The essential inner membrane protein YejM is a metalloenzyme

Microplastic pollution interaction with disinfectant resistance genes: research progress, environmental impacts, and potential threats

The consumption of disposable plastic products and disinfectants has surged during the global COVID-19 pandemic, as they play a vital role in effectively preventing and controlling the spread of the virus. However, microplastic pollution and the excessive or improper use of disinfectants contribute to the increased environmental tolerance of microorganisms. Microplastics play a crucial role as vectors for microorganisms and plankton, facilitating energy transfer and horizontal gene exchange. The increase in the use of disinfectants has become a driving force for the growth of disinfectant resistant bacteria (DRB). A large number of microorganisms can have intense gene exchange, such as plasmid loss and capture, phage transduction, and cell fusion. The reproduction and diffusion rate of DRB in the environment is significantly higher than that of ordinary microorganisms, which will greatly increase the environmental tolerance of DRB. Unfortunately, there is still a huge knowledge gap in the interaction between microplastics and disinfectant resistance genes (DRGs). Accordingly, it is critical to comprehensively summarize the formation and transmission routes of DRGs on microplastics to address the problem. This paper systematically analyzed the process and mechanisms of DRGs formed by microbes. The interaction between microplastics and DRGs and the contribution of microplastic on the diffusion and spread of DRGs were expounded. The potential threats to the ecological environment and human health were also discussed. Additionally, some challenges and future priorities were also proposed with a view to providing useful basis for further research.

Trade-offs constrain adaptive pathways to the type VI secretion system survival

The Type VI Secretion System (T6SS) is a nano-harpoon used by many bacteria to inject toxins into neighboring cells. While much is understood about mechanisms of T6SS-mediated toxicity, less is known about the ways that competitors can defend themselves against this attack, especially in the absence of their own T6SS. Here we subjected eight replicate populations of Escherichia coli to T6SS attack by Vibrio cholerae. Over ∼500 generations of competition, isolates of the E. coli populations evolved to survive T6SS attack an average of 27-fold better, through two convergently evolved pathways: apaH was mutated in six of the eight replicate populations, while the other two populations each had mutations in both yejM and yjeP. However, the mutations we identified are pleiotropic, reducing cellular growth rates, and increasing susceptibility to antibiotics and elevated pH. These trade-offs help us understand how the T6SS shapes the evolution of bacterial interactions.

Distribution of virulence-associated genes, antibiotic resistance and phylogenetic groups in Escherichia coli isolated from domestic and racing pigeons

Despite a lot of information about virulence and resistance of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in poultry, very limited data are currently available on its occurrence in pigeon isolates, although this poses a threat to human and animal health. Therefore, this study was conducted to explore the phylogenetic classification, antibiotic sensitivity, and virulence factors in E. coli isolated from cloacal swabs of domestic pigeons bred for meat (n = 47) and racing pigeons (n = 44). The most frequent phylogroup in racing pigeons was E (36, 82.00%), unlike domestic pigeons (B2- 19, 40.00%). The most abundant iron uptake system in both groups of bird was feoB (racing = 40, 90.90%; domestic = 44, 93.61%). The presence of ibeA (52, 57.10%) and kpsMTII (46, 50.50%) genes was detected in more than half of all strains belonging exclusively to phylogroups B2, D, E, F, clade I. Antibiotic resistance was higher in racing pigeons. All racing pigeon isolates were resistant to tetracycline and trimethoprim + sulphonamide. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was determined in three isolates (6.38%) of domestic and 33 isolates (75%) of racing pigeons. Aminoglycosides and β-lactamases resistance were also recorded. One of the important detected phenotypic mechanisms of resistance occurring in isolates from racing pigeons was AGL AAC(6´)I. Our study confirms that healthy pigeons are a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant E. coli containing an arsenal of virulence factors, thus capable of potentially causing infection. Pigeons with the option to fly to multiple places can transfer virulent and resistant bacteria. Direct contact with pigeons and their faeces and the contamination of water and food pose a threat of infection to humans and other animal species.

Retrospective analysis of drug resistance characteristics and infection related risk factors of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) isolated from the orthopedics department of a tertiary hospital

Patients infected with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) are known to exhibit longer hospital stays and a significantly poorer prognosis. We performed a 6-year retrospective analysis of nosocomial infections reported in the orthopedics department of our institution, to gain valuable insights into antibiotic sensitivity and infectious characteristics of MDROs, in order to deduce effective measures to control the occurrence of multidrug-resistant infections in clinical practice. A retrospective, single center surveillance study (January 2012-December 2017) was performed on the nosocomial infections recorded in the department of orthopedics. A nosocomial infection is defined as one that develops when a patient is residing in a hospital but was not present at the time of admission. All relevant data, including basic patient information, cultivated bacterial strains, and antimicrobial resistance, was obtained from the hospital information system. A total of 1392 strains of pathogenic bacteria were isolated; 358 belonged to MDROs (detection rate = 25.7%). All the isolated strains of MDROs were mostly from secretions (52.2%). The number of cases infected with MDROs were 144 (40.2%) and 129 (36.0%) in the trauma and spinal wards, respectively. MRSA showed high resistance to β lactam antibiotics, but was sensitive to quinolone antibiotics, linezolid and cotrimoxazole. ESBL-positive strains showed more sensitivity to carbapenem antibiotics (resistance rate < 10%). MDR nonfermenters showed high resistance to most antibiotics. Logistic multivariate analysis revealed age, open injury, and central nervous system injury as independent risk factors for multidrug resistant infections. A high antibiotic resistance rate and an increasing prevalence of infections with MDROs was identified in the orthopedics department. Patients with open injury, central nervous system injury and those aged ≥ 60 years, were more prone to multidrug-resistant infections. Clinicians should pay more attention to such patients in order to actively prevent and control the occurrence of infections caused by MDROs.

Metagenomics-resolved genomics provides novel insights into chitin turnover, metabolic specialization, and niche partitioning in the octocoral microbiome

BACKGROUND

The role of bacterial symbionts that populate octocorals (Cnidaria, Octocorallia) is still poorly understood. To shed light on their metabolic capacities, we examined 66 high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) spanning 30 prokaryotic species, retrieved from microbial metagenomes of three octocoral species and seawater.

RESULTS

Symbionts of healthy octocorals were affiliated with the taxa Endozoicomonadaceae, Candidatus Thioglobaceae, Metamycoplasmataceae, unclassified Pseudomonadales, Rhodobacteraceae, unclassified Alphaproteobacteria and Ca. Rhabdochlamydiaceae. Phylogenomics inference revealed that the Endozoicomonadaceae symbionts uncovered here represent two species of a novel genus unique to temperate octocorals, here denoted Ca. Gorgonimonas eunicellae and Ca. Gorgonimonas leptogorgiae. Their genomes revealed metabolic capacities to thrive under suboxic conditions and high gene copy numbers of serine-threonine protein kinases, type 3-secretion system, type-4 pili, and ankyrin-repeat proteins, suggesting excellent capabilities to colonize, aggregate, and persist inside their host. Contrarily, MAGs obtained from seawater frequently lacked symbiosis-related genes. All Endozoicomonadaceae symbionts harbored endo-chitinase and chitin-binging protein-encoding genes, indicating that they can hydrolyze the most abundant polysaccharide in the oceans. Other symbionts, including Metamycoplasmataceae and Ca. Thioglobaceae, may assimilate the smaller chitin oligosaccharides resulting from chitin breakdown and engage in chitin deacetylation, respectively, suggesting possibilities for substrate cross-feeding and a role for the coral microbiome in overall chitin turnover. We also observed sharp differences in secondary metabolite production potential between symbiotic lineages. Specific Proteobacteria taxa may specialize in chemical defense and guard other symbionts, including Endozoicomonadaceae, which lack such capacity.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to recover MAGs from dominant symbionts of octocorals, including those of so-far unculturable Endozoicomonadaceae, Ca. Thioglobaceae and Metamycoplasmataceae symbionts. We identify a thus-far unanticipated, global role for Endozoicomonadaceae symbionts of corals in the processing of chitin, the most abundant natural polysaccharide in the oceans and major component of the natural zoo- and phytoplankton feed of octocorals. We conclude that niche partitioning, metabolic specialization, and adaptation to low oxygen conditions among prokaryotic symbionts likely contribute to the plasticity and adaptability of the octocoral holobiont in changing marine environments. These findings bear implications not only for our understanding of symbiotic relationships in the marine realm but also for the functioning of benthic ecosystems at large. Video Abstract.

Checkpoints That Regulate Balanced Biosynthesis of Lipopolysaccharide and Its Essentiality in Escherichia coli

The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, is essential for their viability. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) constitutes the major component of OM, providing the permeability barrier, and a tight balance exists between LPS and phospholipids amounts as both of these essential components use a common metabolic precursor. Hence, checkpoints are in place, right from the regulation of the first committed step in LPS biosynthesis mediated by LpxC through its turnover by FtsH and HslUV proteases in coordination with LPS assembly factors LapB and LapC. After the synthesis of LPS on the inner leaflet of the inner membrane (IM), LPS is flipped by the IM-located essential ATP-dependent transporter to the periplasmic face of IM, where it is picked up by the LPS transport complex spanning all three components of the cell envelope for its delivery to OM. MsbA exerts its intrinsic hydrocarbon ruler function as another checkpoint to transport hexa-acylated LPS as compared to underacylated LPS. Additional checkpoints in LPS assembly are: LapB-assisted coupling of LPS synthesis and translocation; cardiolipin presence when LPS is underacylated; the recruitment of RfaH transcriptional factor ensuring the transcription of LPS core biosynthetic genes; and the regulated incorporation of non-stoichiometric modifications, controlled by the stress-responsive RpoE sigma factor, small RNAs and two-component systems.

Comparison of Antimicrobial Resistance, Virulence Genes, Phylogroups, and Biofilm Formation of Escherichia coli Isolated From Intensive Farming and Free-Range Sheep

Pathogenic E. coli are among the most frequently isolated bacterial pathogens on large-scale sheep farms in China. Antibiotic use in wool sheep production is a risk factor for promoting the emergence of resistant E. coli. To reveal the differences of E. coli populations in sheep from different farming systems the antimicrobial resistance, virulence genes, biofilm formation, and phylogroups of 500 E. coli isolates obtained between September 2019 and December 2020 in northwest China from diarrheic infections of intensive farming and free-range sheep were analyzed. The antimicrobial susceptibility test for 12 classes of antimicrobial agents was determined using the broth microdilution susceptibility method, and PCR was used to detect the differences in virulence genes and phylogroups. Additionally, biofilm formation was determined using microtiter plate and slide agglutination methods. Among the 500 E. coli isolates, the majority of the isolates were multidrug resistant (75.4%) and carried at least one virulence gene (94.8%). We observed that 412 (82.4%), 360 (72.0%), and 266 (53.2%) are found to be resistant to sulfisoxazole, florfenicol, and tetracyclines, respectively. Resistance was also observed to mequindox (46.8%), ampicillin (43.6%), spectinomycin (38.6%), enrofloxacin (34.2%), ceftiofur (21.0%), gentamycin (20.4%), ceftazidime (17.8%), and polymyxin B (7.8%) but no resistance was found to meropenem. These results showed that strains from free-range subjects had fewer antibiotic resistance strains rather than sheep that were intensively farmed (P < 0.05). We observed fifteen virulence genes, of which etrA (n = 401, 80.2%) is the most common. In addition, EAEC (86.4%) is dominant among free-range sheep and EHEC (80.1%) is dominant among intensive farming. Among all virulence genes, the strongest correlation was found between etrA and papC gene (P < 0.001, OR = 455.68). Similarly, the strongest correlation was also found between eltA and sulfisoxazole (P < 0.001, OR = 877). Furthermore, the majority of the E. coli isolates belonged to phylogroup B1 (50.6%), followed by phylogroup C (20.6%), A (7.4%), E (7.4%), D (5.8%), B2 (1.6%), and F (1%). Interestingly, phylogroup B2 and D were all distributed in intensive farms. In addition, 33 (6.6%), 373 (74.6%), and 94 (18.8%) showed moderate, weak, and no connection biofilm formation ability, respectively. These data uncovered that wool sheep serve as a reservoir of pathogenic E. coli harboring multiple resistance phenotypes and virulence genes. The overlapping virulence-associated traits between IPEC and ExPEC indicated the zoonotic potential and safety threats of sheep food products. It is urgent to improve the proper use of antimicrobials in China as well as other countries.

The inner membrane protein LapB is required for adaptation to cold stress in an LpxC-independent manner

The inner membrane protein lipopolysaccharide assembly protein B (LapB) is an adaptor protein that activates the proteolysis of LpxC by an essential inner membrane metalloprotease, FtsH, leading to a decrease in the level of lipopolysaccharide in the membrane. In this study, we revealed the mechanism by which the essential inner membrane protein YejM regulates LapB and analyzed the role of the transmembrane domain of LapB in Escherichia coli. The transmembrane domain of YejM genetically and physically interacted with LapB and inhibited its function, which led to the accumulation of LpxC. The transmembrane domain of LapB was indispensable for both its physical interaction with YejM and its regulation of LpxC proteolysis. Notably, we found that the lapB mutant exhibited strong cold sensitivity and this phenotype was not associated with increased accumulation of LpxC. The transmembrane domain of LapB was also required for its role in adaptation to cold stress. Taken together, these results showed that LapB plays an important role in both the regulation of LpxC level, which is controlled by its interaction with the transmembrane domain of YejM, and adaptation to cold stress, which is independent of LpxC.

Effect of Food Endotoxin on Infant Health

Endotoxin is a complex molecule derived from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and it has strong thermal stability. The processing of infant food can kill pathogenic bacteria but cannot remove endotoxin. Because the intestinal structure of infants is not fully developed, residual endotoxin poses a threat to their health by damaging the intestinal flora and inducing intestinal inflammation, obesity, and sepsis, among others. This paper discusses the sources and contents of endotoxin in infant food and methods for preventing endotoxin from harming infants. However, there is no clear evidence that endotoxin levels in infant food cause significant immune symptoms or even diseases in infants. However, in order to improve the safety level of infant food and reduce the endotoxin content, this issue should not be ignored. The purpose of this review is to provide a theoretical basis for manufacturers and consumers to understand the possible harm of endotoxin content in infant formula milk powder and to explore how to reduce its level in infant formula milk powder. Generally, producers should focus on cleaning the milk source, securing the cold chain, avoiding long-distance transportation, and shortening the storage time of raw milk to reduce the level of bacteria and endotoxin. After production and processing, the endotoxin content should be measured as an important index to test the quality of infant formula milk powder so as to provide high-quality infant products for the healthy growth of newborns.

Disinfectant resistance in bacteria: Mechanisms, spread, and resolution strategies

Disinfectants are widely acknowledged for removing microorganisms from the surface of the objects and transmission media. However, the emergence of disinfectant resistance has become a severe threat to the safety of life and health and the rational allocation of resources due to the reduced disinfectant effectiveness. The horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of disinfectant resistance genes has also expanded the resistant flora, making the situation worse. This review focused on the resistance mechanisms of disinfectant resistant bacteria on biofilms, cell membrane permeability, efflux pumps, degradable enzymes, and disinfectant targets. Efflux can be the fastest and most effective resistance mechanism for bacteria to respond to stress. The qac genes, located on some plasmids which can transmit resistance through conjugative transfer, are the most commonly reported in the study of disinfectant resistance genes. Whether the qac genes can be transferred through transformation or transduction is still unclear. Studying the factors affecting the resistance of bacteria to disinfectants can find breakthrough methods to more adequately deal with the problem of reduced disinfectant effectiveness. It has been confirmed that the interaction of probiotics and bacteria or the addition of 4-oxazolidinone can inhibit the formation of biofilms. Chemicals such as eugenol and indole derivatives can increase bacterial sensitivity by reducing the expression of efflux pumps. The role of these findings in anti-disinfectant resistance has proved invaluable.

Regulation of the First Committed Step in Lipopolysaccharide Biosynthesis Catalyzed by LpxC Requires the Essential Protein LapC (YejM) and HslVU Protease

We previously showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) assembly requires the essential LapB protein to regulate FtsH-mediated proteolysis of LpxC protein that catalyzes the first committed step in the LPS synthesis. To further understand the essential function of LapB and its role in LpxC turnover, multicopy suppressors of ΔlapB revealed that overproduction of HslV protease subunit prevents its lethality by proteolytic degradation of LpxC, providing the first alternative pathway of LpxC degradation. Isolation and characterization of an extragenic suppressor mutation that prevents lethality of ΔlapB by restoration of normal LPS synthesis identified a frame-shift mutation after 377 aa in the essential gene designated lapC, suggesting LapB and LapC act antagonistically. The same lapC gene was identified during selection for mutations that induce transcription from LPS defects-responsive rpoEP3 promoter, confer sensitivity to LpxC inhibitor CHIR090 and a temperature-sensitive phenotype. Suppressors of lapC mutants that restored growth at elevated temperatures mapped to lapA/lapB, lpxC and ftsH genes. Such suppressor mutations restored normal levels of LPS and prevented proteolysis of LpxC in lapC mutants. Interestingly, a lapC deletion could be constructed in strains either overproducing LpxC or in the absence of LapB, revealing that FtsH, LapB and LapC together regulate LPS synthesis by controlling LpxC amounts.