Synchronization of speed, sound and iridescent color in a hummingbird aerial courtship dive

Contingency, Determinism, and Constraint in the Evolution of Elaborate Courtship Phenotypes

Natural selection is broadly considered to be a deterministic process, though the roles of historical contingency and constraint are increasingly being recognised as key factors shaping the diversity of life on earth. Sexual selection through mate choice is similarly deterministic and there is increasing evidence that processes such as sensory drive may produce predictable evolutionary outcomes in the design features of sexual signals. However, much variation amid the extraordinary diversity of courtship phenotypes among animals is left unexplained by purely deterministic processes. Since evolution acts without foresight, the elaboration of phenotypes-including those involved in sexual signalling-is analogous to a tinkering process, meaning that nuanced historical contingencies in an organism's phylogenetic history set the stage for unique constraints in the future. Even in famously diverse 'ornamental' radiations, such as the birds of paradise-which feature numerous unique courtship traits or evolutionary "one-offs"-they also exhibit exceptional convergence in signalling traits despite strikingly diverse signal production mechanisms. While comparative research often focuses on signaller phenotypes, a clear distinction between signal production mechanisms (i.e., the mechanical or physiological basis of display) and their perceptual effects for signal receivers (i.e., signal design features) is critical to understand the deterministic processes shaping signal evolution. Furthermore, while there may be disparate evolutionary trajectories to similar elaborate signalling phenotypes, the resulting unique mechanisms of display can impose equally unique constraints on signalling phenotypes. These and other findings suggest that, to understand the evolution of elaborate courtship phenotypes, comparative research should address the interacting effects of deterministic processes, historical contingencies, and biological constraints.

Self-flickering bioinspired actuator with autonomous motion and structural color switching

Color-tunable actuators with motion and color-changing functions have attracted considerable attention in recent years, yet it remains a challenge to achieve the autonomous regulation of motion and color. Inspired by Apatura ilia butterfly with dynamic structural color and Pelargonium carnosum plant with moisture responsive bilayer structure, an automatic color-tunable actuator is developed by integrating photonic crystals layer and hygroscopic layer. Taking advantage of the asymmetric hygroscopicity between two layers and the angle-dependent structural color of photonic crystals, this actuator can continuously self-flicker in humid environment by visual switching in structural color due to automated cyclic motion. The actuator is assembled into the self-flapping biomimetic butterfly with switchable color and the self-reporting information array with dynamic visual display, demonstrating its autoregulatory motion and color. This work provides a new strategy for developing automatic color-tunable actuator and suggests its potential in the intelligent robot and optical display.

Hyperspectral imaging in animal coloration research: A user-friendly pipeline for image generation, analysis, and integration with 3D modeling

Hyperspectral imaging-a technique that combines the high spectral resolution of spectrophotometry with the high spatial resolution of photography-holds great promise for the study of animal coloration. However, applications of hyperspectral imaging to questions about the ecology and evolution of animal color remain relatively rare. The approach can be expensive and unwieldy, and we lack user-friendly pipelines for capturing and analyzing hyperspectral data in the context of animal color. Fortunately, costs are decreasing and hyperspectral imagers are improving, particularly in their sensitivity to wavelengths (including ultraviolet) visible to diverse animal species. To highlight the potential of hyperspectral imaging for animal coloration studies, we developed a pipeline for capturing, sampling, and analyzing hyperspectral data (here, in the 325 nm to 700 nm range) using avian museum specimens. Specifically, we used the pipeline to characterize the plumage colors of the King bird-of-paradise (Cicinnurus regius), Magnificent bird-of-paradise (C. magnificus), and their putative hybrid, the King of Holland's bird-of-paradise (C. magnificus x C. regius). We also combined hyperspectral data with 3D digital models to supplement hyperspectral images of each specimen with 3D shape information. Using visual system-independent methods, we found that many plumage patches on the hybrid King of Holland's bird-of-paradise are-to varying degrees-intermediate relative to those of the parent species. This was true of both pigmentary and structurally colored plumage patches. Using visual system-dependent methods, we showed that only some of the differences in plumage patches among the hybrid and its parent species would be perceivable by birds. Hyperspectral imaging is poised to become the gold standard for many animal coloration applications: comprehensive reflectance data-across the entire surface of an animal specimen-can be obtained in a matter of minutes. Our pipeline provides a practical and flexible roadmap for incorporating hyperspectral imaging into future studies of animal color.

Acoustic effects complement visual displays of Great Bowerbird bowers

Sexual selection can result in extreme development of multimodal mate-attracting traits, including complex constructions. Male Great Bowerbirds build bowers for attracting females. Bowers contain a thatched twig tunnel (avenue) opening onto 2 courts covered with decorations. Males displaying on a court are seen by a female from within the avenue. She sees and hears displays through the avenue entrance but can only see the male's head and objects in his bill as it passes repeatedly across the entrance. Because the bower may affect the auditory as well as the visual parts of the multimodal male display we investigated bower acoustic properties by playing standard sounds from multiple court positions, recording the resulting sounds at the female's head position within the avenue. Bower geometry results in a limited zone at the avenue entrance where his vocalisations can be heard with maximum intensity; this corresponds to his typical display position. Experiments show that court decorations increase the intensity of some frequencies and reduce the intensity of others. Bower structure simultaneously affects both visual and auditory male display components and could be important in sexual selection. It is important to consider more than 1 sensory mode, especially in the context of built signaling structures.

Receiver response to high-intensity courtship differs with courter status in spotted bowerbirds Ptilonorhynchus maculatus

Understanding sexual communication requires assessing the behaviour of both the sender and the receiver. Receiver responses to sexual displays carry relevant information, but such signals or cues may be subtle and therefore technically challenging to investigate. Here, we focus on receiver body movements in response to high-intensity courtship in spotted bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchus maculatus). Male bowerbirds perform a vigorous courtship choreography on dedicated display structures-bowers. Bower owners tolerate other non-territorial males at their bowers, yet the courtship displays of these so-called 'subordinate' males rarely result in successful copulations. Males that display at high intensity are preferred by females in this species, yet excessively aggressive displays may be threatening, hence scaring prospective mates away. In this study, we hypothesized that bower owners are better able to exhibit high-intensity movements without startling their audience compared with subordinate males. To address this question, we used a combination of behavioural coding and AI-based tracking of body movements, which allows precise spatial and temporal resolution for the study of subtle behavioural responses. Contrary to our predictions, we found that bower owners evoked stronger startle responses than subordinate males. We discuss these unexpected results and suggest further experimental approaches for future investigations.

Bio-Inspired Photoelectric Dual-Mode Sensor Based on Photonic Crystals for Human Motion Sensing and Monitoring

Photoelectric dual-mode sensors, which respond to strain signal through photoelectric dual-signals, hold great promise as wearable sensors in human motion monitoring. In this work, a photoelectric dual-mode sensor based on photonic crystals hydrogel was developed for human joint motion detection. The optical signal of the sensor originated from the structural color of photonic crystals, which was achieved by tuning the polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microspheres diameter. The reflective peak of the sensor, based on 250 nm PMMA PCs, shifted from 623 nm to 492 nm with 100% strain. Graphene was employed to enhance the electrical signal of the sensor, resulting in a conductivity increase from 9.33 × 10-4 S/m to 2 × 10-3 S/m with an increase in graphene from 0 to 8 mg·mL-1. Concurrently, the resistance of the hydrogel with 8 mg·mL-1 graphene increased from 160 kΩ to 485 kΩ with a gauge factor (GF) = 0.02 under 100% strain, while maintaining a good cyclic stability. The results of the sensing and monitoring of finger joint bending revealed a significant shift in the reflective peak of the photoelectric dual-mode sensor from 624 nm to 526 nm. Additionally, its resistance change rate was measured at 1.72 with a 90° bending angle. These findings suggest that the photoelectric dual-mode sensor had the capability to detect the strain signal with photoelectric dual-mode signals, and indicates its great potential for the sensing and monitoring of joint motion.

Dynamic Color-Switching of Hydrogel Micropillar Array under Ethanol Vapor for Optical Encryption

Responsive structural colors from artificially engineered micro/nanostructures are critical to the development of anti-counterfeiting, optical encryption, and intelligent display. Herein, the responsive structural color of hydrogel micropillar array is demonstrated under the external stimulus of ethanol vapor. Micropillar arrays with full color are fabricated via femtosecond laser direct writing by controlling the height and diameter of the micropillars according to the FDTD simulation. Color-switching of the micropillar arrays is achieved in <1 s due to the formation of liquid film among micropillars. More importantly, the structural color blueshift of the micropillar arrays is sensitive to the micropillar diameter, instead of the micropillar height. The micropillar array with a diameter of 772 nm takes 400 ms to complete blueshift under ethanol vapor, while that with a diameter of 522 nm blueshifts at 2400 ms. Microscale patterns are realized by employing the size-dependent color-switching of designed micropillar arrays under ethanol vapor. Moreover, Morse code and directional blueshift of structural colors are realized in the micropillar arrays. The advantages of controllable color-switching of the hydrogel micropillar array would be prospective in the areas of optical encryption, dynamic display, and anti-counterfeiting.

Alteration of the temporal association between courtship audio and visual components affects female sexual response

Some multimodal signals-that is, occurring in more than one sensory modality-appear to carry additional information which is not present when component signals are presented separately. To understand the function of male ring dove's (Streptopelia risoria) multimodal courtship, we used audiovisual playback of male displays to investigate female response to stimuli differing in their audiovisual timing. From natural courtship recordings, we created a shifted stimulus where audio was shifted relative to video by a fixed value and a jittered stimulus, where each call was moved randomly along the visual channel. We presented 3 groups of females with the same stimulus type, that is, control, shifted, and jittered, for 7 days. We recorded their behavior and assessed pre- and post-test blood estradiol concentration. We found that playback exposure increased estradiol levels, confirming that this technique can be efficiently used to study doves' sexual communication. Additionally, chasing behavior (indicating sexual stimulation) increased over experimental days only in the control condition, suggesting a role of multimodal timing on female response. This stresses the importance of signal configuration in multimodal communication, as additional information is likely to be contained in the temporal association between modalities.

Interspecific hybridization explains rapid gorget colour divergence in Heliodoxa hummingbirds (Aves: Trochilidae)

Hybridization is a known source of morphological, functional and communicative signal novelty in many organisms. Although diverse mechanisms of established novel ornamentation have been identified in natural populations, we lack an understanding of hybridization effects across levels of biological scales and upon phylogenies. Hummingbirds display diverse structural colours resulting from coherent light scattering by feather nanostructures. Given the complex relationship between feather nanostructures and the colours they produce, intermediate coloration does not necessarily imply intermediate nanostructures. Here, we characterize nanostructural, ecological and genetic inputs in a distinctive Heliodoxa hummingbird from the foothills of eastern Peru. Genetically, this individual is closely allied with Heliodoxa branickii and Heliodoxa gularis, but it is not identical to either when nuclear data are assessed. Elevated interspecific heterozygosity further suggests it is a hybrid backcross to H. branickii. Electron microscopy and spectrophotometry of this unique individual reveal key nanostructural differences underlying its distinct gorget colour, confirmed by optical modelling. Phylogenetic comparative analysis suggests that the observed gorget coloration divergence from both parentals to this individual would take 6.6-10 My to evolve at the current rate within a single hummingbird lineage. These results emphasize the mosaic nature of hybridization and suggest that hybridization may contribute to the structural colour diversity found across hummingbirds.

The Inverse Krogh Principle: All Organisms Are Worthy of Study

AbstractKrogh's principle states, "For such a large number of problems there will be some animal of choice, or a few such animals, on which it can be most conveniently studied." The downside of picking a question first and then finding an ideal organism on which to study it is that it will inevitably leave many organisms neglected. Here, we promote the inverse Krogh principle: all organisms are worthy of study. The inverse Krogh principle and the Krogh principle are not opposites. Rather, the inverse Krogh principle emphasizes a different starting point for research: start with a biological unit, such as an organism, clade, or specific organism trait, then seek or create tractable research questions. Even the hardest-to-study species have research questions that can be asked of them: Where does it fall within the tree of life? What resources does it need to survive and reproduce? How does it differ from close relatives? Does it have unique adaptations? The Krogh and inverse Krogh approaches are complementary, and many research programs naturally include both. Other considerations for picking a study species include extreme species, species informative for phylogenetic analyses, and the creation of models when a suitable species does not exist. The inverse Krogh principle also has pitfalls. A scientist that picks the organism first might choose a research question not really suited to the organism, and funding agencies rarely fund organism-centered grant proposals. The inverse Krogh principle does not call for all organisms to receive the same amount of research attention. As knowledge continues to accumulate, some organisms-models-will inevitably have more known about them than others. Rather, it urges a broader search across organismal diversity to find sources of inspiration for research questions and the motivation needed to pursue them.

A generalized approach to characterize optical properties of natural objects

To understand the diversity of ways in which natural materials interact with light, it is important to consider how their reflectance changes with the angle of illumination or viewing and to consider wavelengths beyond the visible. Efforts to characterize these optical properties, however, have been hampered by heterogeneity in measurement techniques, parameters and terminology. Here, we propose a standardized set of measurements, parameters and terminology to describe the optical properties of natural objects based on spectrometry, including angle-dependent effects, such as iridescence and specularity. We select a set of existing measurements and parameters that are generalizable to any wavelength range and spectral shape, and we highlight which subsets of measures are relevant to different biological questions. As a case study, we have applied these measures to 30 species of Christmas beetles, in which we observed previously unrealized diversity in visible and near-infrared reflectance. As expected, reflection of short wavelengths was associated with high spectral purity and angle dependence. In contrast to simple, artificial structures, iridescence and specularity were not strongly correlated, highlighting the complexity and modularity of natural materials. Species did not cluster according to spectral parameters or genus, suggesting high lability of optical properties. The proposed standardization of measures and parameters will improve our understanding of biological adaptations for manipulating light by facilitating the systematic comparison of complex optical properties, such as glossy or metallic appearances and visible or near-infrared iridescence.

Hummingbird plumage color diversity exceeds the known gamut of all other birds

A color gamut quantitatively describes the diversity of a taxon's integumentary coloration as seen by a specific organismal visual system. We estimated the plumage color gamut of hummingbirds (Trochilidae), a family known for its diverse barbule structural coloration, using a tetrahedral avian color stimulus space and spectra from a taxonomically diverse sample of 114 species. The spectra sampled occupied 34.2% of the total diversity of colors perceivable by hummingbirds, which suggests constraints on their plumage color production. However, the size of the hummingbird color gamut is equivalent to, or greater than, the previous estimate of the gamut for all birds. Using the violet cone type visual system, our new data for hummingbirds increases the avian color gamut by 56%. Our results demonstrate that barbule structural color is the most evolvable plumage coloration mechanism, achieving unique, highly saturated colors with multi-reflectance peaks.

Can you hear/see me? Multisensory integration of signals does not always facilitate mate choice

Females of many species choose mates using multiple sensory modalities. Multimodal noise may arise, however, in dense aggregations of animals communicating via multiple sensory modalities. Some evidence suggests multimodal signals may not always improve receiver decision-making performance. When sensory systems process input from multimodal signal sources, multimodal noise may arise and potentially complicate decision-making due to the demands on cognitive integration tasks. We tested female túngara frog, Physalaemus (=Engystomops) pustulosus, responses to male mating signals in noise from multiple sensory modalities (acoustic and visual). Noise treatments were partitioned into three categories: acoustic, visual, and multimodal. We used natural calls from conspecifics and heterospecifics for acoustic noise. Robotic frogs were employed as either visual signal components (synchronous vocal sac inflation with call) or visual noise (asynchronous vocal sac inflation with call). Females expressed a preference for the typically more attractive call in the presence of unimodal noise. However, during multimodal signal and noise treatments (robofrogs employed with background noise), females failed to express a preference for the typically attractive call in the presence of conspecific chorus noise. We found that social context and temporal synchrony of multimodal signaling components are important for multimodal communication. Our results demonstrate that multimodal signals have the potential to increase the complexity of the sensory scene and reduce the efficacy of female decision making.

Proposing a neural framework for the evolution of elaborate courtship displays

In many vertebrates, courtship occurs through the performance of elaborate behavioral displays that are as spectacular as they are complex. The question of how sexual selection acts upon these animals' neuromuscular systems to transform a repertoire of pre-existing movements into such remarkable (if not unusual) display routines has received relatively little research attention. This is a surprising gap in knowledge, given that unraveling this extraordinary process is central to understanding the evolution of behavioral diversity and its neural control. In many vertebrates, courtship displays often push the limits of neuromuscular performance, and often in a ritualized manner. These displays can range from songs that require rapid switching between two independently controlled 'voice boxes' to precisely choreographed acrobatics. Here, we propose a framework for thinking about how the brain might not only control these displays, but also shape their evolution. Our framework focuses specifically on a major midbrain area, which we view as a likely important node in the orchestration of the complex neural control of behavior used in the courtship process. This area is the periaqueductal grey (PAG), as studies suggest that it is both necessary and sufficient for the production of many instinctive survival behaviors, including courtship vocalizations. Thus, we speculate about why the PAG, as well as its key inputs, might serve as targets of sexual selection for display behavior. In doing so, we attempt to combine core ideas about the neural control of behavior with principles of display evolution. Our intent is to spur research in this area and bring together neurobiologists and behavioral ecologists to more fully understand the role that the brain might play in behavioral innovation and diversification.

A global analysis of aerial displays in passerines revealed an effect of habitat, mating system and migratory traits

Aerial displaying is a flamboyant part of the sexual behaviour of several volant animal groups, including birds. Nevertheless, little attention has been focused on identifying correlates of large-scale diversity in this trait. In this study, we scored the presence and absence of aerial displays in males of 1732 species of passerine birds (Passeriformes) and employed Bayesian phylogenetically informed mixed models to test for associations between aerial displays and a set of life-history and environmental predictors. Our multi-variate models revealed that species with males that perform aerial displays inhabited open rather than closed (forested) habitats. These species also exhibited higher levels of polygyny, had more elongated wings, migrated over longer distances and bred at higher latitudes. When we included species where the sexual function of displays has not been explicitly described but is likely to occur, we found that aerial displaying was also associated with smaller body size and increased male plumage coloration. Our results suggest that both sexual selection and natural selection have been important sources of selection on aerial displays in passerines.

Bio-inspired shape-memory structural color hydrogel film

Structural colors, derived from existing natural creatures, have aroused widespread attention in the materials regulation for different applications. Here, inspired by the color adjusting mechanism of hummingbird, we present a novel shape-memory structural color hydrogel film by introducing shape memory polymers (SMPs) into synthetic inverse opal scaffold structure. The excellent flexibility as well as the inverse opal structure of the hydrogel films imparts them with stable stretchability and brilliant structural colors. Benefiting from the transient structural anisotropy of copolymers, the hybrid films are possessed with shape-morphing behaviors capability. Based on the shape transformations and color responsiveness performance, we have demonstrated diverse structural color actuators with complex shapes for different tasks. Notably, as the photothermal responsive graphene quantum dots were integrated into the hydrogel, the hybrid films could also be endowed with the feature of light-controlled reversible deformation with synchronous structural color variation. These features demonstrate that the presented shape-memory structural color hydrogel film is valuable for soft robotics with multi-functions of sensing, communication and disguise.

Multilevel rhythms in multimodal communication

It is now widely accepted that the brunt of animal communication is conducted via several modalities, e.g. acoustic and visual, either simultaneously or sequentially. This is a laudable multimodal turn relative to traditional accounts of temporal aspects of animal communication which have focused on a single modality at a time. However, the fields that are currently contributing to the study of multimodal communication are highly varied, and still largely disconnected given their sole focus on a particular level of description or their particular concern with human or non-human animals. Here, we provide an integrative overview of converging findings that show how multimodal processes occurring at neural, bodily, as well as social interactional levels each contribute uniquely to the complex rhythms that characterize communication in human and non-human animals. Though we address findings for each of these levels independently, we conclude that the most important challenge in this field is to identify how processes at these different levels connect. This article is part of the theme issue 'Synchrony and rhythm interaction: from the brain to behavioural ecology'.

Feather iridescence of Coeligena hummingbird species varies due to differently organized barbs and barbules

Hummingbirds are perhaps the most exquisite bird species because of their prominent iridescence, created by stacks of melanosomes in the feather barbules. The feather colours crucially depend on the nanoscopic dimensions of the melanosome, and the displayed iridescence can distinctly vary, dependent on the spatial organization of the barbs and barbules. We have taken the genus Coeligena as a model group, with species having feathers that strongly vary in their spatial reflection properties. We studied the feather morphology and the optical characteristics. We found that the coloration of Coeligena hummingbirds depends on both the Venetian-blind-like arrangement of the barbules and the V-shaped, angular arrangement of the barbules at opposite sides of the barbs. Both the nanoscopic and microscopic organization of the hummingbird feather components determine the bird's macroscopic appearance.

Motion: enhancing signals and concealing cues

Animal colour patterns remain a lively focus of evolutionary and behavioural ecology, despite the considerable conceptual and technical developments over the last four decades. Nevertheless, our current understanding of the function and efficacy of animal colour patterns remains largely shaped by a focus on stationary animals, typically in a static background. Yet, this rarely reflects the natural world: most animals are mobile in their search for food and mates, and their surrounding environment is usually dynamic. Thus, visual signalling involves not only animal colour patterns, but also the patterns of animal motion and behaviour, often in the context of a potentially dynamic background. While motion can reveal information about the signaller by attracting attention or revealing signaller attributes, motion can also be a means of concealing cues, by reducing the likelihood of detection (motion camouflage, motion masquerade and flicker-fusion effect) or the likelihood of capture following detection (motion dazzle and confusion effect). The interaction between the colour patterns of the animal and its local environment is further affected by the behaviour of the individual. Our review details how motion is intricately linked to signalling and suggests some avenues for future research.

This Review has an associated Future Leader to Watch interview with the first author.

Summary: While motion can reveal information about the signaller, motion can also be a means of concealing cues by reducing the likelihood of detection or the likelihood of capture following detection.

Spatio-Temporal Dynamics in Animal Communication: A Special Issue Arising from a Unique Workshop-Symposium Model

Investigating how animals navigate space and time is key to understanding communication. Small differences in spatial positioning or timing can mean the difference between a message received and a missed connection. However, these spatio-temporal dynamics are often overlooked or are subject to simplifying assumptions in investigations of animal signaling. This special issue addresses this significant knowledge gap by integrating work from researchers with disciplinary backgrounds in neuroscience, cognitive ecology, sensory ecology, computer science, evolutionary biology, animal behavior, and philosophy. This introduction to the special issue outlines the novel questions and approaches that will advance our understanding of spatio-temporal dynamics of animal communication. We highlight papers that consider the evolution of spatiotemporal dynamics of behavior across sensory modalities and social contexts. We summarize contributions that address the neural and physiological mechanisms in senders and receivers that shape communication. We then turn to papers that introduce cutting edge technologies that will revolutionize our ability to track spatio-temporal dynamics of individuals during social encounters. The interdisciplinary collaborations that gave rise to these papers emerged in part from a novel workshop-symposium model, which we briefly summarize for those interested in fostering syntheses across disciplines.

Bioinspired Color Switchable Photonic Crystal Silicone Elastomer Kirigami

Bioinspired dynamic structural color has great potential for use in dynamic displays, sensors, cryptography, and camouflage. However, it is quite rare for artificial structural color devices to withstand thousands of cycles. Male hummingbird's crowns and gorgets are brightly colored, demonstrating frequent color switching that is induced by regulating the orientation of the feathers through movement of skin or joints. Inspired by this unique structural color modulation, we demonstrate a flexible, mechanically triggered color switchable sheet based on a photonic crystal (PhC)-coated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) kirigami (PhC-PDMS kirigami) made by laser cutting. Finite element modeling (FEM) simulation reveals that the thickness of PDMS kirigami and the chamfer at the incision induced by laser cutting both dominate the out-of-plane deformation through in-plane stretching. The bioinspired PhC-PDMS kirigami shows precisely programmable structural color and keeps the color very well after recycling over 10 000 times. This bioinspired PhC-PDMS kirigami also shows excellent viewability even in bright sunlight, high readability, robust functionality, technical flexibility, and mechanical durability, which are readily exploitable for applications, such as chromic mechanical monitors for the sports industry or for medical applications, wearable camouflage, and security systems.

Covariation among multimodal components in the courtship display of the túngara frog

Communication systems often include a variety of components, including those that span modalities, which may facilitate detection and decision-making. For example, female túngara frogs and fringe-lipped bats generally rely on acoustic mating signals to find male túngara frogs in a mating or foraging context, respectively. However, two additional cues (vocal sac inflation and water ripples) can enhance detection and choice behavior. To date, we do not know the natural variation and covariation of these three components. To address this, we made detailed recordings of calling males, including call amplitude, vocal sac volume and water ripple height, in 54 frogs (2430 calls). We found that all three measures correlated, with the strongest association between the vocal sac volume and call amplitude. We also found that multimodal models predicted the mass of calling males better than unimodal models. These results demonstrate how multimodal components of a communication system relate to each other and provide an important foundation for future studies on how receivers integrate and compare complex displays.

How signaling geometry shapes the efficacy and evolution of animal communication systems

Animal communication is inherently spatial. Both signal transmission and signal reception have spatial biases-involving direction, distance and position-that interact to determine signaling efficacy. Signals, be they visual, acoustic, or chemical, are often highly directional. Likewise, receivers may only be able to detect signals if they arrive from certain directions. Alignment between these directional biases is therefore critical for effective communication, with even slight misalignments disrupting perception of signaled information. In addition, signals often degrade as they travel from signaler to receiver, and environmental conditions that impact transmission can vary over even small spatiotemporal scales. Thus, how animals position themselves during communication is likely to be under strong selection. Despite this, our knowledge regarding the spatial arrangements of signalers and receivers during communication remains surprisingly coarse for most systems. We know even less about how signaler and receiver behaviors contribute to effective signaling alignment over time, or how signals themselves may have evolved to influence and/or respond to these aspects of animal communication. Here, we first describe why researchers should adopt a more explicitly geometric view of animal signaling, including issues of location, direction, and distance. We then describe how environmental and social influences introduce further complexities to the geometry of signaling. We discuss how multimodality offers new challenges and opportunities for signalers and receivers. We conclude with recommendations and future directions made visible by attention to the geometry of signaling.

Three-dimensional measurements of animal paths using handheld unconstrained GoPro cameras and VSLAM software

I present the system PATMOS (paths and tessellated meshes from ORB_SLAM2) for measuring three-dimensional paths of animalsin situusing two handheld GoPro cameras and a small spatial reference object. Animal paths were triangulated from mobile camera positions obtained from a modified version of ORB_SLAM2, an open-source visual simultaneous localization and mapping software package. In addition to path calculation, this process provided a virtual three-dimensional surface approximation to the environment from which path to environment distances can be quantified. PATMOS can also fit a tranquil water's surface to an analytic plane if there are a sufficient number of visible objects intersecting the water's surface and can track objects over the water's surfaces with a single camera by measuring the object with its reflection. This technology was highly portable, could follow moving animals, and gave comparable spatial and temporal resolutions to fixed camera systems that use commercial cameras. An investigation of falling objects yielded a gravitational constant measurement of 978 ± 40 cm s^-2. I demonstrated PATMOS's utility in terrestrial and aquatic environments by quantifying dragonfly flight characteristics and the inter-spatial distances between substrate and damselfish.

Effects of timing and magnitude of wing stroke-plane tilt on the escape maneuverability of flapping wing

Hummingbirds perform a variety of agile maneuvers, and one of them is the escape maneuver, in which the birds can steer away from threats using only 3-4 wingbeats in less than 150 ms. A distinct kinematic feature that enables the escape maneuver is the rapid backward tilt of the wing stroke plane at the beginning of the maneuver. This feature results in a simultaneous nose-up pitching and backward acceleration. In this work, we investigated how the magnitude and timing of the wing stroke-plane tilt (relative to the phase of flapping cycle) affected the generation of backward thrust, lift, and pitching moment and therefore the maneuverability of escape flight. Investigations were performed using experiments on dynamically scaled robotic wings and computational fluid dynamic simulation based on a simplified harmonic wing stroke and rotation kinematics at Re = 1000 and hummingbird wing kinematics at Re ≈ 10 000. Results showed that the wing stroke-plane tilt timing exerted a strong influence on the aerodynamic force generation. Independent of the tilt magnitude, the averaged backward thrust and pitching moment were maximized when the stroke plane tilt occurred near the end of the half strokes (e.g., upstroke and downstroke). Relative to the other timings of stroke-plane tilt, the 'optimal' timings led to a maximal backward tilt of the total aerodynamic force during the wing upstroke; hence, the backward thrust and nose-up pitching moment increased. The 'optimal' timings found in this work were in good agreement with those identified in the escape maneuvers of four species of hummingbirds. Therefore, hummingbirds may use a similar strategy in the beginning of their escape maneuver.

The Paradox of Iridescent Signals

Signals reliably convey information to a receiver. To be reliable, differences between individuals in signal properties must be consistent and easily perceived and evaluated by receivers. Iridescent objects are often striking and vivid, but their appearance can change dramatically with viewing geometry and illumination. The changeable nature of iridescent surfaces creates a paradox: how can they be reliable signals? We contend that iridescent color patches can be reliable signals only if accompanied by specific adaptations to enhance reliability, such as structures and behaviors that limit perceived hue shift or enhance and control directionality. We highlight the challenges of studying iridescence and key considerations for the evaluation of its adaptive significance.

Tap dancers in the wild: field observations of multimodal courtship displays in socially monogamous songbirds

Multimodal signaling systems are shaped not only by a signaler’s physical abilities but also by external factors such as the position of signal receivers and the properties of the medium through which the signals are transmitted. To fully understand the evolution and function of multimodal communication, it is essential to investigate the behavior in the wild. Here, I present evidence that socially monogamous songbirds perform complex courtship displays that can produce multimodal and multicomponent signals in wild conditions. Cordon-bleus (Uraeginthus spp.) are socially monogamous songbirds from East Africa. Both sexes of cordon-bleus perform multimodal courtship displays by holding a piece of nest material, bobbing up and down, and singing. My previous laboratory study using high-speed video cameras revealed that courtship bobbing includes multiple rapid steps similar to human tap-dancing, which presumably contributes to producing non-vocal sounds and/or vibrations in addition to visual signals. As a result of field observation and behavioral analysis, I found that wild cordon-bleus perform tap-dance like displays just as captive cordon-bleus. I also observed that wild cordon-bleus produced non-vocal sounds and shook branches during courtship, which can contribute to multimodal signal production (i.e., visual, acoustic, and vibrational signals). My findings imply that the courtship displays of cordon-bleus are an ideal candidate for investigating the role and function of multimodal communication in animals, and demonstrate the importance of further quantitative studies in both laboratory and field.

High-frequency hearing in a hummingbird

Some hummingbirds produce unique high-frequency vocalizations. It remains unknown whether these hummingbirds can hear these sounds, which are produced at frequencies beyond the range at which most birds can hear. Here, we show behavioral and neural evidence of high-frequency hearing in a hummingbird, the Ecuadorian Hillstar (Oreotrochilus chimborazo). In the field, hummingbirds responded to playback of high-frequency song with changes in body posture and approaching behavior. We assessed neural activation by inducing ZENK expression in the brain auditory areas in response to the high-frequency song. We found higher ZENK expression in the auditory regions of hummingbirds exposed to the high-frequency song compared to controls, while no difference was observed in the hippocampus between groups. The behavioral and neural responses show that this hummingbird can hear sounds at high frequencies. This is the first evidence of the use of high-frequency vocalizations and high-frequency hearing in conspecific communication in a bird.

Wild hummingbirds discriminate nonspectral colors

Many animals have the potential to discriminate nonspectral colors. For humans, purple is the clearest example of a nonspectral color. It is perceived when two color cone types in the retina (blue and red) with nonadjacent spectral sensitivity curves are predominantly stimulated. Purple is considered nonspectral because no monochromatic light (such as from a rainbow) can evoke this simultaneous stimulation. Except in primates and bees, few behavioral experiments have directly examined nonspectral color discrimination, and little is known about nonspectral color perception in animals with more than three types of color photoreceptors. Birds have four color cone types (compared to three in humans) and might perceive additional nonspectral colors such as UV+red and UV+green. Can birds discriminate nonspectral colors, and are these colors behaviorally and ecologically relevant? Here, using comprehensive behavioral experiments, we show that wild hummingbirds can discriminate a variety of nonspectral colors. We also show that hummingbirds, relative to humans, likely perceive a greater proportion of natural colors as nonspectral. Our analysis of plumage and plant spectra reveals many colors that would be perceived as nonspectral by birds but not by humans: Birds' extra cone type allows them not just to see UV light but also to discriminate additional nonspectral colors. Our results support the idea that birds can distinguish colors throughout tetrachromatic color space and indicate that nonspectral color perception is vital for signaling and foraging. Since tetrachromacy appears to have evolved early in vertebrates, this capacity for rich nonspectral color perception is likely widespread.

Structural colours reflect individual quality: a meta-analysis

Colourful ornaments often communicate salient information to mates, and theory predicts covariance between signal expression and individual quality. This has borne out among pigment-based signals, but the potential for 'honesty' in structural coloration is unresolved. Here, I synthesized the available evidence to test this prediction via meta-analysis and found that, overall, the expression of structurally coloured sexual signals is positively associated with individual quality. The effects varied by the measure of quality, however, with body condition and immune function reliably encoded across taxa, but not age nor parasite resistance. The relationship was apparent for both the colour and brightness of signals and was slightly stronger for iridescent ornaments. These results suggest diverse pathways to the encoding and exchange of information among structural colours while highlighting outstanding questions as to the development, visual ecology and evolution of this striking adornment.

Glucocorticoids, male sexual signals, and mate choice by females: Implications for sexual selection

We review work relating glucocorticoids (GCs), male sexual signals, and mate choice by females to understand the potential for GCs to modulate the expression of sexually selected traits and how sexual selection potentially feeds back on GC regulation. Our review reveals that the relationship between GC concentrations and the quality of male sexual traits is mixed, regardless of whether studies focused on structural traits (e.g., coloration) or behavioral traits (e.g., vocalizations) or were examined in developmental or activational frameworks. In contrast, the few mate choice experiments that have been done consistently show that females prefer males with low GCs, suggesting that mate choice by females favors males that maintain low levels of GCs. We point out, however, that just as sexual selection can drive the evolution of diverse reproductive strategies, it may also promote diversity in GC regulation. We then shift the focus to females where we highlight evidence indicating that stressors or high GCs can dampen female sexual proceptivity and the strength of preferences for male courtship signals. Hence, even in cases where GCs are tightly coupled with male sexual signals, the strength of sexual selection on aspects of GC physiology can vary depending on the endocrine status of females. Studies examining how GCs relate to sexual selection may shed light on how variation in stress physiology, sexual signals, and mate choice are maintained in natural populations and may be important in understanding context-dependent relationships between GC regulation and fitness.