PI3K inhibitor. The YAP1 protein was up-regulated as an adaptive resistance-inducing response to inRas37 in RASMUT-dependent colorectal tumors; accordingly, a combination of inRas37 with a YAP1 inhibitor manifested synergistic antitumor effects in vitro and in vivo. Our study offers a promising pan-RAS-targeting antibody and the corresponding therapeutic strategy against RASMUT tumors.

The Role of Autophagy in the Resistance to BRAF Inhibition in BRAF-Mutated Melanoma

Malignant melanoma is the most aggressive and notorious skin cancer, and metastatic disease is associated with very poor long-term survival outcomes. Although metastatic melanoma patients with oncogenic mutations in the BRAF gene initially respond well to the treatment with specific BRAF inhibitors, most of them will eventually develop resistance to this targeted therapy. As a highly conserved catabolic process, autophagy is responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and cell survival, and is involved in multiple diseases, including cancer. Recent study results have indicated that autophagy might play a decisive role in the resistance to BRAF inhibitors in BRAF-mutated melanomas. In this review, we will discuss how autophagy is up-regulated by BRAF inhibitors, and how autophagy induces the resistance to these agents.

Cell Cycle and Beyond: Exploiting New RB1 Controlled Mechanisms for Cancer Therapy

Recent studies highlight the importance of the RB1 tumor suppressor as a target for cancer therapy. Canonically, RB1 regulates cell cycle progression and represents the downstream target for cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6 inhibitors that are in clinical use. However, newly discovered features of the RB1 pathway suggest new therapeutic strategies to counter resistance and improve precision medicine. These therapeutic strategies include deepening cell cycle exit with CDK4/6 inhibitor combinations, selectively targeting tumors that have lost RB1, and expanding therapeutic index by mitigating therapy-associated adverse effects. In addition, RB1 impacts immunological features of tumors and the microenvironment that can enhance sensitivity to immunotherapy. Lastly, RB1 specifies epigenetically determined cell lineage states that are disrupted during therapy resistance and could be re-installed through the direct use of epigenetic therapies. Thus, new opportunities are emerging to improve cancer therapy by exploiting the RB1 pathway.