Gpbar1 agonism promotes a Pgc-1α-dependent browning of white adipose tissue and energy expenditure and reverses diet-induced steatohepatitis in mice

Allo-lithocholic acid, a microbiome derived secondary bile acid, attenuates liver fibrosis

Secondary bile acids, lithocholic acid and deoxycholic acid (LCA and DCA), are dehydroxylated derivatives of primary bile acids. However, in addition to LCA and DCA the intestinal microbiota produced a variety of poorly characterized metabolites. Allo-LCA, a LCA metabolite, acts as a dual GPBAR1 agonist and RORγt inverse agonist and modulates intestinal immunity, although is not yet known whether allo-LCA exerts regulatory functions outside the intestine. In the present study we have therefore investigated whether administration of allo-LCA, 10 mg/kg/day, to mice administered a high fat/high fructose diet (HFD-F) and carbon tetrachloride (Ccl4), a model for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), protects from development of liver damage. In vitro allo-LCA functions as GPBAR1 agonist and RORγt inverse agonist and prevents macrophages M1 polarization and Th17 polarization of CD4 cells. In vivo studies, while exposure to a HFD-F/Ccl4 promoted insulin resistance and development of a pro-atherogenic lipid profile and liver steatosis and fibrosis, allo-LCA reversed this pattern by improving insulin sensitivity and liver lipid accumulation. The liver transcriptomic profile demonstrated that allo-LCA reversed the dysregulation of multiple pathways associated with immunological, inflammatory and metabolic signaling. Allo-LCA also restored bile acid homeostasis, reversing HFD/Ccl4-induced shifts in bile acid pool composition and restored adipose tissue histopathology and function by reducing the expression of leptin and resistin, two pro-inflammatory adipokines, and restored a healthier composition of the intestinal microbiota. In conclusion, present results expand on the characterization of entero-hepatic signaling and suggest that allo-LCA, a microbial metabolite, might have therapeutic potential in liver diseases.

Phenotyping the Chemical Communications of the Intestinal Microbiota and the Host: Secondary Bile Acids as Postbiotics

The current definition of a postbiotic is a "preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confers a health benefit on the host". Postbiotics can be mainly classified as metabolites, derived from intestinal bacterial fermentation, or structural components, as intrinsic constituents of the microbial cell. Secondary bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA) and lithocholic acid (LCA) are bacterial metabolites generated by the enzymatic modifications of primary bile acids by microbial enzymes. Secondary bile acids function as receptor ligands modulating the activity of a family of bile-acid-regulated receptors (BARRs), including GPBAR1, Vitamin D (VDR) receptor and RORγT expressed by various cell types within the entire human body. Secondary bile acids integrate the definition of postbiotics, exerting potential beneficial effects on human health given their ability to regulate multiple biological processes such as glucose metabolism, energy expenditure and inflammation/immunity. Although there is evidence that bile acids might be harmful to the intestine, most of this evidence does not account for intestinal dysbiosis. This review examines this novel conceptual framework of secondary bile acids as postbiotics and how these mediators participate in maintaining host health.

Bile acids and their receptors in hepatic immunity

Similarly to conventional steroids, bile acids function as signaling molecules, acting on a family of membrane and nuclear receptors. The best-characterized bile acid-regulated receptors are the farnesoid X receptor, activated by primary bile acids, and the G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (also known as Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5), which is activated by secondary bile acids, such as lithocholic acid (LCA) and deoxycholic acid. Both the farnesoid X receptor and G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 are expressed in cells of innate immunity, monocytes/macrophages, and natural killer cells. Their activation in these cells provides counter-regulatory signals that are inhibitory in nature and attenuate inflammation. In recent years, however, it has been increasingly appreciated that bile acids biotransformations by intestinal microbiota result in the formation of chemically different secondary bile acids that potently regulate adaptive immunity. The 3-oxoLCA and isoalloLCA, two LCA derivatives, bind receptors such as the retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor gamma t (RORγt) and the vitamin D receptor (VDR) that are expressed only by lymphoid cells, extending the regulatory role of bile acids to T cells, including T-helper 17 cells and type 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3). In this novel conceptual framework, bile acids have emerged as one of the main components of the postbiota, the waste array of chemical mediators generated by the intestinal microbiota. Deciphering the interaction of these mediators with the immune system in the intestine and liver is a novel and fascinating area of bile acid renaissance.

The development of hepatic steatosis depends on the presence of liver-innervating parasympathetic cholinergic neurons in mice fed a high-fat diet

Hepatic lipid metabolism is regulated by the autonomic nervous system of the liver, with the sympathetic innervation being extensively studied, while the parasympathetic efferent innervation is less understood despite its potential importance. In this study, we investigate the consequences of disrupted brain-liver communication on hepatic lipid metabolism in mice exposed to obesogenic conditions. We found that a subset of hepatocytes and cholangiocytes are innervated by parasympathetic nerve terminals originating from the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. The elimination of the brain-liver axis by deleting parasympathetic cholinergic neurons innervating the liver prevents hepatic steatosis and promotes browning of inguinal white adipose tissue (ingWAT). The loss of liver-innervating cholinergic neurons increases hepatic Cyp7b1 expression and fasting serum bile acid levels. Furthermore, knockdown of the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 gene in ingWAT reverses the beneficial effects of the loss of liver-innervating cholinergic neurons, leading to the reappearance of hepatic steatosis. Deleting liver-innervating cholinergic neurons has a small but significant effect on body weight, which is accompanied by an increase in energy expenditure. Taken together, these data suggest that targeting the parasympathetic cholinergic innervation of the liver is a potential therapeutic approach for enhancing hepatic lipid metabolism in obesity and diabetes.

The development of hepatic steatosis depends on the presence of liver-innervating parasympathetic cholinergic neurons in mice fed a high-fat diet

Hepatic lipid metabolism is regulated by the autonomic nervous system of the liver, with the sympathetic innervation being extensively studied, while the parasympathetic efferent innervation is less understood despite its potential importance. In this study, we investigate the consequences of disrupted brain-liver communication on hepatic lipid metabolism in mice exposed to obesogenic conditions. We found that a subset of hepatocytes and cholangiocytes are innervated by parasympathetic nerve terminals originating from the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. The elimination of the brain-liver axis by deleting parasympathetic cholinergic neurons innervating the liver prevents hepatic steatosis and promotes browning of inguinal white adipose tissue (ingWAT). The loss of liver-innervating cholinergic neurons increases hepatic Cyp7b1 expression and fasting serum bile acid levels. Furthermore, knockdown of the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 gene in ingWAT reverses the beneficial effects of the loss of liver-innervating cholinergic neurons, leading to the reappearance of hepatic steatosis. Deleting liver-innervating cholinergic neurons has a small but significant effect on body weight, which is accompanied by an increase in energy expenditure. Taken together, these data suggest that targeting the parasympathetic cholinergic innervation of the liver is a potential therapeutic approach for enhancing hepatic lipid metabolism in obesity and diabetes.

Pathophysiological Relationship between Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease: Novel Therapeutic Approaches

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), often featuring hyperglycemia or insulin resistance, is a global health concern that is increasing in prevalence in the United States and worldwide. A common complication is metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), the hepatic manifestation of metabolic syndrome that is also rapidly increasing in prevalence. The majority of patients with T2DM will experience MASLD, and likewise, individuals with MASLD are at an increased risk for developing T2DM. These two disorders may act synergistically, in part due to increased lipotoxicity and inflammation within the liver, among other causes. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms by which this occurs are unclear, as is how the improvement of one disorder can ameliorate the other. This review aims to discuss the pathogenic interactions between T2D and MASLD, and will highlight novel therapeutic targets and ongoing clinical trials for the treatment of these diseases.

Bile acid metabolism and signaling in health and disease: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Bile acids, once considered mere dietary surfactants, now emerge as critical modulators of macronutrient (lipid, carbohydrate, protein) metabolism and the systemic pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory balance. Bile acid metabolism and signaling pathways play a crucial role in protecting against, or if aberrant, inducing cardiometabolic, inflammatory, and neoplastic conditions, strongly influencing health and disease. No curative treatment exists for any bile acid influenced disease, while the most promising and well-developed bile acid therapeutic was recently rejected by the FDA. Here, we provide a bottom-up approach on bile acids, mechanistically explaining their biochemistry, physiology, and pharmacology at canonical and non-canonical receptors. Using this mechanistic model of bile acids, we explain how abnormal bile acid physiology drives disease pathogenesis, emphasizing how ceramide synthesis may serve as a unifying pathogenic feature for cardiometabolic diseases. We provide an in-depth summary on pre-existing bile acid receptor modulators, explain their shortcomings, and propose solutions for how they may be remedied. Lastly, we rationalize novel targets for further translational drug discovery and provide future perspectives. Rather than dismissing bile acid therapeutics due to recent setbacks, we believe that there is immense clinical potential and a high likelihood for the future success of bile acid therapeutics.

The role of bile acid receptor TGR5 in regulating inflammatory signalling

Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) is a bile acid receptor, and its role in regulating metabolism after binding with bile acids has been established. Since the immune response depends on metabolism to provide biomolecules and energy to cope with challenging conditions, emerging evidence reveals the regulatory effects of TGR5 on the immune response. An in-depth understanding of the effect of TGR5 on immune regulation can help us disentangle the interaction of metabolism and immune response, accelerating the development of TGR5 as a therapeutic target. Herein, we reviewed more than 200 articles published in the last 20 years in PubMed, to discuss the roles of TGR5 in regulating inflammatory response, the molecular mechanism, as well as existing problems. Particularly, its anti-inflammation effect is emphasized.

Understanding the role of ursodeoxycholic acid and gut microbiome in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: current evidence and perspectives

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease, resulting in a huge medical burden worldwide. Accumulating evidence suggests that the gut microbiome and bile acids play pivotal roles during the development of NAFLD. Patients with NAFLD exhibit unique signatures of the intestinal microbiome marked by the priority of Gram-negative bacteria, decreased ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B), and increased Prevotella and Lachnospiraceae. The intestinal microbiota is involved in the metabolism of bile acids. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a key determinant in maintaining the dynamic communication between the host and gut microbiota. It generally shows surprising therapeutic potential in NAFLD with several mechanisms, such as improving cellular autophagy, apoptosis, and mitochondrial functions. This action is based on its direct or indirect effect, targeting the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and various other nuclear receptors. This review aims to discuss the current studies on the involvement of the microbiome-UDCA interface in NAFLD therapy and provide prospective insights into future preventative and therapeutic approaches for NAFLD.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1) family in physiological and pathophysiological process and diseases

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1) family (PGC-1s), consisting of three members encompassing PGC-1α, PGC-1β, and PGC-1-related coactivator (PRC), was discovered more than a quarter-century ago. PGC-1s are essential coordinators of many vital cellular events, including mitochondrial functions, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis, and inflammation. Accumulating evidence has shown that PGC-1s are implicated in many diseases, such as cancers, cardiac diseases and cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, kidney diseases, motor system diseases, and metabolic disorders. Examining the upstream modulators and co-activated partners of PGC-1s and identifying critical biological events modulated by downstream effectors of PGC-1s contribute to the presentation of the elaborate network of PGC-1s. Furthermore, discussing the correlation between PGC-1s and diseases as well as summarizing the therapy targeting PGC-1s helps make individualized and precise intervention methods. In this review, we summarize basic knowledge regarding the PGC-1s family as well as the molecular regulatory network, discuss the physio-pathological roles of PGC-1s in human diseases, review the application of PGC-1s, including the diagnostic and prognostic value of PGC-1s and several therapies in pre-clinical studies, and suggest several directions for future investigations. This review presents the immense potential of targeting PGC-1s in the treatment of diseases and hopefully facilitates the promotion of PGC-1s as new therapeutic targets.

The emerging role of bile acids in white adipose tissue

The effects of bile acids (BAs) on liver, enteroendocrine function, small intestine, and brown adipose tissue have been described extensively. Outside the liver, BAs in the peripheral circulation system represent a specific but underappreciated physiological compartment. We discuss how systemic BAs can be regarded as specific steroidal hormones that act on white adipocytes, and suggest the name 'bilokines' ('bile hormones') for the specific FXR/TGR5 receptor interaction in adipocytes. Some BAs and their agonists regulate adipocyte differentiation, lipid accumulation, hypoxia, autophagy, adipokine and cytokine secretion, insulin signaling, and glucose uptake. BA signaling could provide a new therapeutic avenue for adipoflammation and metaflammation in visceral obesity, the causal mechanisms underlying insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D).

Bile acid-activated receptors in innate and adaptive immunity: targeted drugs and biological agents

Bile acid-activated receptors (BARs) such as a G-protein bile acid receptor 1 and the farnesol X receptor are activated by bile acids (BAs) and have been implicated in the regulation of microbiota-host immunity in the intestine. The mechanistic roles of these receptors in immune signaling suggest that they may also influence the development of metabolic disorders. In this perspective, we provide a summary of recent literature describing the main regulatory pathways and mechanisms of BARs and how they affect both innate and adaptive immune system, cell proliferation, and signaling in the context of inflammatory diseases. We also discuss new approaches for therapy and summarize clinical projects on BAs for the treatment of diseases. In parallel, some drugs that are classically used for other therapeutic purposes and BAR activity have recently been proposed as regulators of immune cells phenotype. Another strategy consists of using specific strains of gut bacteria to regulate BA production in the intestine.

Combinatorial therapy with BAR502 and UDCA resets FXR and GPBAR1 signaling and reverses liver histopathology in a model of NASH

Non-alcoholic steatosis (NAFLD) and steatohepatitis (NASH) are two highly prevalent human disorders for which therapy remains suboptimal. Bile acids are signaling molecules acting on two main receptors the Farnesoid-x-receptor (FXR) and G protein coupled receptor GPB AR1. Clinical trials have shown that FXR agonism might result in side effects along with lack of efficacy in restoring liver histopathology. For these reasons a multi-targets therapy combined FXR agonists with agent targeting additional molecular mechanisms might have improved efficacy over selective FXR agonists. In the present study we have compared the effects of BAR502, a dual FXR/GPBAR1 ligand) alone or in combination with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in a model of NAFLD/NASH induced by feeding mice with a Western diet for 10 weeks. The results demonstrated that while BAR502 and UDCA partially protected against liver damage caused by Western diet, the combination of the two, reversed the pro-atherogenic lipid profile and completely reversed the histopathology damage, attenuating liver steatosis, ballooning, inflammation and fibrosis. Additionally, while both agents increased insulin sensitivity and bile acid signaling, the combination of the two, modulated up top 85 genes in comparison of mice feed a Western diet, strongly reducing expression of inflammatory markers such as chemokines and cytokines. Additionally, the combination of the two agents redirected the bile acid metabolism toward bile acid species that are GPBAR1 agonist while reduced liver bile acid content and increased fecal excretion. Together, these data, highlight the potential role for a combinatorial therapy based on BAR502 and UDCA in treating of NAFLD.

Enterohepatic Takeda G-Protein Coupled Receptor 5 Agonism in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease and Related Glucose Dysmetabolism

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is a major health concern with no approved pharmacological therapies. Molecules developed to activate the bile acid-receptor TGR5 regulate pathways involved in MALFD pathogenesis, but the therapeutic value of TGR5 activation on the active form of MAFLD, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), still needs to be evaluated. As TGR5 agonism is low in MAFLD, we used strategies to promote the production of endogenous TGR5 ligands or administered pharmacological TGR5 agonists, INT-777 and RO5527239, to study the effect of TGR5 activation on liver and metabolic diseases in high-fat diet-fed foz/foz mice. Although described in the literature, treatment with fexaramine, an intestine-restricted FXR agonist, did not raise the concentrations of TGR5 ligands nor modulate TGR5 signaling and, accordingly, did not improve dysmetabolic status. INT-777 and RO5527239 directly activated TGR5. INT-777 only increased the TGR5 activation capacity of the portal blood; RO5527239 also amplified the TGR5 activation capacity of systemic blood. Both molecules improved glucose tolerance. In spite of the TGR5 activation capacity, INT-777, but not RO5527239, reduced liver disease severity. In conclusion, TGR5 activation in enterohepatic, rather than in peripheral, tissues has beneficial effects on glucose tolerance and MAFLD.

High-Amylose Corn Starch Regulated Gut Microbiota and Serum Bile Acids in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice

Simple Summary

High-amylose corn starch, as a kind of resistant starch, could profoundly regulate the gut microbiota and exert anti-obesity properties. Since the gut microbiota was found to improve metabolic health by altering circulating bile acids, therefore, here we investigated the association between the gut microbiota and serum bile acids in high fat diet induced obese mice fed with high-amylose corn starch. We found high-amylose corn starch could modulate the gut microbiota composition and partially restore the alternations in circulating bile acid profiles in obese mice. These influences on gut microbiota and circulating bile acids could be the underlying mechanisms of anti-obesity activity of high-amylose corn starch.

Abstract

High-amylose corn starch is well known for its anti-obesity activity, which is mainly based on the regulatory effects on gut microbiota. Recently, the gut microbiota has been reported to improve metabolic health by altering circulating bile acids. Therefore, in this study, the influence of high-amylose corn starch (HACS) on intestinal microbiota composition and serum bile acids was explored in mice fed with a high fat diet (HFD). The results demonstrated HACS treatment reduced HFD-induced body weight gain, hepatic lipid accumulation, and adipocyte hypertrophy as well as improved blood lipid profiles. Moreover, HACS also greatly impacted the gut microbiota with increased Firmicutes and decreased Bacteroidetes relative abundance being observed. Furthermore, compared to ND-fed mice, the mice with HFD feeding exhibited more obvious changes in serum bile acids profiles than the HFD-fed mice with the HACS intervention, showing HACS might restore HFD-induced alterations to bile acid composition in blood. In summary, our results suggested that the underlying mechanisms of anti-obesity activity of HACS may involve its regulatory effects on gut microbiota and circulating bile acids.

Discovery of a Potent and Orally Active Dual GPBAR1/CysLT1R Modulator for the Treatment of Metabolic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are two highly prevalent human diseases caused by excessive fat deposition in the liver. Although multiple approaches have been suggested, NAFLD/NASH remains an unmet clinical need. Here, we report the discovery of a novel class of hybrid molecules designed to function as cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 (CysLT₁R) antagonists and G protein bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1/TGR5) agonists for the treatment of NAFLD/NASH. The most potent of these compounds generated by harnessing the scaffold of the previously described CystLT₁R antagonists showed efficacy in reversing liver histopathology features in a preclinical model of NASH, reshaping the liver transcriptome and the lipid and energy metabolism in the liver and adipose tissues. In summary, the present study described a novel orally active dual CysLT₁R antagonist/GPBAR1 agonist that effectively protects against the development of NAFLD/NASH, showing promise for further development.

Bile acid coordinates microbiota homeostasis and systemic immunometabolism in cardiometabolic diseases

Cardiometabolic disease (CMD), characterized with metabolic disorder triggered cardiovascular events, is a leading cause of death and disability. Metabolic disorders trigger chronic low-grade inflammation, and actually, a new concept of metaflammation has been proposed to define the state of metabolism connected with immunological adaptations. Amongst the continuously increased list of systemic metabolites in regulation of immune system, bile acids (BAs) represent a distinct class of metabolites implicated in the whole process of CMD development because of its multifaceted roles in shaping systemic immunometabolism. BAs can directly modulate the immune system by either boosting or inhibiting inflammatory responses via diverse mechanisms. Moreover, BAs are key determinants in maintaining the dynamic communication between the host and microbiota. Importantly, BAs via targeting Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and diverse other nuclear receptors play key roles in regulating metabolic homeostasis of lipids, glucose, and amino acids. Moreover, BAs axis per se is susceptible to inflammatory and metabolic intervention, and thereby BAs axis may constitute a reciprocal regulatory loop in metaflammation. We thus propose that BAs axis represents a core coordinator in integrating systemic immunometabolism implicated in the process of CMD. We provide an updated summary and an intensive discussion about how BAs shape both the innate and adaptive immune system, and how BAs axis function as a core coordinator in integrating metabolic disorder to chronic inflammation in conditions of CMD.

GLP-1 Mediates Regulation of Colonic ACE2 Expression by the Bile Acid Receptor GPBAR1 in Inflammation

Background & Aims: ACE2, a carboxypeptidase that generates Ang-(1-7) from Ang II, is highly expressed in the lung, small intestine and colon. GPBAR1, is a G protein bile acid receptor that promotes the release of the insulinotropic factor glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 and attenuates intestinal inflammation. Methods: We investigated the expression of ACE2, GLP-1 and GPBAR1 in two cohorts of Crohn’s disease (CD) patients and three mouse models of colitis and Gpbar1^−/− mice. Activation of GPBAR1 in these models and in vitro was achieved by BAR501, a selective GPBAR1 agonist. Results: In IBD patients, ACE2 mRNA expression was regulated in a site-specific manner in response to inflammation. While expression of ileal ACE2 mRNA was reduced, the colon expression was induced. Colon expression of ACE2 mRNA in IBD correlated with expression of TNF-α and GPBAR1. A positive correlation occurred between GCG and GPBAR1 in human samples and animal models of colitis. In these models, ACE2 mRNA expression was further upregulated by GPABR1 agonism and reversed by exendin-3, a GLP-1 receptor antagonist. In in vitro studies, liraglutide, a GLP-1 analogue, increased the expression of ACE2 in colon epithelial cells/macrophages co-cultures. Conclusions: ACE2 mRNA expression in the colon of IBD patients and rodent models of colitis is regulated in a TNF-α- and GLP-1-dependent manner. We have identified a GPBAR1/GLP-1 mechanism as a positive modulator of ACE2.

Atorvastatin protects against liver and vascular damage in a model of diet induced steatohepatitis by resetting FXR and GPBAR1 signaling

Farnesoid-x-receptor (FXR) agonists, currently trialed in patients with non-alcoholic steatosis (NAFLD), worsen the pro-atherogenic lipid profile and might require a comedication with statin. Here we report that mice feed a high fat/high cholesterol diet (HFD) are protected from developing a pro-atherogenic lipid profile because their ability to dispose cholesterol through bile acids. This protective mechanism is mediated by suppression of FXR signaling in the liver by muricholic acids (MCAs) generated in mice from chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA). In contrast to CDCA, MCAs are FXR antagonists and promote a CYP7A1-dependent increase of bile acids synthesis. In mice feed a HFD, the treatment with obeticholic acid, a clinical stage FXR agonist, failed to improve the liver histopathology while reduced Cyp7a1 and Cyp8b1 genes expression and bile acids synthesis and excretion. In contrast, treating mice with atorvastatin mitigated liver and vascular injury caused by the HFD while increased the bile acids synthesis and excretion. Atorvastatin increased the percentage of 7α-dehydroxylase expressing bacteria in the intestine promoting the formation of deoxycholic acid and litocholic acid, two GPBAR1 agonists, along with the expression of GPBAR1-regulated genes in the white adipose tissue and colon. In conclusion, present results highlight the central role of bile acids in regulating lipid and cholesterol metabolism in response to atorvastatin and provide explanations for limited efficacy of FXR agonists in the treatment of NAFLD.

Linking liver metabolic and vascular disease via bile acid signaling

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic disorder affecting over one quarter of the global population. Liver fat accumulation in NAFLD is promoted by increased de novo lipogenesis leading to the development of a proatherosclerotic lipid profile and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). The CVD component of NAFLD is the main determinant of patient outcome. The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the G protein bile acid-activated receptor 1 (GPBAR1) are bile acid-activated receptors that modulate inflammation and lipid and glucose metabolism in the liver and CV system, and are thus potential therapeutic targets. We review bile acid signaling in liver, metabolic tissues, and the CV system, and we propose the development of dual FXR/GPBAR1 ligands, intestine-restricted FXR ligands, or statin combinations to limit side effects and effectively manage the liver and CV components of NAFLD.

Molecular and Cellular Mediators of the Gut-Liver Axis in the Progression of Liver Diseases

The gut-liver axis covers the bidirectional communication between the gut and the liver, and thus includes signals from liver-to-gut (e.g., bile acids, immunoglobulins) and from gut-to-liver (e.g., nutrients, microbiota-derived products, and recirculating bile acids). In a healthy individual, liver homeostasis is tightly controlled by the mostly tolerogenic liver resident macrophages, the Kupffer cells, capturing the gut-derived antigens from the blood circulation. However, disturbances of the gut-liver axis have been associated to the progression of varying chronic liver diseases, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Notably, changes of the gut microbiome, or intestinal dysbiosis, combined with increased intestinal permeability, leads to the translocation of gut-derived bacteria or their metabolites into the portal vein. In the context of concomitant or subsequent liver inflammation, the liver is then infiltrated by responsive immune cells (e.g., monocytes, neutrophils, lymphoid, or dendritic cells), and microbiota-derived products may provoke or exacerbate innate immune responses, hence perpetuating liver inflammation and fibrosis, and potentiating the risks of developing cirrhosis. Similarly, food derived antigens, bile acids, danger-, and pathogen-associated molecular patterns are able to reshape the liver immune microenvironment. Immune cell intracellular signaling components, such as inflammasome activation, toll-like receptor or nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors signaling, are potent targets of interest for the modulation of the immune response. This review describes the current understanding of the cellular landscape and molecular pathways involved in the gut-liver axis and implicated in chronic liver disease progression. We also provide an overview of innovative therapeutic approaches and current clinical trials aiming at targeting the gut-liver axis for the treatment of patients with chronic liver and/or intestinal diseases.

Bile acid activated receptors: Integrating immune and metabolic regulation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Bile acids are a family of atypical steroids generated at the interface of liver-intestinal microbiota acting on a ubiquitously expressed family of membrane and nuclear receptors known as bile acid activated receptors. The two best characterized receptors of this family are the nuclear receptor, farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the G protein-coupled receptor, G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1). FXR and GPBAR1 regulate major aspects of lipid and glucose metabolism, energy balance, autophagy and immunity and have emerged as potential pharmaceutical targets for the treatment of metabolic and inflammatory disorders. Clinical trials in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), however, have shown that selective FXR agonists cause side effects while their efficacy is partial. Because FXR and GPBAR1 exert additive effects, dual FXR/GPBAR1 ligands have been developed for the treatment of metabolic disorders and are currently advanced to clinical trials. Here, we will review the role of FXR and GPBAR1 agonism in NAFLD and how the two receptors could be exploited to target multiple components of the disease.

Progress in research on the roles of TGR5 receptor in liver diseases

TGR5 (G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1, GPBAR-1) is a G protein-coupled receptor with seven transmembrane domains and is widely distributed in various organs and tissues. As an important bile acid receptor, TGR5 can be activated by primary and secondary bile acids. Increased expression of TGR5 is a risk factor for polycystic liver disease and hepatobiliary cancer. However, there is evidence that the anti-inflammatory effect of the TGR5 receptor and its regulatory effect on hydrophobic bile acid confer protective effects against most liver diseases. Recent studies have shown that TGR5 receptor activation can alleviate the development of diabetic liver fibrosis, regulate the differentiation of natural killer T cells into NKT10 cells, increase the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors, inhibit the invasion of hepatitis B virus, promote white adipose tissue browning, improve arterial vascular dynamics, maintain tight junctions between bile duct cells, and protect against apoptosis. In portal hypertension, TGR5 receptor activation can inhibit the contraction of hepatic stellate cells and improve intrahepatic microcirculation. In addition, the discovery of the regulatory relationship between the TGR5 receptor and miRNA-26a provides a new direction for further studies of the molecular mechanism underlying the effects of TGR5. In this review, we describe recent findings linking TGR5 to various liver diseases, with a focus on the mechanisms underlying its effects and potential therapeutic implications.

Bile acids and their receptors in metabolic disorders

Bile acids are a large family of atypical steroids which exert their functions by binding to a family of ubiquitous cell membrane and nuclear receptors. There are two main bile acid activated receptors, FXR and GPBAR1, that are exclusively activated by bile acids, while other receptors CAR, LXRs, PXR, RORγT, S1PR2and VDR are activated by bile acids in addition to other more selective endogenous ligands. In the intestine, activation of FXR and GPBAR1 promotes the release of FGF15/19 and GLP1 which integrate their signaling with direct effects exerted by theother receptors in target tissues. This network is tuned in a time ordered manner by circadian rhythm and is critical for the regulation of metabolic process including autophagy, fast-to-feed transition, lipid and glucose metabolism, energy balance and immune responses. In the last decade FXR ligands have entered clinical trials but development of systemic FXR agonists has been proven challenging because their side effects including increased levels of cholesterol and Low Density Lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-c) and reduced High-Density Lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c). In addition, pruritus has emerged as a common, dose related, side effect of FXR ligands. Intestinal-restricted FXR and GPBAR1 agonists and dual FXR/GPBAR1 agonists have been developed. Here we review the last decade in bile acids physiology and pharmacology.

The bile acid activated receptors GPBAR1 and FXR exert antagonistic effects on autophagy

Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process activated by fasting and caloric restriction. FXR, a receptor for primary bile acids, reverses the activity of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) on autophagy-related genes (Atg)s and terminates autophagy in the fed state. GPBAR1, a receptor for secondary bile acids, exerts its genomic effects via cAMP-CREB pathway. By genetic and pharmacological approaches, we have obtained evidence that GPBAR1 functions as a positive modulator of autophagy in liver and white adipose tissue (WAT) in fasting. Mechanistically, we found that Gpbar1-/- mice lack the expression of Cyp2c70 a gene essential for generation of muricholic acids which are FXR antagonists, and have an FXR-biased bile acid pool. Because FXR represses autophagy, Gpbar1-/- mice show a defective regulation of autophagy in fasting. BAR501, a selective GPBAR1 agonist, induces autophagy in fed mice. Defective regulation of autophagy in Gpbar1-/- could be reversed by FXR antagonism, while repression of autophagy by feeding was partially abrogated by FXR gene ablation, and FXR activation repressed Atgs in the fast state. BAR501 reversed the negative regulatory effects of feeding and FXR agonism on autophagy and promoted the recruitment of CREB to a CRE on the LC3 promoter. In mice exposed to chronic high caloric intake, GPBAR1 agonism ameliorated insulin sensitivity and induced Atgs expression in the liver and WAT. In summary, GPBAR1 is required for positive regulation of autophagy in fasting and its ligands reverse the repressive effects exerted on liver and WAT autophagy flow by FXR in fed.

Molecular Physiology of Bile Acid Signaling in Health, Disease, and Aging

Over the past two decades, bile acids (BAs) have become established as important signaling molecules that enable fine-tuned inter-tissue communication from the liver, their site of production, over the intestine, where they are modified by the gut microbiota, to virtually any organ, where they exert their pleiotropic physiological effects. The chemical variety of BAs, to a large extent determined by the gut microbiome, also allows for a complex fine-tuning of adaptive responses in our body. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms by which BA receptors coordinate several aspects of physiology and highlights new therapeutic strategies for diseases underlying pathological BA signaling.

Bile acid modulators for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)

INTRODUCTION

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a progressive form of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) for which therapy is suboptimal. The farnesoid-X-receptor (FXR) and the G protein bile acid receptor (GPBAR)1 are two bile acid-activated receptors that exert regulatory effects on lipid, glucose, energy, and immune homeostasis. GPBAR1 and FXR ligands have shown efficacy in reversing steatohepatitis and fibrosis in preclinical models of NASH.

AREA COVERED

This article evaluates the efficacy and pitfalls of GPBAR1 and FXR-based therapies in the treatment of NASH. While there are no GPBAR1 agonist in clinical development, several FXR ligands have completed phase 2 and phase 3 trials in NASH. EDP305, tropifexor, cilofexor, nidufexor, TERN.101, Px-104, EYP001, MET409. Individual FXR agonists have shown variable efficacy in reversing liver steatohepatitis and fibrosis. Class-related, dose-dependent side effects: pruritus, increased plasma levels of cholesterol and LDLc, and reduction of HDL have been reported.

EXPERT OPINION

Efficacy of FXR agonists as stand-alone therapy is limited by dose-related side effects. Efficacy of combining an FXR agonist with statins, CCR2, and ACC inhibitors is currently investigated. Identification of patient subsets would allow development of patients tailored therapy using a combination of drugs acting on different molecular mechanisms.

Identification of cysteinyl-leukotriene-receptor 1 antagonists as ligands for the bile acid receptor GPBAR1

The cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs), i.e. LTC₄, LTD₄ and LTE₄, are a family of proinflammatory agents synthesized from the arachidonic acid. In target cells, these lipid mediators bind to the cysteinyl leukotriene receptors (CysLTR), a family of seven transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors. The CysLT₁R is a validated target for treatment of pulmonary diseases and several selective antagonists for this receptor, including montelukast, zafirlukast and pranlukast, have shown effective in the management of asthma. Nevertheless, others CysLT₁R antagonists, such as the alpha-pentyl-3-[2-quinolinylmethoxy] benzyl alcohol (REV5901), have been extensively characterized without reaching sufficient priority for clinical development. Since drug reposition is an efficient approach for maximizing investment in drug discovery, we have investigated whether CysLT₁R antagonists might exert off-target effects. In the report we demonstrate that REV5901 interacts with GPBAR1, a well characterized cell membrane receptor for secondary bile acids. REV5901 transactivates GPBAR1 in GPBAR1-transfected cells with an EC₅₀ of 2.5 µM and accommodates the GPBAR1 binding site as shown by in silico analysis. Exposure of macrophages to REV5901 abrogates the inflammatory response elicited by bacterial endotoxin in a GPBAR1-dependent manner. In vivo, in contrast to montelukast, REV5901 attenuates inflammation and immune dysfunction in rodent models of colitis. The beneficial effects exerted by REV5901 in these models were abrogated by GPBAR1 gene ablation, confirming that REV5901, a shelved CysLT₁R antagonist, is a GPBAR1 ligand. These data ground the basis for the development of novel hybrid ligands designed for simultaneous modulation of CysTL₁R and GPBAR1.

A compendium of G-protein-coupled receptors and cyclic nucleotide regulation of adipose tissue metabolism and energy expenditure

With the ever-increasing burden of obesity and Type 2 diabetes, it is generally acknowledged that there remains a need for developing new therapeutics. One potential mechanism to combat obesity is to raise energy expenditure via increasing the amount of uncoupled respiration from the mitochondria-rich brown and beige adipocytes. With the recent appreciation of thermogenic adipocytes in humans, much effort is being made to elucidate the signaling pathways that regulate the browning of adipose tissue. In this review, we focus on the ligand-receptor signaling pathways that influence the cyclic nucleotides, cAMP and cGMP, in adipocytes. We chose to focus on G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), guanylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase regulation of adipocytes because they are the targets of a large proportion of all currently available therapeutics. Furthermore, there is a large overlap in their signaling pathways, as signaling events that raise cAMP or cGMP generally increase adipocyte lipolysis and cause changes that are commonly referred to as browning: increasing mitochondrial biogenesis, uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression and respiration.

The Pharmacology of Bile Acids and Their Receptors

This review provides a historical perspective of bile acids and their receptors as therapeutic targets. Bile acids are atypical steroids generated by the liver from cholesterol and have been used for almost half a century for treating liver and biliary disorders. Since the early 1970s of the last century, chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), a primary bile acid, and ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), a secondary bile acid and the 7βepimer of CDCA, have been shown effective in promoting the dissolution of cholesterol gallstones. However, lack of activity and side effects associated with the use of CDCA, along with the advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, have greatly reduced the clinical relevance of this application. At the turn of the century, however, the discovery that bile acids activate specific receptors, along with the discovery that those receptors are placed at the interface of the host and intestinal microbiota regulating physiologically relevant enterohepatic and entero-pancreatic axes, has led to a "bile acid renaissance." Similarly to other steroids, bile acids bind and activate both cell surface and nuclear receptors, including the bile acid sensor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and a G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor, known as GPBAR1 (TGR5). Both receptors have been proved druggable, and several highly potent, selective, and nonselective ligands for the two receptors have been discovered in the last two decades. Currently, in addition to obeticholic acid, a semisynthetic derivative of CDCA and the first in class of FXR ligands approved for clinical use, either selective or dual FXR and GPBAR1 ligands, have been developed, and some of them are undergoing pre-approval trials. The effects of FXR and GPBAR1 ligands in different therapeutic area are reviewed.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) Mediates the Counter-Regulatory Effects of Pelargonidins in Models of Inflammation and Metabolic Dysfunctions

Pelargonidins are anthocyanidins thought to be beneficial for the human health, although controversies exist over the doses needed and the unclear mechanism of action, along with poor systemic bioavailability. One putative target of pelargonidins is the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). A synthetic pelargonidin (Mt-P) was synthesized by the methylation of the pelargonidin (the natural compound indicated as P). Mt-P transactivated the AhR with an EC50 of 1.97 µM and was ~2-fold more potent than the natural compound. In vitro Mt-P attenuated pro-inflammatory activities of Raw264.7 macrophage cells in an AhR-dependent manner. In vivo, administration of the Mt-P in Balb/c mice resulted in a dose-dependent attenuation of signs and symptoms of colitis induced by TNBS. A dose of 5 mg/kg Mt-P, but not the natural compound P, reversed intestinal inflammation and increased expression of Tnf-α, Ifn-ƴ, and Il-6, while promoted the expansion of regulatory T cells and M2 macrophages. In C57BL/6J mice fed a high fat diet (HFD), Mt-P attenuated body weight gain, intestinal and liver inflammation, and ameliorated insulin sensitivity, while worsened liver steatosis by up-regulating the liver expression of Cd36 and Apo100b. These effects were abrogated by AhR gene ablation. Mt-P is a synthetic pelargonidin endowed with robust AhR agonist activity that exerts beneficial effects in murine models of inflammation and metabolic dysfunction.

Ursodeoxycholic acid is a GPBAR1 agonist and resets liver/intestinal FXR signaling in a model of diet-induced dysbiosis and NASH

Obeticholic acid (OCA) is a farnesoid-X-receptor (FXR) ligand, shown effective in reducing steatosis and fibrosis in NASH patients. However, OCA causes major side effects including pruritus, while increases the risk for liver decompensation in cirrhotic patients. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), is a safe and unexpensive bile acid used in the treatment of liver disorders whose mechanism of action is poorly defined. Here we have compared the effects of OCA and UDCA in a mouse model of NASH. In mice exposed to a diet rich in fat/cholesterol and fructose (HFD-F), treatment with OCA or UDCA effectively prevented body weight gain, insulin resistance, as demonstrated by OGTT, and AST plasma levels. After 12 weeks HFD-F mice developed liver microvesicular steatosis, inflammation and mild fibrosis, increased expression of inflammatory (TNFα, IL6, F4/80) and fibrosis (αSma, Col1α1, Tgfβ) markers, reduced liver expression of FXR, dysregulated liver FXR signaling and elevated levels of Tauro-α and β-muricholic acid (T-α and βMCA), two FXR antagonists in mice. Both compounds prevented these changes and improved liver histopathology. OCA reduced primary bile acid synthesis worsening the T-CA/T-βMCA ratio. UDCA effectively transactivated GPBAR1 in vitro. By RNAseq analysis we found that among over 2400 genes modulated by the HFD-F, only 32 and 60 genes were modulated by OCA and UDCA, with only 3 genes (Dbp, Adh7, Osgin1) being modulated by both agents. Both agents partially prevented the intestinal dysbiosis. CONCLUSIONS: UDCA is a GPBAR1 ligand and exerts beneficial effects in a rodent model of NASH by activating non-overlapping pathway with OCA.

Role of Bile Acids in Dysbiosis and Treatment of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major health threat around the world and is characterized by dysbiosis. Primary bile acids are synthesized in the liver and converted into secondary bile acids by gut microbiota. Recent studies support the role of bile acids in modulating dysbiosis and NAFLD, while the mechanisms are not well elucidated. Dysbiosis may alter the size and the composition of the bile acid pool, resulting in reduced signaling of bile acid receptors such as farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5). These receptors are essential in lipid and glucose metabolism, and impaired bile acid signaling may cause NAFLD. Bile acids also reciprocally regulate the gut microbiota directly via antibacterial activity and indirectly via FXR. Therefore, bile acid signaling is closely linked to dysbiosis and NAFLD. During the past decade, stimulation of bile acid receptors with their agonists has been extensively explored for the treatment of NAFLD in both animal models and clinical trials. Early evidence has suggested the potential of bile acid receptor agonists in NAFLD management, but their long-term safety and effectiveness need further clarification.

Transcriptome Analysis of Dual FXR and GPBAR1 Agonism in Rodent Model of NASH Reveals Modulation of Lipid Droplets Formation

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a progressive, chronic, liver disease whose prevalence is growing worldwide. Despite several agents being under development for treating NASH, there are no drugs currently approved. The Farnesoid-x-receptor (FXR) and the G-protein coupled bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1), two bile acid activated receptors, have been investigated for their potential in treating NASH. Here we report that BAR502, a steroidal dual ligand for FXR/GPBAR1, attenuates development of clinical and liver histopathology features of NASH in mice fed a high fat diet (HFD) and fructose (F). By RNAseq analysis of liver transcriptome we found that BAR502 restores FXR signaling in the liver of mice feed HFD-F, and negatively regulates a cluster of genes including Srebf1 (Srepb1c) and its target genes-fatty acid synthase (Fasn) and Cell death-inducing DFF45-like effector (CIDE) genes, Cidea and Cidec-involved in lipid droplets formation and triglycerides storage in hepatocytes. Additionally, BAR502 increased the intestinal expression of Fgf15 and Glp1 and energy expenditure by white adipose tissues. Finally, exposure to BAR502 reshaped the intestinal microbiota by increasing the amount of Bacteroidaceae. In conclusion, we have shown that dual FXR/GPBAR1 agonism might have utility in treatment of NASH.

Targeting Myeloid-Derived Cells: New Frontiers in the Treatment of Non-alcoholic and Alcoholic Liver Disease

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) are major causes of liver-related morbidity and mortality and constitute important causes of liver transplantation. The spectrum of the liver disease is wide and includes isolated steatosis, steatohepatitis, and cirrhosis. The treatment of NAFLD and ALD remains, however, an unmet need, and therefore it is a public health priority to develop effective treatments for these diseases. Alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease share common complex pathogenetic pathways that involve different organs and systems beyond the liver, including the gut, the adipose tissue, and the immune system, which cross-talk to generate damage. Myeloid-derived cells have been widely studied in the setting of NAFLD and ALD and are implicated at different levels in the onset and progression of this disease. Among these cells, monocytes and macrophages have been found to be involved in the induction of inflammation and in the progression to fibrosis, both in animal models and clinical studies and they have become interesting potential targets for the treatment of both NAFLD and ALD. The different mechanisms by which these cells can be targeted include modulation of Kupffer cell activation, monocyte recruitment in the liver and macrophage polarization and differentiation. Evidence from preclinical studies and clinical trials (some of them already in phase II and III) have shown encouraging results in ameliorating steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and the metabolic profile, individuating promising candidates for the pharmacological treatment of these diseases. The currently available results of myeloid-derived cells targeted treatments in NAFLD and ALD are covered in this review.

Chemistry and Pharmacology of GPBAR1 and FXR Selective Agonists, Dual Agonists, and Antagonists

In the recent years, bile acid receptors FXR and GPBAR1 have attracted the interest of scientific community and companies, as they proved promising targets for the treatment of several diseases, ranging from liver cholestatic disorders to metabolic syndrome, inflammatory states, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and diabetes.Consequently, the development of dual FXR/GPBAR1 agonists, as well as selective targeting of one of these receptors, is considered a hopeful possibility in the treatment of these disorders. Because endogenous bile acids and steroidal ligands, which cover the same chemical space of bile acids, often target both receptor families, speculation on nonsteroidal ligands represents a promising and innovative strategy to selectively target GPBAR1 or FXR.In this review, we summarize the most recent acquisition on natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic steroidal and nonsteroidal ligands, able to interact with FXR and GPBAR1.

Signaling from Intestine to the Host: How Bile Acids Regulate Intestinal and Liver Immunity

Primary bile acids (BAs) are generated in the liver as the end products of cholesterol catabolism; they are then conjugated and accumulated in the gallbladder. After a meal ingestion, BAs are reversed into the duodenum to facilitate the lipid absorption. At the intestinal level, the 95% of BAs are reabsorbed and redirected into enterohepatic circulation; indeed only a small amount of them are then subjected to chemical modifications by the intestinal microbiota, which plays a very important role in the generation of secondary bile acids and in regulating host's metabolism and activity of the immune system. Behind their role in nutrients absorption, bile acids act as signaling molecules, activating several receptors, known as bile acid-activated receptors (BARs), including the farnesoid-X-receptor (FXR) and the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1 or Takeda G-protein receptor 5). Both receptors appear to contribute to maintain the tolerogenic state of the liver and intestine immunity. In particular, FXR and GPBAR1 are highly expressed in cells of innate immunity including intestinal and liver macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer T cells. In this chapter, we provide an overview on mechanisms through which FXR and GPBAR1 modulate the signaling between microbiota and intestinal and liver innate immune system. This overview could help to explain beneficial effects exerted by GPBAR1 and FXR agonists in the treatment of metabolic and immuno-mediated diseases.

Rethinking Bile Acid Metabolism and Signaling for Type 2 Diabetes Treatment

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Herein, we review the role of FXR and TGR5 in the regulation of hepatic bile acid metabolism, with a focus on how our understanding of bile acid metabolic regulation by these receptors has evolved in recent years and how this improved understanding may facilitate targeting bile acids for type 2 diabetes treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Bile acid profile is a key regulator of metabolic homeostasis. Inhibition of expression of the enzyme that is required for cholic acid synthesis and thus determines bile acid profile, Cyp8b1, may be an effective target for type 2 diabetes treatment. FXR and, more recently, TGR5 have been shown to regulate bile acid metabolism and Cyp8b1 expression and, therefore, may provide a mechanism with which to target bile acid profile for type 2 diabetes treatment. Inhibition of Cyp8b1 expression is a promising therapeutic modality for type 2 diabetes; however, further work is needed to fully understand the pathways regulating Cyp8b1 expression.

Bile Acids Activated Receptors Regulate Innate Immunity

Once known exclusively for their role in nutrients absorption, primary bile acids, chenodeoxycholic and cholic acid, and secondary bile acids, deoxycholic and lithocholic acid, are signaling molecules, generated from cholesterol breakdown by the interaction of the host and intestinal microbiota, acting on several receptors including the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1 or Takeda G-protein receptor 5) and the Farnesoid-X-Receptor (FXR). Both receptors are placed at the interface of the host immune system with the intestinal microbiota and are highly represented in cells of innate immunity such as intestinal and liver macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer T cells. Here, we review how GPBAR1 and FXR modulate the intestinal and liver innate immune system and contribute to the maintenance of a tolerogenic phenotype in entero-hepatic tissues, and how regulation of innate immunity might help to explain beneficial effects exerted by GPBAR1 and FXR ligands in immune and metabolic disorders.

Future trends in the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

With an estimated prevalence of ≈25% in Western and Asian countries, non alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), caused by chronic excessive caloric intake, is the emerging as the most prevalent liver disorder worldwide. NAFLD exists in two clinical entities, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFL), a relative benign disease that carry on minimal risk of liver-related morbidity but significant risk of cardiovascular complications, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a progressive liver disorder with a significant risk for development of liver-related morbidities and mortality. While, liver injury in NASH is contributed by lipid overload in hepatocytes, lipotoxicity, the main determinant of disease progression is an inflammation-driven fibrotic response. Here, we review the landscape of emerging pharmacological interventions in the treatment of NAFL and NASH. A consensus exists that, while treating the liver component of NASH requires development of novel pharmacological approaches, the future therapy of NASH needs to be tailored to the single patient and most likely will be a combination of agents acting on specific pathogenic mechanisms at different disease stage.