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Ostovar G, Boedicker JQ. Phenotypic memory in quorum sensing. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011696. [PMID: 38976753 PMCID: PMC11257393 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Quorum sensing (QS) is a regulatory mechanism used by bacteria to coordinate group behavior in response to high cell densities. During QS, cells monitor the concentration of external signals, known as autoinducers, as a proxy for cell density. QS often involves positive feedback loops, leading to the upregulation of genes associated with QS signal production and detection. This results in distinct steady-state concentrations of QS-related molecules in QS-ON and QS-OFF states. Due to the slow decay rates of biomolecules such as proteins, even after removal of the initial stimuli, cells can retain elevated levels of QS-associated biomolecules for extended periods of time. This persistence of biomolecules after the removal of the initial stimuli has the potential to impact the response to future stimuli, indicating a memory of past exposure. This phenomenon, which is a consequence of the carry-over of biomolecules rather than genetic inheritance, is known as "phenotypic" memory. This theoretical study aims to investigate the presence of phenotypic memory in QS and the conditions that influence this memory. Numerical simulations based on ordinary differential equations and analytical modeling were used to study gene expression in response to sudden changes in cell density and extracellular signal concentrations. The model examined the effect of various cellular parameters on the strength of QS memory and the impact on gene regulatory dynamics. The findings revealed that QS memory has a transient effect on the expression of QS-responsive genes. These consequences of QS memory depend strongly on how cell density was perturbed, as well as various cellular parameters, including the Fold Change in the expression of QS-regulated genes, the autoinducer synthesis rate, the autoinducer threshold required for activation, and the cell growth rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazaleh Ostovar
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - James Q. Boedicker
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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2
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Fung T, Pande J, Shnerb NM, O'Dwyer JP, Chisholm RA. Processes governing species richness in communities exposed to temporal environmental stochasticity: A review and synthesis of modelling approaches. Math Biosci 2024; 369:109131. [PMID: 38113973 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2023.109131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Research into the processes governing species richness has often assumed that the environment is fixed, whereas realistic environments are often characterised by random fluctuations over time. This temporal environmental stochasticity (TES) changes the demographic rates of species populations, with cascading effects on community dynamics and species richness. Theoretical and applied studies have used process-based mathematical models to determine how TES affects species richness, but under a variety of frameworks. Here, we critically review such studies to synthesise their findings and draw general conclusions. We first provide a broad mathematical framework encompassing the different ways in which TES has been modelled. We then review studies that have analysed models with TES under the assumption of negligible interspecific interactions, such that a community is conceptualised as the sum of independent species populations. These analyses have highlighted how TES can reduce species richness by increasing the frequency at which a species becomes rare and therefore prone to extinction. Next, we review studies that have relaxed the assumption of negligible interspecific interactions. To simplify the corresponding models and make them analytically tractable, such studies have used mean-field theory to derive fixed parameters representing the typical strength of interspecific interactions under TES. The resulting analyses have highlighted community-level effects that determine how TES affects species richness, for species that compete for a common limiting resource. With short temporal correlations of environmental conditions, a non-linear averaging effect of interspecific competition strength over time gives an increase in species richness. In contrast, with long temporal correlations of environmental conditions, strong selection favouring the fittest species between changes in environmental conditions results in a decrease in species richness. We compare such results with those from invasion analysis, which examines invasion growth rates (IGRs) instead of species richness directly. Qualitative differences sometimes arise because the IGR is the expected growth rate of a species when it is rare, which does not capture the variation around this mean or the probability of the species becoming rare. Our review elucidates key processes that have been found to mediate the negative and positive effects of TES on species richness, and by doing so highlights key areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tak Fung
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117558, Singapore.
| | - Jayant Pande
- Department of Physical and Natural Sciences, FLAME University, Pune, Maharashtra 412115, India
| | - Nadav M Shnerb
- Department of Physics, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel
| | - James P O'Dwyer
- Department of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, 505, South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Ryan A Chisholm
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117558, Singapore
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3
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Marrec L, Bank C. Evolutionary rescue in a fluctuating environment: periodic versus quasi-periodic environmental changes. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230770. [PMID: 37253425 PMCID: PMC10229231 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
No environment is constant over time, and environmental fluctuations impact the outcome of evolutionary dynamics. Survival of a population not adapted to some environmental conditions is threatened unless, for example, a mutation rescues it, an eco-evolutionary process termed evolutionary rescue. We here investigate evolutionary rescue in an environment that fluctuates between a favourable state, in which the population grows, and a harsh state, in which the population declines. We develop a stochastic model that includes both population dynamics and genetics. We derive analytical predictions for the mean extinction time of a non-adapted population given that it is not rescued, the probability of rescue by a mutation, and the mean appearance time of a rescue mutant, which we validate using numerical simulations. We find that stochastic environmental fluctuations, resulting in quasi-periodic environmental changes, accelerate extinction and hinder evolutionary rescue compared with deterministic environmental fluctuations, resulting in periodic environmental changes. We demonstrate that high equilibrium population sizes and per capita growth rates maximize the chances of evolutionary rescue. We show that an imperfectly harsh environment, which does not fully prevent births but makes the death rate to birth rate ratio much greater than unity, has almost the same rescue probability as a perfectly harsh environment, which fully prevents births. Finally, we put our results in the context of antimicrobial resistance and conservation biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Marrec
- Institut für Ökologie und Evolution, Universität Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Bank
- Institut für Ökologie und Evolution, Universität Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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4
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Law L, Xue B. Internal cues for optimizing reproduction in a varying environment. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230096. [PMID: 37072039 PMCID: PMC10113029 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In varying environments, it is beneficial for organisms to utilize available cues to infer the conditions they may encounter and express potentially favourable traits. However, external cues can be unreliable or too costly to use. We consider an alternative strategy where organisms exploit internal sources of information. Even without sensing environmental cues, their internal states may become correlated with the environment as a result of selection, which then form a memory that helps predict future conditions. To demonstrate the adaptive value of such internal cues in varying environments, we revisit the classic example of seed dormancy in annual plants. Previous studies have considered the germination fraction of seeds and its dependence on environmental cues. In contrast, we consider a model of germination fraction that depends on the seed age, which is an internal state that can serve as a memory. We show that, if the environmental variation has temporal structure, then age-dependent germination fractions will allow the population to have an increased long-term growth rate. The more the organisms can remember through their internal states, the higher the growth rate a population can potentially achieve. Our results suggest experimental ways to infer internal memory and its benefit for adaptation in varying environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo Law
- Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - BingKan Xue
- Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Institute for Fundamental Theory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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5
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Virmani R, Pradhan P, Joshi J, Wang AL, Joshi HC, Sajid A, Singh A, Sharma V, Kundu B, Blankenberg D, Molle V, Singh Y, Arora G. Phosphorylation-mediated regulation of the Bacillus anthracis phosphoglycerate mutase by the Ser/Thr protein kinase PrkC. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 665:88-97. [PMID: 37149987 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis Ser/Thr protein kinase PrkC is necessary for phenotypic memory and spore germination, and the loss of PrkC-dependent phosphorylation events affect the spore development. During sporulation, Bacillus sp. can store 3-Phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) that will be required at the onset of germination when ATP will be necessary. The Phosphoglycerate mutase (Pgm) catalyzes the isomerization of 2-PGA and 3-PGA and is important for spore germination as a key metabolic enzyme that maintains 3-PGA pool at later events. Therefore, regulation of Pgm is important for an efficient spore germination process and metabolic switching. While the increased expression of Pgm in B. anthracis decreases spore germination efficiency, it remains unexplored if PrkC could directly influence Pgm activity. Here, we report the phosphorylation and regulation of Pgm by PrkC and its impact on Pgm stability and catalytic activity. Mass spectrometry revealed Pgm phosphorylation on seven threonine residues. In silico mutational analysis highlighted the role of Thr459 residue towards metal and substrate binding. Altogether, we demonstrated that PrkC-mediated Pgm phosphorylation negatively regulates its activity that is essential to maintain Pgm in its apo-like isoform before germination. This study advances the role of Pgm regulation that represents an important switch for B. anthracis resumption of metabolism and spore germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richa Virmani
- Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Prashant Pradhan
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016, India
| | - Jayadev Joshi
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Avril Luyang Wang
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S1A8, Canada
| | | | - Andaleeb Sajid
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Anoop Singh
- Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Vishal Sharma
- Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Bishwajit Kundu
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016, India
| | - Daniel Blankenberg
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Virginie Molle
- Laboratory of Pathogen Host Interactions, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, UMR, 5235, Montpellier, France
| | - Yogendra Singh
- Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India.
| | - Gunjan Arora
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
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Leung C, Guscelli E, Chabot D, Bourret A, Calosi P, Parent GJ. The lack of genetic variation underlying thermal transcriptomic plasticity suggests limited adaptability of the Northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis. Front Ecol Evol 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2023.1125134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionGenetic variation underlies the populations’ potential to adapt to and persist in a changing environment, while phenotypic plasticity can play a key role in buffering the negative impacts of such change at the individual level.MethodsWe investigated the role of genetic variation in the thermal response of the northern shrimp Pandalus borealis, an ectotherm species distributed in the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans. More specifically, we estimated the proportion transcriptomic responses explained by genetic variance of female shrimp from three origins after 30 days of exposure to three temperature treatments.ResultsWe characterized the P. borealis transcriptome (170,377 transcripts, of which 27.48% were functionally annotated) and then detected a total of 1,607 and 907 differentially expressed transcripts between temperatures and origins, respectively. Shrimp from different origins displayed high but similar level of transcriptomic plasticity in response to elevated temperatures. Differences in transcript expression among origins were not correlated to population genetic differentiation or diversity but to environmental conditions at origin during sampling.DiscussionThe lack of genetic variation explaining thermal plasticity suggests limited adaptability in this species’ response to future environmental changes. These results together with higher mortality observed at the highest temperature indicate that the thermal niche of P. borealis will likely be restricted to higher latitudes in the future. This prediction concurs with current decreases in abundance observed at the southern edge of this species geographical distribution, as it is for other cold-adapted crustaceans.
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Rescan M, Leurs N, Grulois D, Chevin L. Experimental evolution of environmental tolerance, acclimation, and physiological plasticity in a randomly fluctuating environment. Evol Lett 2022; 6:522-536. [PMID: 36579167 PMCID: PMC9783450 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental tolerance curves, representing absolute fitness against the environment, are an empirical assessment of the fundamental niche, and emerge from the phenotypic plasticity of underlying phenotypic traits. Dynamic plastic responses of these traits can lead to acclimation effects, whereby recent past environments impact current fitness. Theory predicts that higher levels of phenotypic plasticity should evolve in environments that fluctuate more predictably, but there have been few experimental tests of these predictions. Specifically, we still lack experimental evidence for the evolution of acclimation effects in response to environmental predictability. Here, we exposed 25 genetically diverse populations of the halotolerant microalgae Dunaliella salina to different constant salinities, or to randomly fluctuating salinities, for over 200 generations. The fluctuating treatments differed in their autocorrelation, which determines the similarity of subsequent values, and thus environmental predictability. We then measured acclimated tolerance surfaces, mapping population growth rate against past (acclimation) and current (assay) environments. We found that experimental mean and variance in salinity caused the evolution of niche position (optimal salinity) and breadth, with respect to not only current but also past (acclimation) salinity. We also detected weak but significant evidence for evolutionary changes in response to environmental predictability, with higher predictability leading notably to lower optimal salinities and stronger acclimation effect of past environment on current fitness. We further showed that these responses are related to the evolution of plasticity for intracellular glycerol, the major osmoregulatory mechanism in this species. However, the direction of plasticity evolution did not match simple theoretical predictions. Our results underline the need for a more explicit consideration of the dynamics of environmental tolerance and its underlying plastic traits to reach a better understanding of ecology and evolution in fluctuating environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Rescan
- CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRDMontpellier34090France,Université Perpignan Via Domitia, Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements Méditerranéens, UMR 5110Perpignan66860France,CNRS, Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements Méditerranéens, UMR 5110Perpignan66860France,Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA)Scientific and Technologic Park of the University of GironaEmili Grahit 101GironaGirona17003Spain
| | - Nicolas Leurs
- CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRDMontpellier34090France,ISEM, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, Univ. MontpellierMontpellier34095France
| | - Daphné Grulois
- CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRDMontpellier34090France
| | - Luis‐Miguel Chevin
- CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRDMontpellier34090France
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8
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Halali S, Saastamoinen M. Exploring links between climatic predictability and the evolution of within- and transgenerational plasticity. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9662. [PMID: 36619708 PMCID: PMC9798148 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In variable environments, phenotypic plasticity can increase fitness by providing tight environment-phenotype matching. However, adaptive plasticity is expected to evolve only when the future selective environment can be predicted based on the prevailing conditions. That is, the juvenile environment should be predictive of the adult environment (within-generation plasticity) or the parental environment should be predictive of the offspring environment (transgenerational plasticity). Moreover, the environmental predictability can also shape transient responses such as stress response in an adaptive direction. Here, we test links between environmental predictability and the evolution of adaptive plasticity by combining time series analyses and a common garden experiment using temperature as a stressor in a temperate butterfly (Melitaea cinxia). Time series analyses revealed that across season fluctuations in temperature over 48 years are overall predictable. However, within the growing season, temperature fluctuations showed high heterogeneity across years with low autocorrelations and the timing of temperature peaks were asynchronous. Most life-history traits showed strong within-generation plasticity for temperature and traits such as body size and growth rate broke the temperature-size rule. Evidence for transgenerational plasticity, however, was weak and detected for only two traits each in an adaptive and non-adaptive direction. We suggest that the low predictability of temperature fluctuations within the growing season likely disfavors the evolution of adaptive transgenerational plasticity but instead favors strong within-generation plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sridhar Halali
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Faculty of Biological and Environmental SciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
- Helsinki Institute of Life ScienceUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | - Marjo Saastamoinen
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Faculty of Biological and Environmental SciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
- Helsinki Institute of Life ScienceUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
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9
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March-Salas M, Scheepens JF, van Kleunen M, Fitze PS. Precipitation predictability affects intra- and trans-generational plasticity and causes differential selection on root traits of Papaver rhoeas. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:998169. [PMID: 36452110 PMCID: PMC9703072 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.998169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Climate forecasts show that in many regions the temporal distribution of precipitation events will become less predictable. Root traits may play key roles in dealing with changes in precipitation predictability, but their functional plastic responses, including transgenerational processes, are scarcely known. We investigated root trait plasticity of Papaver rhoeas with respect to higher versus lower intra-seasonal and inter-seasonal precipitation predictability (i.e., the degree of temporal autocorrelation among precipitation events) during a four-year outdoor multi-generation experiment. We first tested how the simulated predictability regimes affected intra-generational plasticity of root traits and allocation strategies of the ancestors, and investigated the selective forces acting on them. Second, we exposed three descendant generations to the same predictability regime experienced by their mothers or to a different one. We then investigated whether high inter-generational predictability causes root trait differentiation, whether transgenerational root plasticity existed and whether it was affected by the different predictability treatments. We found that the number of secondary roots, root biomass and root allocation strategies of ancestors were affected by changes in precipitation predictability, in line with intra-generational plasticity. Lower predictability induced a root response, possibly reflecting a fast-acquisitive strategy that increases water absorbance from shallow soil layers. Ancestors' root traits were generally under selection, and the predictability treatments did neither affect the strength nor the direction of selection. Transgenerational effects were detected in root biomass and root weight ratio (RWR). In presence of lower predictability, descendants significantly reduced RWR compared to ancestors, leading to an increase in performance. This points to a change in root allocation in order to maintain or increase the descendants' fitness. Moreover, transgenerational plasticity existed in maximum rooting depth and root biomass, and the less predictable treatment promoted the lowest coefficient of variation among descendants' treatments in five out of six root traits. This shows that the level of maternal predictability determines the variation in the descendants' responses, and suggests that lower phenotypic plasticity evolves in less predictable environments. Overall, our findings show that roots are functional plastic traits that rapidly respond to differences in precipitation predictability, and that the plasticity and adaptation of root traits may crucially determine how climate change will affect plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martí March-Salas
- Plant Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Biodiversity and Ecologic Restoration, Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología (IPE-CSIC), Jaca, Spain
| | - J. F. Scheepens
- Plant Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Mark van Kleunen
- Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Patrick S. Fitze
- Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Biodiversity and Ecologic Restoration, Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología (IPE-CSIC), Jaca, Spain
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A method to predict the response to directional selection using a Kalman filter. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2117916119. [PMID: 35867739 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2117916119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Predicting evolution remains challenging. The field of quantitative genetics provides predictions for the response to directional selection through the breeder's equation, but these predictions can have errors. The sources of these errors include omission of traits under selection, inaccurate estimates of genetic variance, and nonlinearities in the relationship between genetic and phenotypic variation. Previous research showed that the expected value of these prediction errors is often not zero, so predictions are systematically biased. Here, we propose that this bias, rather than being a nuisance, can be used to improve the predictions. We use this to develop a method to predict evolution, which is built on three key innovations. First, the method predicts change as the breeder's equation plus a bias term. Second, the method combines information from the breeder's equation and from the record of past changes in the mean to predict change using a Kalman filter. Third, the parameters of the filter are fitted in each generation using a learning algorithm on the record of past changes. We compare the method to the breeder's equation in two artificial selection experiments, one using the wing of the fruit fly and another using simulations that include a complex mapping of genotypes to phenotypes. The proposed method outperforms the breeder's equation, particularly when traits under selection are omitted from the analysis, when data are noisy, and when additive genetic variance is estimated inaccurately or not estimated at all. The proposed method is easy to apply, requiring only the trait means over past generations.
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11
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Leung C, Grulois D, Chevin LM. Plasticity across levels: relating epigenomic, transcriptomic, and phenotypic responses to osmotic stress in a halotolerant microalga. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:4672-4687. [PMID: 35593517 PMCID: PMC9543585 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a given genotype to produce alternative phenotypes in response to its environment of development, is an important mechanism for coping with variable environments. While the mechanisms underlying phenotypic plasticity are diverse, their relative contributions need to be investigated quantitatively to better understand the evolvability of plasticity across biological levels. This requires relating plastic responses of the epigenome, transcriptome, and organismal phenotype, and investigating how they vary with the genotype. Here we carried out this approach for responses to osmotic stress in Dunaliella salina, a green microalga that is a model organism for salinity tolerance. We compared two strains that show markedly different demographic responses to osmotic stress, and showed that these phenotypic responses involve strain‐ and environment‐specific variation in gene expression levels, but a relative low—albeit significant—effect of strain × environment interaction. We also found an important genotype effect on the genome‐wide methylation pattern, but little contribution from environmental conditions to the latter. However, we did detect a significant marginal effect of epigenetic variation on gene expression, beyond the influence of genetic differences on epigenetic state, and we showed that hypomethylated regions are correlated with higher gene expression. Our results indicate that epigenetic mechanisms are either not involved in the rapid plastic response to environmental change in this species, or involve only few changes in trans that are sufficient to trigger concerted changes in the expression of many genes, and phenotypic responses by multiple traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Leung
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Daphné Grulois
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
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12
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Benning JW, Hufbauer RA, Weiss-Lehman C. Increasing temporal variance leads to stable species range limits. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220202. [PMID: 35538777 PMCID: PMC9091838 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
What prevents populations of a species from adapting to the novel environments outside the species' geographic distribution? Previous models highlighted how gene flow across spatial environmental gradients determines species expansion versus extinction and the location of species range limits. However, space is only one of two axes of environmental variation-environments also vary in time, and we know temporal environmental variation has important consequences for population demography and evolution. We used analytical and individual-based evolutionary models to explore how temporal variation in environmental conditions influences the spread of populations across a spatial environmental gradient. We find that temporal variation greatly alters our predictions for range dynamics compared to temporally static environments. When temporal variance is equal across the landscape, the fate of species (expansion versus extinction) is determined by the interaction between the degree of temporal autocorrelation in environmental fluctuations and the steepness of the spatial environmental gradient. When the magnitude of temporal variance changes across the landscape, stable range limits form where this variance increases maladaptation sufficiently to prevent local persistence. These results illustrate the pivotal influence of temporal variation on the likelihood of populations colonizing novel habitats and the location of species range limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W. Benning
- Department of Botany, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Ruth A. Hufbauer
- Department of Agricultural Biology and Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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13
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Gill RL, Collins S, Argyle PA, Larsson ME, Fleck R, Doblin MA. Predictability of thermal fluctuations influences functional traits of a cosmopolitan marine diatom. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212581. [PMID: 35473374 PMCID: PMC9043731 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary theory predicts that organismal plasticity should evolve in environments that fluctuate regularly. However, in environments that fluctuate less predictably, plasticity may be constrained because environmental cues become less reliable for expressing the optimum phenotype. Here, we examine how the predictability of +5°C temperature fluctuations impacts the phenotype of the marine diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. Thermal regimes were informed by temperatures experienced by microbes in an ocean simulation and featured regular or irregular temporal sequences of fluctuations that induced mild physiological stress. Physiological traits (growth, cell size, complexity and pigmentation) were quantified at the individual cell level using flow cytometry. Changes in cellular complexity emerged as the first impact of predictability after only 8–11 days, followed by deleterious impacts on growth on days 13–16. Specifically, cells with a history of irregular fluctuation exposure exhibited a 50% reduction in growth compared with the stable reference environment, while growth was 3–18 times higher when fluctuations were regular. We observed no evidence of heat hardening (increasingly positive growth) with recurrent fluctuations. This study demonstrates that unpredictable temperature fluctuations impact this cosmopolitan diatom under ecologically relevant time frames, suggesting shifts in environmental stochasticity under a changing climate could have widespread consequences among ocean primary producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raissa L Gill
- Climate Change Cluster, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sinead Collins
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, EH8 9YL, UK
| | - Phoebe A Argyle
- Climate Change Cluster, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Michaela E Larsson
- Climate Change Cluster, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Robert Fleck
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Martina A Doblin
- Climate Change Cluster, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Mosman, NSW, Australia
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14
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Jenouvrier S, Long MC, Coste CFD, Holland M, Gamelon M, Yoccoz NG, Sæther B. Detecting climate signals in populations across life histories. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2022; 28:2236-2258. [PMID: 34931401 PMCID: PMC9303565 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Climate impacts are not always easily discerned in wild populations as detecting climate change signals in populations is challenged by stochastic noise associated with natural climate variability, variability in biotic and abiotic processes, and observation error in demographic rates. Detection of the impact of climate change on populations requires making a formal distinction between signals in the population associated with long-term climate trends from those generated by stochastic noise. The time of emergence (ToE) identifies when the signal of anthropogenic climate change can be quantitatively distinguished from natural climate variability. This concept has been applied extensively in the climate sciences, but has not been explored in the context of population dynamics. Here, we outline an approach to detecting climate-driven signals in populations based on an assessment of when climate change drives population dynamics beyond the envelope characteristic of stochastic variations in an unperturbed state. Specifically, we present a theoretical assessment of the time of emergence of climate-driven signals in population dynamics ( ToE pop ). We identify the dependence of ToE pop on the magnitude of both trends and variability in climate and also explore the effect of intrinsic demographic controls on ToE pop . We demonstrate that different life histories (fast species vs. slow species), demographic processes (survival, reproduction), and the relationships between climate and demographic rates yield population dynamics that filter climate trends and variability differently. We illustrate empirically how to detect the point in time when anthropogenic signals in populations emerge from stochastic noise for a species threatened by climate change: the emperor penguin. Finally, we propose six testable hypotheses and a road map for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Jenouvrier
- Biology DepartmentWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleMassachusettsUSA
| | | | - Christophe F. D. Coste
- Centre for Biodiversity DynamicsDepartment of BiologyNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
| | - Marika Holland
- National Center for Atmospheric ResearchBoulderColoradoUSA
| | - Marlène Gamelon
- Centre for Biodiversity DynamicsDepartment of BiologyNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie ÉvolutiveCNRSUnité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5558Université Lyon 1Université de LyonVilleurbanneFrance
| | - Nigel G. Yoccoz
- Department of Arctic and Marine BiologyUiT The Arctic University of NorwayTromsøNorway
| | - Bernt‐Erik Sæther
- Centre for Biodiversity DynamicsDepartment of BiologyNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
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15
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Yin J, Lin X, Yao J, Li QQ, Zhang Y. Genotypic variation of transgenerational plasticity can be explained by environmental predictability at origins. OIKOS 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.09006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Yin
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Xiamen Fujian China
| | - Xiaohe Lin
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Xiamen Fujian China
| | - Jing Yao
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Xiamen Fujian China
| | - Qingshun Q. Li
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Xiamen Fujian China
- Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western Univ. of Health Sciences Pomona CA USA
| | - Yuan‐Ye Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Xiamen Fujian China
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16
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Bitter MC, Wong JM, Dam HG, Donelan SC, Kenkel CD, Komoroske LM, Nickols KJ, Rivest EB, Salinas S, Burgess SC, Lotterhos KE. Fluctuating selection and global change: a synthesis and review on disentangling the roles of climate amplitude, predictability and novelty. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210727. [PMID: 34428970 PMCID: PMC8385344 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A formidable challenge for global change biologists is to predict how natural populations will respond to the emergence of conditions not observed at present, termed novel climates. Popular approaches to predict population vulnerability are based on the expected degree of novelty relative to the amplitude of historical climate fluctuations experienced by a population. Here, we argue that predictions focused on amplitude may be inaccurate because they ignore the predictability of environmental fluctuations in driving patterns of evolution and responses to climate change. To address this disconnect, we review major findings of evolutionary theory demonstrating the conditions under which phenotypic plasticity is likely to evolve in natural populations, and how plasticity decreases population vulnerability to novel environments. We outline key criteria that experimental studies should aim for to effectively test theoretical predictions, while controlling for the degree of climate novelty. We show that such targeted tests of evolutionary theory are rare, with marine systems being overall underrepresented in this venture despite exhibiting unique opportunities to test theory. We conclude that with more robust experimental designs that manipulate both the amplitude and predictability of fluctuations, while controlling for the degree of novelty, we may better predict population vulnerability to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. C. Bitter
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - J. M. Wong
- Environmental Epigenetics Laboratory, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
| | - H. G. Dam
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut Groton, CT, USA
| | - S. C. Donelan
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
| | - C. D. Kenkel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - L. M. Komoroske
- Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - K. J. Nickols
- Department of Biology, California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA, USA
| | - E. B. Rivest
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - S. Salinas
- Department of Biology, Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
| | - S. C. Burgess
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - K. E. Lotterhos
- Northeastern University Marine Science Center, Nahant, MA, USA
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17
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Fey SB, Kremer CT, Layden TJ, Vasseur DA. Resolving the consequences of gradual phenotypic plasticity for populations in variable environments. ECOL MONOGR 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecm.1478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel B. Fey
- Department of Biology Reed College Portland Oregon 97202 USA
| | - Colin T. Kremer
- W.K. Kellogg Biological Station Michigan State University Hickory Corners Michigan 49060 USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles California 90096 USA
| | | | - David A. Vasseur
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Yale University 165 Prospect Street New Haven Connecticut 06520 USA
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18
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Rescan M, Grulois D, Aboud EO, de Villemereuil P, Chevin LM. Predicting population genetic change in an autocorrelated random environment: Insights from a large automated experiment. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009611. [PMID: 34161327 PMCID: PMC8259966 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Most natural environments exhibit a substantial component of random variation, with a degree of temporal autocorrelation that defines the color of environmental noise. Such environmental fluctuations cause random fluctuations in natural selection, affecting the predictability of evolution. But despite long-standing theoretical interest in population genetics in stochastic environments, there is a dearth of empirical estimation of underlying parameters of this theory. More importantly, it is still an open question whether evolution in fluctuating environments can be predicted indirectly using simpler measures, which combine environmental time series with population estimates in constant environments. Here we address these questions by using an automated experimental evolution approach. We used a liquid-handling robot to expose over a hundred lines of the micro-alga Dunaliella salina to randomly fluctuating salinity over a continuous range, with controlled mean, variance, and autocorrelation. We then tracked the frequencies of two competing strains through amplicon sequencing of nuclear and choloroplastic barcode sequences. We show that the magnitude of environmental fluctuations (determined by their variance), but also their predictability (determined by their autocorrelation), had large impacts on the average selection coefficient. The variance in frequency change, which quantifies randomness in population genetics, was substantially higher in a fluctuating environment. The reaction norm of selection coefficients against constant salinity yielded accurate predictions for the mean selection coefficient in a fluctuating environment. This selection reaction norm was in turn well predicted by environmental tolerance curves, with population growth rate against salinity. However, both the selection reaction norm and tolerance curves underestimated the variance in selection caused by random environmental fluctuations. Overall, our results provide exceptional insights into the prospects for understanding and predicting genetic evolution in randomly fluctuating environments. Being able to predict evolution under natural selection is important for many applied fields of biology, ranging from agriculture to medicine or conservation. However, this endeavor is complicated by factors that inherently limit our ability to predict the future, such as random fluctuations in the environment. Population genetic theory indicates that probabilistic predictions can still be made in this context, but the extent to which this holds empirically, and whether these predictions can be based on simple measurements, are still open questions. Making progress on answering these questions can be achieved by capitalizing on experiments where the environment is precisely controlled over many generations. Here, we used a pipetting robot to generate random time series of salinities with controlled patterns of fluctuations, which we imposed on a microalga, Dunaliella salina. Tracking the frequencies of two genotypes in a mixture by sequencing two short barcode sequences, we were able to show how patterns of fluctuating selection relate to the fluctuating environment. Interestingly, parts of these responses, but not all, could be predicted by simpler measurements in constant environments, allowing precise characterization the limits and prospects for predicting evolution in fluctuating environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Rescan
- CEFE, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Université Perpignan Via Domitia, Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements Méditerranéens, UMR 5110, Perpignan, France
- CNRS, Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements Méditerranéens, UMR 5110, Perpignan, France
| | - Daphné Grulois
- CEFE, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Enrique Ortega Aboud
- CEFE, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Pierre de Villemereuil
- CEFE, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes PSL, MNHN, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Luis-Miguel Chevin
- CEFE, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail:
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19
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Bernhardt JR, O'Connor MI, Sunday JM, Gonzalez A. Life in fluctuating environments. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190454. [PMID: 33131443 PMCID: PMC7662201 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Variability in the environment defines the structure and dynamics of all living systems, from organisms to ecosystems. Species have evolved traits and strategies that allow them to detect, exploit and predict the changing environment. These traits allow organisms to maintain steady internal conditions required for physiological functioning through feedback mechanisms that allow internal conditions to remain at or near a set-point despite a fluctuating environment. In addition to feedback, many organisms have evolved feedforward processes, which allow them to adjust in anticipation of an expected future state of the environment. Here we provide a framework describing how feedback and feedforward mechanisms operating within organisms can generate effects across scales of organization, and how they allow living systems to persist in fluctuating environments. Daily, seasonal and multi-year cycles provide cues that organisms use to anticipate changes in physiologically relevant environmental conditions. Using feedforward mechanisms, organisms can exploit correlations in environmental variables to prepare for anticipated future changes. Strategies to obtain, store and act on information about the conditional nature of future events are advantageous and are evidenced in widespread phenotypes such as circadian clocks, social behaviour, diapause and migrations. Humans are altering the ways in which the environment fluctuates, causing correlations between environmental variables to become decoupled, decreasing the reliability of cues. Human-induced environmental change is also altering sensory environments and the ability of organisms to detect cues. Recognizing that living systems combine feedback and feedforward processes is essential to understanding their responses to current and future regimes of environmental fluctuations. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Integrative research perspectives on marine conservation’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joey R Bernhardt
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Biology, Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, McGill University, Montreal, Canada H3A 1B1
| | - Mary I O'Connor
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Jennifer M Sunday
- Department of Biology, Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, McGill University, Montreal, Canada H3A 1B1
| | - Andrew Gonzalez
- Department of Biology, Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, McGill University, Montreal, Canada H3A 1B1
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20
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Leung C, Rescan M, Grulois D, Chevin LM. Reduced phenotypic plasticity evolves in less predictable environments. Ecol Lett 2020; 23:1664-1672. [PMID: 32869431 PMCID: PMC7754491 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity is a prominent mechanism for coping with variable environments, and a key determinant of extinction risk. Evolutionary theory predicts that phenotypic plasticity should evolve to lower levels in environments that fluctuate less predictably, because they induce mismatches between plastic responses and selective pressures. However, this prediction is difficult to test in nature, where environmental predictability is not controlled. Here, we exposed 32 lines of the halotolerant microalga Dunaliella salina to ecologically realistic, randomly fluctuating salinity, with varying levels of predictability, for 500 generations. We found that morphological plasticity evolved to lower degrees in lines that experienced less predictable environments. Evolution of plasticity mostly concerned phases with slow population growth, rather than the exponential phase where microbes are typically phenotyped. This study underlines that long‐term experiments with complex patterns of environmental change are needed to test theories about population responses to altered environmental predictability, as currently observed under climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Leung
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
| | - Marie Rescan
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
| | - Daphné Grulois
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
| | - Luis-Miguel Chevin
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France
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