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Faria CP, Ferreira B, Lourenço Á, Guerra I, Melo T, Domingues P, Domingues MDRM, Cruz MT, Sousa MDC. Lipidome of extracellular vesicles from Giardia lamblia. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0291292. [PMID: 37683041 PMCID: PMC10490865 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0291292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) (exossomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies) have been well acknowledged as mediators of intercellular communications in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Lipids are essential molecular components of EVs but at the moment the knowledge about the lipid composition and the function of lipids in EVs is limited and as for now none lipidomic studies in Giardia EVs was described. Therefore, the focus of the current study was to conduct, for the first time, the characterization of the polar lipidome, namely phospholipid and sphingolipid profiles of G. lamblia trophozoites, microvesicles (MVs) and exosomes, using C18-Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (C18-LC-MS) and Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS). A total of 162 lipid species were identified and semi-quantified, in the trophozoites, or in the MVs and exosomes belonging to 8 lipid classes, including the phospholipid classes phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylinositol (PI), cardiolipins (CL), the sphingolipid classes sphingomyelin (SM) and ceramides (Cer), and cholesterol (ST), and 3 lipid subclasses that include lyso PC (LPC), lyso PE (LPE) and lyso PG (LPG), but showing different abundances. This work also identified, for the first time, in G. lamblia trophozoites, the lipid classes CL, Cer and ST and subclasses of LPC, LPE and LPG. Univariate and multivariate analysis showed clear discrimination of lipid profiles between trophozoite, exosomes and MVs. The principal component analysis (PCA) plot of the lipidomics dataset showed clear discrimination between the three groups. Future studies focused on the composition and functional properties of Giardia EVs may prove crucial to understand the role of lipids in host-parasite communication, and to identify new targets that could be exploited to develop novel classes of drugs to treat giardiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Perez Faria
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Ágata Lourenço
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Inês Guerra
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Department of Chemistry, CESAM Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Tânia Melo
- Department of Chemistry, CESAM Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Pedro Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Maria do Rosário Marques Domingues
- Department of Chemistry, CESAM Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Maria Teresa Cruz
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria do Céu Sousa
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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Omar M, Abdelal HO. Nitric oxide in parasitic infections: a friend or foe? J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:1147-1163. [PMID: 36457767 PMCID: PMC9606182 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-022-01518-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex interaction between the host and the parasite remains a puzzling question. Control of parasitic infections requires an efficient immune response that must be balanced against destructive pathological consequences. Nitric oxide is a nitrogenous free radical which has many molecular targets and serves diverse functions. Apart from being a signaling messenger, nitric oxide is critical for controlling numerous infections. There is still controversy surrounding the exact role of nitric oxide in the immune response against different parasitic species. It proved protective against intracellular protozoa, as well as extracellular helminths. At the same time, it plays a pivotal role in stimulating detrimental pathological changes in the infected hosts. Several reports have discussed the anti-parasitic and immunoregulatory functions of nitric oxide, which could directly influence the control of the infection. Nevertheless, there is scarce literature addressing the harmful cytotoxic impacts of this mediator. Thus, this review provides insights into the most updated concepts and controversies regarding the dual nature and opposing sides of nitric oxide during the course of different parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Omar
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Gameyet Almohafza St. 1, Menya Al-Kamh, City of Zagazig, 44511 Sharkia Governorate Egypt
| | - Heba O. Abdelal
- LIS: Cross-National Data Center, Maison des Sciences Humaines - 5e étage, 11- porte des Sciences, L-4366 Esch-Belval, Luxembourg
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Rashidi S, Mansouri R, Ali-Hassanzadeh M, Muro A, Nguewa P, Manzano-Román R. The Defensive Interactions of Prominent Infectious Protozoan Parasites: The Host's Complement System. Biomolecules 2022; 12:1564. [PMID: 36358913 PMCID: PMC9687244 DOI: 10.3390/biom12111564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The complement system exerts crucial functions both in innate immune responses and adaptive humoral immunity. This pivotal system plays a major role dealing with pathogen invasions including protozoan parasites. Different pathogens including parasites have developed sophisticated strategies to defend themselves against complement killing. Some of these strategies include the employment, mimicking or inhibition of host's complement regulatory proteins, leading to complement evasion. Therefore, parasites are proven to use the manipulation of the complement system to assist them during infection and persistence. Herein, we attempt to study the interaction´s mechanisms of some prominent infectious protozoan parasites including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Trypanosoma, and Leishmania dealing with the complement system. Moreover, several crucial proteins that are expressed, recruited or hijacked by parasites and are involved in the modulation of the host´s complement system are selected and their role for efficient complement killing or lysis evasion is discussed. In addition, parasite's complement regulatory proteins appear as plausible therapeutic and vaccine targets in protozoan parasitic infections. Accordingly, we also suggest some perspectives and insights useful in guiding future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Rashidi
- Molecular and Medicine Research Center, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein 38811, Iran
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein 38811, Iran
| | - Reza Mansouri
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Yazd 8915173143, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali-Hassanzadeh
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft 7861615765, Iran
| | - Antonio Muro
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Group (e-INTRO), Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca-Research Center for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Paul Nguewa
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), University of Navarra, C/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Raúl Manzano-Román
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Group (e-INTRO), Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca-Research Center for Tropical Diseases at the University of Salamanca (IBSAL-CIETUS), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
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Lê HG, Kang JM, Võ TC, Na BK. Naegleria fowleri Cathepsin B Induces a Pro-Inflammatory Immune Response in BV-2 Microglial Cells via NF-κB and AP-1 Dependent-MAPK Signaling Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158388. [PMID: 35955520 PMCID: PMC9369353 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri is a ubiquitous protozoa parasite that can cause primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a fatal brain infection in humans. Cathepsin Bs of N. fowleri (NfCBs) are multifamily enzymes. Although their pathogenic mechanism in PAM is not clearly understood yet, NfCBs have been proposed as pathogenic factors involved in the pathogenicity of amoeba. In this study, the immune response of BV-2 microglial cells induced by NfCB was analyzed. Recombinant NfCB (rNfCB) evoked enhanced expressions of TLR-2, TLR-4, and MyD88 in BV-2 microglial cells. This enzyme also induced an elevated production of several pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and iNOS in cells. The inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including JNK, p38, and ERK, effectively reduced the production of these pro-inflammatory cytokines. The rNfCB-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in BV-2 microglial cells was suppressed by inhibiting NF-kB and AP-1. Phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 in cells were also enhanced by rNfCB. These results suggest that NfCB can induce a pro-inflammatory immune response in BV-2 microglial cells via the NF-κB- and AP-1-dependent MAPK signaling pathways. Such a NfCB-induced pro-inflammatory immune response in BV-2 microglial cells might contribute to the pathogenesis of PAM caused by amoeba, by exacerbating deleterious immune responses and tissue damages in N. fowleri-infected foci of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hương Giang Lê
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Jinju 52727, Korea; (H.G.L.); (J.-M.K.); (T.C.V.)
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Korea
| | - Jung-Mi Kang
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Jinju 52727, Korea; (H.G.L.); (J.-M.K.); (T.C.V.)
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Korea
| | - Tuấn Cường Võ
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Jinju 52727, Korea; (H.G.L.); (J.-M.K.); (T.C.V.)
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Korea
| | - Byoung-Kuk Na
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Jinju 52727, Korea; (H.G.L.); (J.-M.K.); (T.C.V.)
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Korea
- Correspondence:
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Ianiro G, Iorio A, Porcari S, Masucci L, Sanguinetti M, Perno CF, Gasbarrini A, Putignani L, Cammarota G. How the gut parasitome affects human health. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 2022; 15:17562848221091524. [PMID: 35509426 PMCID: PMC9058362 DOI: 10.1177/17562848221091524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gut microbiome (GM) is a complex ecosystem that includes numerous prokaryotic and eukaryotic inhabitants. The composition of GM can influence an array of host physiological functions including immune development. Accumulating evidence suggest that several members of non-bacterial microbiota, including protozoa and helminths, that were earlier considered as pathogens, could have a commensal or beneficial relationship with the host. Here we examine the most recent data from omics studies on prokaryota-meiofauna-host interaction as well as the impact of gut parasitome on gut bacterial ecology and its role as 'immunological driver' in health and disease to glimpse new therapeutic perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Iorio
- Department of Diagnostic and Laboratory Medicine, Unit of Parasitology and Multimodal Laboratory Medicine Research Area, Unit of Human Microbiome, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Serena Porcari
- Gastroenterology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Luca Masucci
- Microbiology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario ‘A. Gemelli’ IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Microbiology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario ‘A. Gemelli’ IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo Federico Perno
- Department of Diagnostic and Laboratory Medicine, Unit of Microbiology and Diagnostic Immunology, and Multimodal Laboratory Medicine Research Area, Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Roma, Italy
| | - Antonio Gasbarrini
- Gastroenterology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Lorenza Putignani
- Department of Diagnostic and Laboratory Medicine, Unit of Parasitology and Multimodal Laboratory Medicine Research Area, Unit of Human Microbiome, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cammarota
- Gastroenterology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy
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The Anti-Apoptotic Role of COX-2 during In Vitro Infection of Human Intestinal Cell Line by Giardia duodenalis and The Potential Regulators. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0067221. [PMID: 35130451 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00672-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis inhabits the upper small intestine of mammals including humans and causes a disease known as giardiasis, which can lead to diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and bloating. G. duodenalis was known as a causative factor of intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) apoptosis. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) has been identified as an influencing factor of pathogen infection by participating in immune response, while its role in host defense against Giardia infection is not clear. Here we initially observed the involvement of COX-2 in the regulation of Giardia-induced IEC apoptosis. Inhibition of COX-2 activity could promote Giardia-induced reduction of IEC viability, increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and decrease of nitric oxide (NO) release, which would exacerbate IEC apoptosis. In addition, during Giardia-IEC interactions, COX-2 inhibition was able to accelerate caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage, and inhibit the expressions of some anti-apoptotic proteins like cIAP-2 and survivin. In contrast, COX-2 over-expression could reduce Giardia-induced IEC apoptosis. We further investigated the regulatory mechanisms affecting COX-2 expression in terms of anti-apoptosis. The results showed that p38/ERK/AKT/NF-κB signaling could regulate COX-2-mediated ROS/NO production and anti-IEC apoptosis during Giardia infection. We also found that COX-2-mediated anti-IEC apoptosis induced by Giardia was related to TLR4-dependent activation of p38-NF-κB signaling. Collectively, this study identified COX-2 as a promoter for apoptotic resistance during Giardia-IEC interactions and determined the potential regulators, furthering our knowledge of anti-Giardia host defense mechanism.
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Liu L, Yang Y, Fang R, Zhu W, Wu J, Li X, Patankar JV, Li W. Giardia duodenalis and Its Secreted PPIB Trigger Inflammasome Activation and Pyroptosis in Macrophages through TLR4-Induced ROS Signaling and A20-Mediated NLRP3 Deubiquitination. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123425. [PMID: 34943932 PMCID: PMC8700504 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracellular protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis is a well-known and important causative agent of diarrhea on a global scale. Macrophage pyroptosis has been recognized as an important innate immune effector mechanism against intracellular pathogens. Yet, the effects of noninvasive Giardia infection on macrophage pyroptosis and the associated molecular triggers and regulators remain poorly defined. Here we initially observed that NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis was activated in Giardia-treated macrophages, and inhibition of ROS, NLRP3, or caspase-1 could block GSDMD cleavage, IL-1β, IL-18 and LDH release, and the cell viability reduction. We also confirmed that Giardia-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was involved in its K63 deubiquitination. Thus, six candidate deubiquitinases were screened, among which A20 was identified as an effective regulator. We then screened TLRs on macrophage membranes and found that upon stimulation TLR4 was tightly correlated to ROS enhancement, A20-mediated NLRP3 deubiquitination, and pyroptotic signaling. In addition, several Giardia-secreted proteins were predicted as trigger factors via secretome analysis, of which peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase B (PPIB) independently induced macrophage pyroptosis. This was similar to the findings from the trophozoite treatment, and also led to the TLR4-mediated activation of NLRP3 through K63 deubiquitination by A20. Collectively, the results of this study have significant implications for expanding our understanding of host defense mechanisms after infection with G. duodenalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Liu
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Yongwu Yang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Rui Fang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Weining Zhu
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Jingxue Wu
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Xiaoyun Li
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
| | - Jay V. Patankar
- Department of Medicine 1, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91052 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Wei Li
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (L.L.); (Y.Y.); (R.F.); (W.Z.); (J.W.); (X.L.)
- Correspondence: or
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Wang S, Gao Y. Pancreatic cancer cell-derived microRNA-155-5p-containing extracellular vesicles promote immune evasion by triggering EHF-dependent activation of Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 100:107990. [PMID: 34482266 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC)-derived EVs have been extensively investigated due to their promising potential as disease biomarkers for diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment decisionmaking. Herein, we explored the mechanism underlying PC-derived EVs in immune evasion of PC. Initially, microRNA (miR)-155-5p level was quantified by RT-qPCR in tumor tissue samples from PC patients, EVs isolated from PC cell lines and PC cell lines. Then, the interaction between miR-155-5p and EHF was identified using dual-luciferase reporter assay. Ectopic expression and knockdown experiments were conducted in PC cells, PC cells-derived EVs, or mouse xenograft model of PC. Afterwards, cell invasion, proportion of macrophage and immune cell subsets, and expression of NF-κB signaling-related genes were assessed using Transwell assay, flow cytometry, RT-qPCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Accordingly, miR-155-5p was upregulated in clinical tissue samples, Pan02-derived EVs and PC cell lines. miR-155-5p knockdown in PC cells enhanced anti-tumor immunity. PC cell-derived EVs facilitated immunosuppressive microenvironment by promoting T cell depletion. In addition, PC cell-derived EVs transferred miR-155-5p to macrophages and then promoted polarization of macrophages to M2 phenotype. EHF was downregulated in PC and could be targeted by miR-155-5p, which resulted in the activation of the Akt/NF-κB signaling. Our findings revealed a previously unrecognized tumor immune evasion-promoting function of PC-derived EV miR-155-5p in PC development by suppressing EHF and activating NF-κB signaling. This study suggested that the miR-155-5p/EHF/Akt/NF-κB axis can be exploited to prevent cancer immune evasion triggered by therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxia Wang
- Department of Special Needs Ward, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi 276100, PR China
| | - Yongli Gao
- Third Department of Oncology, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi 276100, PR China.
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Resveratrol Can Attenuate Astrocyte Activation to Treat Spinal Cord Injury by Inhibiting Inflammatory Responses. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:5799-5813. [PMID: 34410605 PMCID: PMC8374881 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02509-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Several preclinical and clinical studies have attempted to elucidate the pathophysiological mechanism associated with spinal cord injury. However, investigations have been unable to define the precise related mechanisms, and this has led to the lack of effective therapeutic agents for the condition. Neuroinflammation is one of the predominant processes that hinder spinal cord injury recovery. Resveratrol is a compound that has several biological features, such as antioxidation, antibacterial, and antiinflammation. Herein, we reviewed preclinical and clinical studies to delineate the role of toll-like receptors, nod-like receptors, and astrocytes in neuroinflammation. In particular, the alteration of astrocytes in SCI causes glial scar formation that impedes spinal cord injury recovery. Therefore, to improve injury recovery would be to prevent the occurrence of this process. Resveratrol is safe and effective in the significant modulation of neuroinflammatory factors, particularly those mediated by astrocytes. Thus, its potential ability to enhance the injury recovery process and ameliorate spinal cord injury.
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Pu X, Li X, Cao L, Yue K, Zhao P, Wang X, Li J, Zhang X, Zhang N, Zhao Z, Liang M, Gong P. Giardia duodenalis Induces Proinflammatory Cytokine Production in Mouse Macrophages via TLR9-Mediated p38 and ERK Signaling Pathways. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:694675. [PMID: 34336841 PMCID: PMC8319647 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.694675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis, also known as Giardia lamblia or Giardia intestinalis, is an important opportunistic, pathogenic, zoonotic, protozoan parasite that infects the small intestines of humans and animals, causing giardiasis. Several studies have demonstrated that innate immunity-associated Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are critical for the elimination of G. duodenalis; however, whether TLR9 has a role in innate immune responses against Giardia infection remains unknown. In the present study, various methods, including reverse transcriptase–quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, immunofluorescence, inhibitor assays, and small-interfering RNA interference, were utilized to probe the role of TLR9 in mouse macrophage-mediated defenses against G. lamblia virus (GLV)–free or GLV-containing Giardia trophozoites. The results revealed that in G. duodenalis–stimulated mouse macrophages, the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and IL-12 p40, was enhanced, concomitant with the significant activation of TLR9, whereas silencing TLR9 attenuated the host inflammatory response. Notably, the presence of GLV exacerbated the secretion of host proinflammatory cytokines. Moreover, G. duodenalis stimulation activated multiple signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor κB p65 (NF-κB p65), p38, ERK, and AKT pathways, the latter three in a TLR9-dependent manner. Additionally, inhibiting the p38 or ERK pathway downregulated the G. duodenalis–induced inflammatory response, whereas AKT inhibition aggravated this process. Taken together, these results indicated that G. duodenalis may induce the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by activating the p38 and ERK signaling pathways in a TLR9-dependent manner in mouse macrophages. Our in vitro findings on the mechanism underlying the TLR9-mediated host inflammatory response may help establish the foundation for an in-depth investigation of the role of TLR9 in the pathogenicity of G. duodenalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xudong Pu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lili Cao
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Parasite, Jilin Academy of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Kaiming Yue
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Panpan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaocen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jianhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xichen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhiteng Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Min Liang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Pengtao Gong
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Walters HA, Temesvari LA. Target acquired: transcriptional regulators as drug targets for protozoan parasites. Int J Parasitol 2021; 51:599-611. [PMID: 33722681 PMCID: PMC8169582 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites are single-celled eukaryotic organisms that cause significant human disease and pose a substantial health and socioeconomic burden worldwide. They are responsible for at least 1 million deaths annually. The treatment of such diseases is hindered by the ability of parasites to form latent cysts, develop drug resistance, or be transmitted by insect vectors. Additionally, these pathogens have developed complex mechanisms to alter host gene expression. The prevalence of these diseases is predicted to increase as climate change leads to the augmentation of ambient temperatures, insect ranges, and warm water reservoirs. Therefore, the discovery of novel treatments is necessary. Transcription factors lie at the junction of multiple signalling pathways in eukaryotes and aberrant transcription factor function contributes to the progression of numerous human diseases including cancer, diabetes, inflammatory disorders and cardiovascular disease. Transcription factors were previously thought to be undruggable. However, due to recent advances, transcription factors now represent appealing drug targets. It is conceivable that transcription factors, and the pathways they regulate, may also serve as targets for anti-parasitic drug design. Here, we review transcription factors and transcriptional modulators of protozoan parasites, and discuss how they may be useful in drug discovery. We also provide information on transcription factors that play a role in stage conversion of parasites, TATA box-binding proteins, and transcription factors and cofactors that participate with RNA polymerases I, II and III. We also highlight a significant gap in knowledge in that the transcription factors of some of parasites have been under-investigated. Understanding parasite transcriptional pathways and how parasites alter host gene expression will be essential in discovering innovative drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- H A Walters
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, United States; Eukaryotic Pathogens Innovation Center, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, United States
| | - L A Temesvari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, United States; Eukaryotic Pathogens Innovation Center, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, United States.
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Lin K, Zhou D, Li M, Meng J, He F, Yang X, Dong D, Wang X, Wu X, Chen X, Hou J. Echinococcus granulosus cyst fluid suppresses inflammatory responses by inhibiting TRAF6 signalling in macrophages. Parasitology 2021; 148:887-894. [PMID: 33775265 PMCID: PMC11010193 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021000548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato has complex defence mechanisms that protect it from the anti-parasitic immune response for long periods. Echinococcus granulosus cyst fluid (EgCF) is involved in the immune escape. Nevertheless, whether and how EgCF modulates the inflammatory response in macrophages remains poorly understood. Here, real-time polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed that EgCF could markedly attenuate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of pro-inflammatory factors including tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-6 but increase the expression of IL-10 at mRNA and protein levels in mouse peritoneal macrophages and RAW 264.7 cells. Mechanically, western blotting and immunofluorescence assay showed that EgCF abolished the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and ERK1/2 signalling pathways by LPS stimulation in mouse macrophages. EgCF's anti-inflammatory role was at least partly contributed by promoting proteasomal degradation of the critical adaptor TRAF6. Moreover, the EgCF-promoted anti-inflammatory response and TRAF6 proteasomal degradation were conserved in human THP-1 macrophages. These findings collectively reveal a novel mechanism by which EgCF suppresses inflammatory responses by inhibiting TRAF6 and the downstream activation of NF-κB and MAPK signalling in both human and mouse macrophages, providing new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the E. granulosus-induced immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Lin
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Di Zhou
- Medical Laboratory, the First Affiliated Hospital, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Min Li
- Nursing School of Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Jin Meng
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Feiming He
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Dan Dong
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Xian Wang
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Xiangwei Wu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Xueling Chen
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Jun Hou
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China
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