Effects of paternal overnutrition and interventions on future generations

Paternal dietary macronutrient balance and energy intake drive metabolic and behavioral differences among offspring

Paternal diet can influence the phenotype of the next generation, yet, the dietary components inducing specific responses in the offspring are not identified. Here, we use the Nutritional Geometry Framework to determine the effects of pre-conception paternal dietary macronutrient balance on offspring metabolic and behavioral traits in mice. Ten isocaloric diets varying in the relative proportion of protein, fats, and carbohydrates are fed to male mice prior to mating. Dams and offspring are fed standard chow and never exposed to treatment diets. Body fat in female offspring is positively associated with the paternal consumption of fat, while in male offspring, an anxiety-like phenotype is associated to paternal diets low in protein and high in carbohydrates. Our study uncovers that the nature and the magnitude of paternal effects are driven by interactions between macronutrient balance and energy intake and are not solely the result of over- or undernutrition.

Healthful Eating Behaviors among Couples Contribute to Lower Gestational Weight Gain

Through longitudinal analysis from the GLOWING cohort study, we examined the independent and joint relationships between couples' eating behaviors and gestational weight gain (GWG). Pregnant persons (n = 218) and their non-pregnant partners (n = 157) completed an Eating Inventory. GWG was calculated as gestation weight at 36 weeks minus that at 10 weeks. General linear models were used to examine the relationships between GWG and the pregnant persons, non-pregnant partners, and couples (n = 137; mean of pregnant persons and non-pregnant partners) cognitive restraint (range 0-21), dietary disinhibition (range 0-18), and perceived hunger (range 0-14), with higher scores reflecting poorer eating behaviors. The adjusted models included race/ethnicity, education, income, marital status, and age. The pregnant persons and their non-pregnant partners' cognitive restraint, dietary disinhibition, and perceived hunger scores were 9.8 ± 4.7, 4.8 ± 3.2, and 4.4 ± 2.5 and 6.6 ± 4.6, 5.4 ± 3.4, and 4.7 ± 3.2, respectively. Higher cognitive restraint scores among the pregnant persons and couples were positively associated with GWG (p ≤ 0.04 for both). Stratified analyses revealed this was significant for the pregnant persons with overweight (p ≤ 0.04). The non-pregnant partners' eating behaviors alone were not significantly associated with GWG (p ≥ 0.31 for all). The other explored relationships between GWG and the couples' eating behaviors were insignificant (p ≥ 0.12 for all). Among the pregnant persons and couples, reduced GWG may be achieved with higher levels of restrained eating. Involving non-pregnant partners in programs to optimize GWG may be beneficial.

Dietary flavonoids prevent diabetes through epigenetic regulation: advance and challenge

The pathophysiology of diabetes has been studied extensively in various countries, but effective prevention and treatment methods are still insufficient. In recent years, epigenetics has received increasing attention from researchers in exploring the etiology and treatment of diabetes. DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs play critical roles in the occurrence, maintenance, and progression of diabetes and its complications. Therefore, preventing or reversing the epigenetic alterations that occur during the development of diabetes may reduce the individual and societal burden of the disease. Dietary flavonoids serve as natural epigenetic modulators for the discovery of biomarkers for diabetes prevention and the development of alternative therapies. However, there is limited knowledge about the potential beneficial effects of flavonoids on the epigenetics of diabetes. In this review, the multidimensional epigenetic effects of different flavonoid subtypes in diabetes were summarized. Furthermore, it was discussed that parental flavonoid diets might reduce diabetes incidence in offspring, which represent a promising opportunity to prevent diabetes in the future. Future work will depend on exploring anti-diabetic effects of different flavonoids with different epigenetic regulation mechanisms and clinical trials.Highlights• "Epigenetic therapy" could reduce the burden of diabetic patients• "Epigenetic diet" ameliorates diabetes• Targeting epigenetic regulations by dietary flavonoids in the diabetes prevention• Dietary flavonoids prevent diabetes via transgenerational epigenetic inheritance.

Role of the placenta in developmental programming: Observations from models using large animals

Developmental programming, which proposes that "insults" or "stressors" during intrauterine or postnatal development can have not only immediate but also long-term consequences for healthy and productivity, has emerged as a major biological principle, and based on studies in many animal species also seems to be a universal phenomenon. In eutherians, the placenta appears to be programmed during its development, which has consequences for fetal growth and development throughout pregnancy, and likewise has long-term consequences for postnatal development, leading to programming of organ function of the offspring even into adulthood. This review summarizes our current understanding of the placenta's role in developmental programming, the mechanisms involved, and the challenges remaining.

Developmental origins of health and disease knowledge is associated with diet quality in preconception young adult men and women

The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) approach supports that nutritional exposures in early life affect an individual's later health and risk of disease. Dietary exposure during the preconception period may also influence individual, and inter- and transgenerational health and disease risk, in both men and women. This study aimed to describe knowledge of the DOHaD approach (DOHaDKNOWLEDGE) and diet quality in preconception young adults in Norway, to assess associations between DOHaDKNOWLEDGE and a Diet Quality Score (DQS), and to assess gender differences in those above. Data from 1362 preconception young adults was obtained from the PREPARED study baseline dataset. The sample had 88% women participants, a mean age of 27 years, 36% had overweight or obesity, and 77% had higher level of education. DOHaDKNOWLEDGE was assessed by the participants' agreement to five statements using a Likert scale. Diet quality was assessed using aspects of diet quality and a DQS derived from a dietary screener. We found moderate level of both DOHaDKNOWLEDGE (12/20 points) and diet quality (DQS: 60/100 points), indicating potential for improvements. Specifically, the greatest potential for diet quality improvements were observed for sugary foods, red and processed meats, legumes, and unsalted nuts and seeds. Gender differences were observed for both DOHaDKNOWLEDGE and diet quality. DOHaDKNOWLEDGE was positively associated with DQS, adjusted for sociodemographic factors, with little evidence of an interaction effect by gender. This study indicates that knowledge of the DOHaD approach is positively associated with diet quality in preconception young men and women. Future studies should consider incorporating pregnancy intentions, relationship status, and health literacy.

Paternal programming of fetoplacental and offspring metabolic disorders

The alarming increase in the prevalence of metabolic pathologies is of worldwide concern and has been linked not only to genetic factors but also to a large number of non-genetic factors. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the study of the programming of metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity, by paternal exposure, a paradigm termed "Paternal Origins of Health and Disease" (POHaD). This term derives from the better known "Developmental Origins of Health and Disease" (DOHaD), which focuses on the involvement of the maternal intrauterine environment and complications during pregnancy associated with the health and disease of the offspring. Studies on paternal programming have documented environmentally induced epigenetic modifications in the male germline and in seminal plasma, which lead to intergenerational and transgenerational phenotypes, evident already during fetoplacental development. Studies with animal models at both ends of the nutritional spectrum (undernutrition or overnutrition) have been performed to understand the possible mechanisms and signaling pathways leading to the programming of metabolic disorders by exploring epigenetic changes throughout the life of the offspring. The aim of this review was to address the evidence of the programming of fetoplacental developmental alterations and metabolic pathologies in the offspring of males with metabolic disorders and unhealthy exposures, highlighting the mechanisms involved in such programming and looking for paternal interventions to reduce negative health outcomes in the offspring.

Paternal effects on fetal programming

Paternal programming is the concept that the environmental signals from the sire's experiences leading up to mating can alter semen and ultimately affect the phenotype of resulting offspring. Potential mechanisms carrying the paternal effects to offspring can be associated with epigenetic signatures (DNA methylation, histone modification and non-coding RNAs), oxidative stress, cytokines, and the seminal microbiome. Several opportunities exist for sperm/semen to be influenced during development; these opportunities are within the testicle, the epididymis, or accessory sex glands. Epigenetic signatures of sperm can be impacted during the pre-natal and pre-pubertal periods, during sexual maturity and with advancing sire age. Sperm are susceptible to alterations as dictated by their developmental stage at the time of the perturbation, and sperm and seminal plasma likely have both dependent and independent effects on offspring. Research using rodent models has revealed that many factors including over/under nutrition, dietary fat, protein, and ingredient composition (e.g., macro- or micronutrients), stress, exercise, and exposure to drugs, alcohol, and endocrine disruptors all elicit paternal programming responses that are evident in offspring phenotype. Research using livestock species has also revealed that sire age, fertility level, plane of nutrition, and heat stress can induce alterations in the epigenetic, oxidative stress, cytokine, and microbiome profiles of sperm and/or seminal plasma. In addition, recent findings in pigs, sheep, and cattle have indicated programming effects in blastocysts post-fertilization with some continuing into post-natal life of the offspring. Our research group is focused on understanding the effects of common management scenarios of plane of nutrition and growth rates in bulls and rams on mechanisms resulting in paternal programming and subsequent offspring outcomes. Understanding the implication of paternal programming is imperative as short-term feeding and management decisions have the potential to impact productivity and profitability of our herds for generations to come.

Activation, decommissioning, and dememorization: enhancers in a life cycle

Spatiotemporal regulation of cell type-specific gene expression is essential to convert a zygote into a complex organism that contains hundreds of distinct cell types. A class of cis-regulatory elements called enhancers, which have the potential to enhance target gene transcription, are crucial for precise gene expression programs during development. Following decades of research, many enhancers have been discovered and how enhancers become activated has been extensively studied. However, the mechanisms underlying enhancer silencing are less well understood. We review current understanding of enhancer decommissioning and dememorization, both of which enable enhancer silencing. We highlight recent progress from genome-wide perspectives that have revealed the life cycle of enhancers and how its dynamic regulation underlies cell fate transition, development, cell regeneration, and epigenetic reprogramming.

Maternal overnutrition is associated with altered synaptic input to lateral hypothalamic area

OBJECTIVE

Maternal overnutrition is associated with adverse outcomes in offspring, including increased risk for obesity and diabetes. Here, we aim to test the effects of maternal obesity on lateral hypothalamic feeding circuit function and determine the relationship with body weight regulation.

METHODS

Using a mouse model of maternal obesity, we assessed how perinatal overnutrition affected food intake and body weight regulation in adult offspring. We then used channelrhodopsin-assisted circuit mapping and electrophysiological recordings to assess the synaptic connectivity within an extended amygdala-lateral hypothalamic pathway.

RESULTS

We show that maternal overnutrition during gestation and throughout lactation produces offspring that are heavier than controls prior to weaning. When weaned onto chow, the body weights of over-nourished offspring normalize to control levels. However, when presented with highly palatable food as adults, both male and female maternally over-nourished offspring are highly susceptible to diet-induced obesity. This is associated with altered synaptic strength in an extended amygdala-lateral hypothalamic pathway, which is predicted by developmental growth rate. Additionally, lateral hypothalamic neurons receiving synaptic input from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis have enhanced excitatory input following maternal overnutrition which is predicted by early life growth rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these results demonstrate one way in which maternal obesity rewires hypothalamic feeding circuits to predispose offspring to metabolic dysfunction.

Intergenerational Inheritance of Hepatic Steatosis in a Mouse Model of Childhood Obesity: Potential Involvement of Germ-Line microRNAs

Childhood obesity increases the risk of developing metabolic syndrome later in life. Moreover, metabolic dysfunction may be inherited into the following generation through non-genomic mechanisms, with epigenetics as a plausible candidate. The pathways involved in the development of metabolic dysfunction across generations in the context of childhood obesity remain largely unexplored. We have developed a mouse model of early adiposity by reducing litter size at birth (small litter group, SL: 4 pups/dam; control group, C: 8 pups/dam). Mice raised in small litters (SL) developed obesity, insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis with aging. Strikingly, the offspring of SL males (SL-F1) also developed hepatic steatosis. Paternal transmission of an environmentally induced phenotype strongly suggests epigenetic inheritance. We analyzed the hepatic transcriptome in C-F1 and SL-F1 mice to identify pathways involved in the development of hepatic steatosis. We found that the circadian rhythm and lipid metabolic process were the ontologies with highest significance in the liver of SL-F1 mice. We explored whether DNA methylation and small non-coding RNAs might be involved in mediating intergenerational effects. Sperm DNA methylation was largely altered in SL mice. However, these changes did not correlate with the hepatic transcriptome. Next, we analyzed small non-coding RNA content in the testes of mice from the parental generation. Two miRNAs (miR-457 and miR-201) appeared differentially expressed in the testes of SL-F0 mice. They are known to be expressed in mature spermatozoa, but not in oocytes nor early embryos, and they may regulate the transcription of lipogenic genes, but not clock genes, in hepatocytes. Hence, they are strong candidates to mediate the inheritance of adult hepatic steatosis in our murine model. In conclusion, litter size reduction leads to intergenerational effects through non-genomic mechanisms. In our model, DNA methylation does not seem to play a role on the circadian rhythm nor lipid genes. However, at least two paternal miRNAs might influence the expression of a few lipid-related genes in the first-generation offspring, F1.

Paternal BMI in the preconception period, and the association with child zBMI

BACKGROUND

Rapid growth and excess weight in early childhood are associated with obesity risk. While maternal preconception BMI has been identified as a potential risk factor, the role of paternal preconception BMI is less clear.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the association between paternal preconception BMI and age- and sex-standardized WHO BMI z-score (zBMI) growth rates, zBMI, and weight status, in 0- to 10-year-old children. To determine whether these associations differed by child sex and maternal preconception weight status.

METHODS

A longitudinal cohort study was conducted through The Applied Research Group for Kids (TARGet Kids!). Children (n = 218) underwent repeated measures of height and weight from birth to 10 years old. Piecewise linear mixed models were used to assess the association between paternal preconception BMI and child zBMI growth rates (zBMI SD units/month) between 0, 4, 30, 48 and 120 months of age. Linear mixed models were used to examine the association with child zBMI, and logistic generalized estimation equations (GEE) were used to assess the association with child weight status. Child sex and maternal preconception weight status were tested as effect modifiers.

RESULTS

Paternal preconception BMI was associated with child zBMI growth rate, mean zBMI and weight status in boys, but not girls. A 5 kg/m² higher paternal preconception BMI was associated with approximately 0.01 zBMI SD unit/month higher growth rate for boys born to mothers with preconception overweight. Higher paternal BMI was associated with higher mean zBMI and increased odds of overweight and obesity in boys, with greater effects seen when mothers had preconception overweight compared to normal weight.

CONCLUSION

Paternal preconception BMI was associated with child zBMI growth rate, zBMI and weight status in boys, with greater effects when the biological mother had preconception overweight or obesity. Further understanding of sex differences in paternal preconception weight effects in children is needed.

Characterisation of the Paternal Influence on Intergenerational Offspring Cardiac and Brain Lipid Homeostasis in Mice

There is growing evidence that poor paternal diet at the time of conception increase the risk of offspring developing a range of non-communicable metabolic diseases, such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, in adulthood. We hypothesise that a paternal low protein-high carbohydrate diet perturbs offspring tissue lipid abundance through both sperm and seminal plasma-mediated mechanisms. To test our hypothesis, we fed male C57BL/6 mice either a control normal protein diet (NPD; 18% protein) or an isocaloric low protein diet (LPD; 9% protein) for a minimum of 8 weeks. We generated offspring through artificial insemination, in combination with vasectomised male mating. Using this approach, we derived offspring from either NPD or LPD sperm but in the presence of NPD or LPD seminal plasma. Using high resolution mass-spectrometry, we found that offspring derived from either LPD sperm or seminal fluid displayed perturbed cardiac and brain lipid abundance from just three weeks of age, typically associated with the altered abundance of tissue triglycerides. We also observed the differential sex-specific patterns of lipids between the control and experimental offspring's hearts and brains. These observations indicate that poor paternal diet at the time of conception affects offspring cardiac and brain lipid profiles in an age-, sex- and generation-specific manner.

Fathers' presence and adolescents' interpersonal relationship quality: Moderated mediation model

Introduction

Most previous studies focused on the effects of fathers' presence on adolescent development, but rarely examined the mechanisms underlying the presence of fathers on adolescent development. Moreover, previous studies ignored the impact of fathers' way of being present on adolescent interpersonal relationships. Based on social identity theory, the present study introduced adolescents' social responsibility as a mediating variable to explore the influence of father's presence style on adolescents' interpersonal. This study examined the mechanism of fathers' way of being present on father's presence, adolescents' social responsibility, and their quality of interpersonal relationships; if fathers adopt a democratic approach to be present, the study examines whether teenagers are more likely to enhance their sense of social responsibility and achieve harmonious interpersonal relationships.

Methods

Participants were 1,942 senior high school and college students who responded to the Fatherhood Questionnaire, Social Responsibility Questionnaire, and Interpersonal Relationship Quality Diagnosis Scale. This study used PROCESS macro of SPSS 24.0 and Amos 26.0 to examine the hypotheses.

Results

Empirical results demonstrated that (a) fathers' presence is directly and positively related to adolescents' social responsibility, (b) fathers' presence is indirectly and positively related to the quality of adolescents' interpersonal relationships through social responsibility, and (c) parenting styles played a moderating role in the first half of the fathers' presence on social responsibility and the quality of interpersonal relationships. Results demonstrated that more harmonious interpersonal relationships were present among teenagers when fathers adopted a democratic upbringing, and this interaction effect on interpersonal relationships was mediated by teenagers' sense of social responsibility.

Discussion

The findings of this study enrich the literature by exploring the significance of emphasizing fathers' democratic presence on teenagers' sense of social responsibility and interpersonal relationships. The practical implications of this study are that society should encourage more fathers to be present and guide them to adopt a democratic parenting style that will benefit adolescents' development and family well-being.

Effects of parental overweight and obesity on offspring's mental health: A meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Children of parents who were overweight/obese prior to pregnancy face a variety of neurodevelopmental challenges. The goal of this meta-analysis is to compile evidence about the impact of parental overweight/obesity on their children's mental health.

METHODS

The databases Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science were searched until May 2022. The pooled effect size was calculated using the fixed and random effect models. We also performed I2 index, subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, quality assessment, and publication bias analysis. The protocol was registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42022334408).

RESULTS

For maternal exposure (35 studies), both maternal overweight [OR 1.14 (95% CI 1.10,1.18)] and maternal obesity [OR 1.39 (95% CI (1.33, 1.45)] were significantly associated with offspring's mental disorders. Maternal pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity increased the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [OR 1.55 (95% CI 1.42,1.70)], autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [OR 1.37 (95% CI 1.22,1.55)], cognitive/intellectual delay [OR 1.40 (95% CI 1.21,1.63)], behavioral problems [OR 1.50 (95% CI 1.35,1.66)] and other mental diseases [OR 1.30 (95% CI 1.23,1.37)]. For paternal exposure (6 studies), paternal obesity [OR 1.17 (95% CI 1.06, 1.30)] but not overweight [OR 1.03 (95% CI 0.95,1.11)] was significantly associated with offspring's mental disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental overweight/obesity might have negative consequences on offspring's mental health and pre-pregnancy weight control is advised.