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Wu F, Du H, Overbey E, Kim J, Makhijani P, Martin N, Lerner CA, Nguyen K, Baechle J, Valentino TR, Fuentealba M, Bartleson JM, Halaweh H, Winer S, Meydan C, Garrett-Bakelman F, Sayed N, Melov S, Muratani M, Gerencser AA, Kasler HG, Beheshti A, Mason CE, Furman D, Winer DA. Single-cell analysis identifies conserved features of immune dysfunction in simulated microgravity and spaceflight. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4795. [PMID: 38862487 PMCID: PMC11166937 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42013-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Microgravity is associated with immunological dysfunction, though the mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, using single-cell analysis of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) exposed to short term (25 hours) simulated microgravity, we characterize altered genes and pathways at basal and stimulated states with a Toll-like Receptor-7/8 agonist. We validate single-cell analysis by RNA sequencing and super-resolution microscopy, and against data from the Inspiration-4 (I4) mission, JAXA (Cell-Free Epigenome) mission, Twins study, and spleens from mice on the International Space Station. Overall, microgravity alters specific pathways for optimal immunity, including the cytoskeleton, interferon signaling, pyroptosis, temperature-shock, innate inflammation (e.g., Coronavirus pathogenesis pathway and IL-6 signaling), nuclear receptors, and sirtuin signaling. Microgravity directs monocyte inflammatory parameters, and impairs T cell and NK cell functionality. Using machine learning, we identify numerous compounds linking microgravity to immune cell transcription, and demonstrate that the flavonol, quercetin, can reverse most abnormal pathways. These results define immune cell alterations in microgravity, and provide opportunities for countermeasures to maintain normal immunity in space.
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Grants
- R01 MH117406 NIMH NIH HHS
- T32 AG000266 NIA NIH HHS
- This work was supported in part through funds derived from the Buck Institute for Research on Aging (D.A.W., D.F.), and the Huiying Memorial Foundation (D.A.W.). T.V. and J.B. are funded by a T32 NIH fellowship grant (NIA T32 AG000266). C.E.M. thanks the Scientific Computing Unit (SCU) at WCM, the WorldQuant Foundation, NASA (NNX14AH50G, NNX17AB26G, 80NSSC22K0254, NNH18ZTT001N-FG2, 80NSSC22K0254, NNX16AO69A), the National Institutes of Health (R01MH117406), and LLS (MCL7001-18, LLS 9238-16).
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wu
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Huixun Du
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Eliah Overbey
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - JangKeun Kim
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Priya Makhijani
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Nicolas Martin
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Chad A Lerner
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Khiem Nguyen
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Jordan Baechle
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | | | | | | | - Heather Halaweh
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Shawn Winer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Cem Meydan
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Francine Garrett-Bakelman
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Nazish Sayed
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Simon Melov
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | - Masafumi Muratani
- Transborder Medical Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
- Department of Genome Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | | | | | - Afshin Beheshti
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Space Biosciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, 94043, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Christopher E Mason
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
- The HRH Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Bin Abdulaziz Alsaud Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
- WorldQuant Initiative for Quantitative Prediction, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
- The Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
| | - David Furman
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA.
- Stanford 1000 Immunomes Project, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Institute for Research in Translational Medicine, Universidad Austral, CONICET, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Daniel A Winer
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA.
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada.
- Division of Cellular & Molecular Biology, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute (TGHRI), University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada.
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Yin Y, Yang J, Gao G, Zhou H, Chi B, Yang HY, Li J, Wang Y. Enhancing cell-scale performance via sustained release of the varicella-zoster virus antigen from a microneedle patch under simulated microgravity. Biomater Sci 2024; 12:763-775. [PMID: 38164004 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm01440a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The immune system of astronauts might become weakened in the microgravity environment in space, and the dormant varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in the body might be reactivated, seriously affecting their work and safety. For working in orbit for the long term, there is currently no efficient and durable delivery system of general vaccines in a microgravity environment. Accordingly, based on the previous foundation, we designed, modified, and synthesized a biodegradable and biocompatible copolymer, polyethylene glycol-polysulfamethazine carbonate urethane (PEG-PSCU) that could be mainly adopted to fabricate a novel sustained-release microneedle (S-R MN) patch. Compared with conventional biodegradable microneedles, this S-R MN patch could not only efficiently encapsulate protein vaccines (varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein E, VZV gE) but also further prolong the release time of VZV gE in a simulated microgravity (SMG) environment. Eventually, we verified the activation of dendritic cells by VZV gE released from the S-R MN patch in an SMG environment and the positive bioeffect of activated dendritic cells on lymphocytes using an in vitro lymph node model. This study is of great significance for the exploration of long-term specific immune responses to the VZV in an SMG environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yin
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Junyuan Yang
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Ge Gao
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Huaijuan Zhou
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Bowen Chi
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China.
| | - Hong Yu Yang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology, Jilin City 132022, Jilin Province, China.
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Yilong Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China.
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Nishimura Y. Technology using simulated microgravity. Regen Ther 2023; 24:318-323. [PMID: 37662695 PMCID: PMC10470365 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The human body experiences constant stimulation from Earth's gravity, and the absence of gravity leads to various impacts at the cellular and tissue levels. Simulated microgravity (s-μg) has been employed on Earth to investigate these effects, circumventing the challenges of conducting experiments in space and providing an opportunity to understand the influence of microgravity on living organisms. Research focusing on stem cells and utilizing s-μg has enhanced our understanding of how microgravity affects stem cell morphology, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Studies have used systems such as rotating wall vessels, random positioning machines, and clinostats. By uncovering the mechanisms underlying the observed changes in these studies, there is potential to identify therapeutic targets that regulate stem cell function and explore a range of applications, including stem cell-based regenerative medicine. This review will focus on the features of each device designed to simulate microgravity on Earth, as well as the stem cell experiments performed with those devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Nishimura
- Department of Clinical Engineering, Faculty of Medical Science and Technology, Gunma Paz University, 3-3-4 Tonyamachi, Takasaki-shi, Gunma 370-0006, Japan
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Pan C, Zhang Y, Yan J, Zhou Y, Wang S, Liu X, Zhang P, Yang H. Extreme environments and human health: From the immune microenvironments to immune cells. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 236:116800. [PMID: 37527745 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to extreme environments causes specific acute and chronic physiological responses in humans. The adaptation and the physiological processes under extreme environments predominantly affect multiple functional systems of the organism, in particular, the immune system. Dysfunction of the immune system affected by several extreme environments (including hyperbaric environment, hypoxia, blast shock, microgravity, hypergravity, radiation exposure, and magnetic environment) has been observed from clinical macroscopic symptoms to intracorporal immune microenvironments. Therefore, simulated extreme conditions are engineered for verifying the main influenced characteristics and factors in the immune microenvironments. This review summarizes the responses of immune microenvironments to these extreme environments during in vivo or in vitro exposure, and the approaches of engineering simulated extreme environments in recent decades. The related microenvironment engineering, signaling pathways, molecular mechanisms, clinical therapy, and prevention strategies are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengwei Pan
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Yuzhi Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Jinxiao Yan
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Yidan Zhou
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Sijie Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Xiru Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Pan Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, 710021, China.
| | - Hui Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China; Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Biological Diagnosis, Treatment and Protection Technology and Equipment, China; Research Center of Special Environmental Biomechanics & Medical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China.
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5
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Hicks J, Olson M, Mitchell C, Juran CM, Paul AM. The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. Immunohorizons 2023; 7:670-682. [PMID: 37855736 PMCID: PMC10615652 DOI: 10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
As we explore other planetary bodies, astronauts will face unique environmental and physiological challenges. The human immune system has evolved under Earth's gravitational force. Consequently, in the microgravity environment of space, immune function is altered. This can pose problematic consequences for astronauts on deep space missions where medical intervention will be limited. Studying the unique environment of microgravity has its challenges, yet current research has uncovered immunological states that are probable during exploration missions. As microgravity-induced immune states are uncovered, novel countermeasure developments and personalized mitigation programs can be designed to improve astronaut health. This can also benefit immune-related monitoring programs for disorders on Earth. This is a comprehensive review, including gaps in knowledge, of simulated and spaceflight microgravity studies in human and rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Hicks
- Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL
| | - Makaila Olson
- Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL
| | - Carol Mitchell
- Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL
| | - Cassandra M. Juran
- Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL
- NASA Ames Research Center, Space Biosciences Division, Moffett Field, CA
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA
| | - Amber M. Paul
- Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL
- NASA Ames Research Center, Space Biosciences Division, Moffett Field, CA
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA
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6
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Totsline N, Kniel KE, Bais HP. Microgravity and evasion of plant innate immunity by human bacterial pathogens. NPJ Microgravity 2023; 9:71. [PMID: 37679341 PMCID: PMC10485020 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-023-00323-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Spaceflight microgravity and modeled-microgravity analogs (MMA) broadly alter gene expression and physiology in both pathogens and plants. Research elucidating plant and bacterial responses to normal gravity or microgravity has shown the involvement of both physiological and molecular mechanisms. Under true and simulated microgravity, plants display differential expression of pathogen-defense genes while human bacterial pathogens exhibit increased virulence, antibiotic resistance, stress tolerance, and reduced LD50 in animal hosts. Human bacterial pathogens including Salmonella enterica and E. coli act as cross-kingdom foodborne pathogens by evading and suppressing the innate immunity of plants for colonization of intracellular spaces. It is unknown if evasion and colonization of plants by human pathogens occurs under microgravity and if there is increased infection capability as demonstrated using animal hosts. Understanding the relationship between microgravity, plant immunity, and human pathogens could prevent potentially deadly outbreaks of foodborne disease during spaceflight. This review will summarize (1) alterations to the virulency of human pathogens under microgravity and MMA, (2) alterations to plant physiology and gene expression under microgravity and MMA, (3) suppression and evasion of plant immunity by human pathogens under normal gravity, (4) studies of plant-microbe interactions under microgravity and MMA. A conclusion suggests future study of interactions between plants and human pathogens under microgravity is beneficial to human safety, and an investment in humanity's long and short-term space travel goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Totsline
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, AP Biopharma, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
| | - Kalmia E Kniel
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Harsh P Bais
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, AP Biopharma, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
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7
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Corydon TJ, Schulz H, Richter P, Strauch SM, Böhmer M, Ricciardi DA, Wehland M, Krüger M, Erzinger GS, Lebert M, Infanger M, Wise PM, Grimm D. Current Knowledge about the Impact of Microgravity on Gene Regulation. Cells 2023; 12:cells12071043. [PMID: 37048115 PMCID: PMC10093652 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Microgravity (µg) has a massive impact on the health of space explorers. Microgravity changes the proliferation, differentiation, and growth of cells. As crewed spaceflights into deep space are being planned along with the commercialization of space travelling, researchers have focused on gene regulation in cells and organisms exposed to real (r-) and simulated (s-) µg. In particular, cancer and metastasis research benefits from the findings obtained under µg conditions. Gene regulation is a key factor in a cell or an organism’s ability to sustain life and respond to environmental changes. It is a universal process to control the amount, location, and timing in which genes are expressed. In this review, we provide an overview of µg-induced changes in the numerous mechanisms involved in gene regulation, including regulatory proteins, microRNAs, and the chemical modification of DNA. In particular, we discuss the current knowledge about the impact of microgravity on gene regulation in different types of bacteria, protists, fungi, animals, humans, and cells with a focus on the brain, eye, endothelium, immune system, cartilage, muscle, bone, and various cancers as well as recent findings in plants. Importantly, the obtained data clearly imply that µg experiments can support translational medicine on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Corydon
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Hoegh Guldbergs Gade 10, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Ophthalmology, Aarhus University Hospital, Palle Juul-Jensens Blvd. 99, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +45-28-992-179
| | - Herbert Schulz
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Peter Richter
- Gravitational Biology Group, Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Sebastian M. Strauch
- Postgraduate Program in Health and Environment, University of Joinville Region, Joinville 89219-710, SC, Brazil
| | - Maik Böhmer
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Dario A. Ricciardi
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Markus Wehland
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Marcus Krüger
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Gilmar S. Erzinger
- Postgraduate Program in Health and Environment, University of Joinville Region, Joinville 89219-710, SC, Brazil
| | - Michael Lebert
- Gravitational Biology Group, Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Manfred Infanger
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Petra M. Wise
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, 4650 Sunset Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Daniela Grimm
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Hoegh Guldbergs Gade 10, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Clinic for Plastic, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke University, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Research Group ‘Magdeburger Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung unter Raumfahrt-und Schwerelosigkeitsbedingungen’ (MARS), Otto von Guericke University, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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8
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Iordachescu A, Eisenstein N, Appleby-Thomas G. Space habitats for bioengineering and surgical repair: addressing the requirement for reconstructive and research tissues during deep-space missions. NPJ Microgravity 2023; 9:23. [PMID: 36966158 PMCID: PMC10039948 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-023-00266-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous technical scenarios have been developed to facilitate a human return to the Moon, and as a testbed for a subsequent mission to Mars. Crews appointed with constructing and establishing planetary bases will require a superior level of physical ability to cope with the operational demands. However, the challenging environments of nearby planets (e.g. geological, atmospheric, gravitational conditions) as well as the lengthy journeys through microgravity, will lead to progressive tissue degradation and an increased susceptibility to injury. The isolation, distance and inability to evacuate in an emergency will require autonomous medical support, as well as a range of facilities and specialised equipment to repair tissue damage on-site. Here, we discuss the design requirements of such a facility, in the form of a habitat that would concomitantly allow tissue substitute production, maintenance and surgical implantation, with an emphasis on connective tissues. The requirements for the individual modules and their operation are identified. Several concepts are assessed, including the presence of adjacent wet lab and medical modules supporting the gradual implementation of regenerative biomaterials and acellular tissue substitutes, leading to eventual tissue grafts and, in subsequent decades, potential tissues/organ-like structures. The latter, currently in early phases of development, are assessed particularly for researching the effects of extreme conditions on representative analogues for astronaut health support. Technical solutions are discussed for bioengineering in an isolated planetary environment with hypogravity, from fluid-gel bath suspended manufacture to cryostorage, cell sourcing and on-site resource utilisation for laboratory infrastructure. Surgical considerations are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Iordachescu
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
- Consortium for organotypic research on ageing and microgravity, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
- Healthcare Technologies Institute, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
- Cranfield Defence and Security, Cranfield University, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, United Kingdom.
| | - Neil Eisenstein
- Healthcare Technologies Institute, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Appleby-Thomas
- Consortium for organotypic research on ageing and microgravity, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
- Cranfield Defence and Security, Cranfield University, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, United Kingdom
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9
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Capri M, Conte M, Ciurca E, Pirazzini C, Garagnani P, Santoro A, Longo F, Salvioli S, Lau P, Moeller R, Jordan J, Illig T, Villanueva MM, Gruber M, Bürkle A, Franceschi C, Rittweger J. Long-term human spaceflight and inflammaging: Does it promote aging? Ageing Res Rev 2023; 87:101909. [PMID: 36918115 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.101909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Spaceflight and its associated stressors, such as microgravity, radiation exposure, confinement, circadian derailment and disruptive workloads represent an unprecedented type of exposome that is entirely novel from an evolutionary stand point. Within this perspective, we aimed to review the effects of prolonged spaceflight on immune-neuroendocrine systems, brain and brain-gut axis, cardiovascular system and musculoskeletal apparatus, highlighting in particular the similarities with an accelerated aging process. In particular, spaceflight-induced muscle atrophy/sarcopenia and bone loss, vascular and metabolic changes, hyper and hypo reaction of innate and adaptive immune system appear to be modifications shared with the aging process. Most of these modifications are mediated by molecular events that include oxidative and mitochondrial stress, autophagy, DNA damage repair and telomere length alteration, among others, which directly or indirectly converge on the activation of an inflammatory response. According to the inflammaging theory of aging, such an inflammatory response could be a driver of an acceleration of the normal, physiological rate of aging and it is likely that all the systemic modifications in turn lead to an increase of inflammaging in a sort of vicious cycle. The most updated countermeasures to fight these modifications will be also discussed in the light of their possible application not only for astronauts' benefit, but also for older adults on the ground.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Capri
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Alma Mater Research Institute on Global Challenges and Climate Change (Alma Climate), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Conte
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Alma Mater Research Institute on Global Challenges and Climate Change (Alma Climate), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Erika Ciurca
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Chiara Pirazzini
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Garagnani
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Alma Mater Research Institute on Global Challenges and Climate Change (Alma Climate), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Clinical Chemistry Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Huddinge University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; CNR Institute of Molecular Genetics, Unit of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Center for Applied Biomedical Research (CRBA), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy
| | - Aurelia Santoro
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Alma Mater Research Institute on Global Challenges and Climate Change (Alma Climate), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Longo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Stefano Salvioli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Patrick Lau
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
| | - Ralf Moeller
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany
| | - Jens Jordan
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany; Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Illig
- Department of Human Genetics, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Maria-Moreno Villanueva
- Human Performance Research Centre, Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Markus Gruber
- Human Performance Research Centre, Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Alexander Bürkle
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Claudio Franceschi
- Department of Applied Mathematics of the Institute of ITMM, National Research Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, the Russian Federation
| | - Jörn Rittweger
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne, Germany; Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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10
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Lv H, Yang H, Jiang C, Shi J, Chen RA, Huang Q, Shao D. Microgravity and immune cells. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220869. [PMID: 36789512 PMCID: PMC9929508 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The microgravity environment experienced during spaceflight severely impaired immune system, making astronauts vulnerable to various diseases that seriously threaten the health of astronauts. Immune cells are exceptionally sensitive to changes in gravity and the microgravity environment can affect multiple aspects of immune cells through different mechanisms. Previous reports have mainly summarized the role of microgravity in the classification of innate and adaptive immune cells, lacking an overall grasp of the laws that microgravity effects on immune cells at different stages of their entire developmental process, such as differentiation, activation, metabolism, as well as function, which are discussed and concluded in this review. The possible molecular mechanisms are also analysed to provide a clear understanding of the specific role of microgravity in the whole development process of immune cells. Furthermore, the existing methods by which to reverse the damage of immune cells caused by microgravity, such as the use of polysaccharides, flavonoids, other natural immune cell activators etc. to target cell proliferation, apoptosis and impaired function are summarized. This review will provide not only new directions and ideas for the study of immune cell function in the microgravity environment, but also an important theoretical basis for the development of immunosuppression prevention and treatment drugs for spaceflight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongfang Lv
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Huan Yang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunmei Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Junling Shi
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Ren-an Chen
- Hematology Department, Shaanxi Provincial Tumor Hospital, 309 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingsheng Huang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyan Shao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, People's Republic of China
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11
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Caswell G, Eshelby B. Skin microbiome considerations for long haul space flights. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:956432. [PMID: 36158225 PMCID: PMC9493037 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.956432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysbiosis of the human skin microbiome has long been associated with changes to the pH of the skin, dermal immune function and chronic skin conditions. Dermatological issues have been noted as the most prevalent medical presentation in the microgravity environment of space. The change in gravitational forces has been implicated in human immuno-suppression, also impacted by changes in the gastrointestinal-skin axis and its impact on Vitamin D metabolism, altered microbial gene expression in resident flora (leading changes in biofilm formation) and increased virulence factors in potential pathogens. There are also other stressors to the skin microbiome unique to space travel, including increased exposure to radiation, prolonged periods of dry washing technique, air quality and changes in microbe replication and growth parameters. Optimal microbiome health leads to enhanced skin barrier manufacture and maintenance, along with improved skin immune function and healing. In a microgravity environment expected to be experienced during long space flights, disruptions to the skin microbiome, coupled with increased virulence of pathological viruses and bacteria has implications for holistic skin health, astronaut cognitive function and mental health, and is coupled with slowed rates of wound healing. Scenario management for holistic skin health and restoration of microbiome homeostasis on long space flights require consideration.
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12
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Huang EE, Zhang N, Ganio EA, Shen H, Li X, Ueno M, Utsunomiya T, Maruyama M, Gao Q, Su N, Yao Z, Yang F, Gaudillière B, Goodman SB. Differential dynamics of bone graft transplantation and mesenchymal stem cell therapy during bone defect healing in a murine critical size defect. J Orthop Translat 2022; 36:64-74. [PMID: 35979174 PMCID: PMC9357712 DOI: 10.1016/j.jot.2022.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A critical size bone defect is a clinical scenario in which bone is lost or excised due to trauma, infection, tumor, or other causes, and cannot completely heal spontaneously. The most common treatment for this condition is autologous bone grafting to the defect site. However, autologous bone graft is often insufficient in quantity or quality for transplantation to these large defects. Recently, tissue engineering methods using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been proposed as an alternative treatment. However, the underlying biological principles and optimal techniques for tissue regeneration of bone using stem cell therapy have not been completely elucidated. Methods In this study, we compare the early cellular dynamics of healing between bone graft transplantation and MSC therapy in a murine chronic femoral critical-size bone defect. We employ high-dimensional mass cytometry to provide a comprehensive view of the differences in cell composition, stem cell functionality, and immunomodulatory activity between these two treatment methods one week after transplantation. Results We reveal distinct cell compositions among tissues from bone defect sites compared with original bone graft, show active recruitment of MSCs to the bone defect sites, and demonstrate the phenotypic diversity of macrophages and T cells in each group that may affect the clinical outcome. Conclusion Our results provide critical data and future directions on the use of MSCs for treating critical size defects to regenerate bone.Translational Potential of this article: This study showed systematic comparisons of the cellular and immunomodulatory profiles among different interventions to improve the healing of the critical-size bone defect. The results provided potential strategies for designing robust therapeutic interventions for the unmet clinical need of treating critical-size bone defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elijah Ejun Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Edward A. Ganio
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Huaishuang Shen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Xueping Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Masaya Ueno
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Takeshi Utsunomiya
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Masahiro Maruyama
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Qi Gao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ni Su
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Zhenyu Yao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Brice Gaudillière
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Stuart B. Goodman
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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13
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Marvasi M, Monici M, Pantalone D, Cavalieri D. Exploitation of Skin Microbiota in Wound Healing: Perspectives During Space Missions. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:873384. [PMID: 35573226 PMCID: PMC9098812 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.873384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Wound healing is slowed in Space. Microgravity and possible physical factors associated with Space affect alterations in fibroblast, matrix formation, dysregulation in apoptosis and inflammation. The microbial populations settled on skin, space modules, in space suits, are also playing a pivotal role, as wound healing is also affected by the microbial community. We propose a perspective that includes four domines for the application of human skin microbiota for wound healing in Space: The natural antimicrobial properties of the skin microbiota, the crosstalk of the skin microbiota with the immune system during wound healing, the contribution of the microbiota in precision medicine, and the role of gut-skin and gut-brain axes. A stronger understanding of the connections and metabolic network among bacteria, fungi, the host’s immune system and the host metabolism will support the basis for a better wound healing in Space.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Monica Monici
- ASAcampus Joint Laboratory, ASA Res. Div., Deptartment of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences “Mario Serio”, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Desirée Pantalone
- Emergency Surgery Unit-Trauma Team, Emergency Department, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Careggi University Hospital, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- *Correspondence: Duccio Cavalieri,
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14
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Dhar S, Kaeley DK, Kanan MJ, Yildirim-Ayan E. Mechano-Immunomodulation in Space: Mechanisms Involving Microgravity-Induced Changes in T Cells. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11101043. [PMID: 34685414 PMCID: PMC8537592 DOI: 10.3390/life11101043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Of the most prevalent issues surrounding long-term spaceflight, the sustainability of human life and the maintenance of homeostasis in an extreme environment are of utmost concern. It has been observed that the human immune system is dysregulated in space as a result of gravitational unloading at the cellular level, leading to potential complications in astronaut health. A plethora of studies demonstrate intracellular changes that occur due to microgravity; however, these ultimately fall short of identifying the underlying mechanisms and dysfunctions that cause such changes. This comprehensive review covers the changes in human adaptive immunity due to microgravity. Specifically, there is a focus on uncovering the gravisensitive steps in T cell signaling pathways. Changes in gravitational force may lead to interrupted immune signaling cascades at specific junctions, particularly membrane and surface receptor-proximal molecules. Holistically studying the interplay of signaling with morphological changes in cytoskeleton and other cell components may yield answers to what in the T cell specifically experiences the consequences of microgravity. Fully understanding the nature of this problem is essential in order to develop proper countermeasures before long-term space flight is conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Dhar
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (S.D.); (D.K.K.); (M.J.K.)
| | - Dilpreet Kaur Kaeley
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (S.D.); (D.K.K.); (M.J.K.)
| | - Mohamad Jalal Kanan
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (S.D.); (D.K.K.); (M.J.K.)
| | - Eda Yildirim-Ayan
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (S.D.); (D.K.K.); (M.J.K.)
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Toledo Medical Center, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-419-530-8257; Fax: +1-419-530-8030
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15
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Montesinos CA, Khalid R, Cristea O, Greenberger JS, Epperly MW, Lemon JA, Boreham DR, Popov D, Gorthi G, Ramkumar N, Jones JA. Space Radiation Protection Countermeasures in Microgravity and Planetary Exploration. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11080829. [PMID: 34440577 PMCID: PMC8398261 DOI: 10.3390/life11080829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Space radiation is one of the principal environmental factors limiting the human tolerance for space travel, and therefore a primary risk in need of mitigation strategies to enable crewed exploration of the solar system. METHODS We summarize the current state of knowledge regarding potential means to reduce the biological effects of space radiation. New countermeasure strategies for exploration-class missions are proposed, based on recent advances in nutrition, pharmacologic, and immune science. RESULTS Radiation protection can be categorized into (1) exposure-limiting: shielding and mission duration; (2) countermeasures: radioprotectors, radiomodulators, radiomitigators, and immune-modulation, and; (3) treatment and supportive care for the effects of radiation. Vehicle and mission design can augment the overall exposure. Testing in terrestrial laboratories and earth-based exposure facilities, as well as on the International Space Station (ISS), has demonstrated that dietary and pharmacologic countermeasures can be safe and effective. Immune system modulators are less robustly tested but show promise. Therapies for radiation prodromal syndrome may include pharmacologic agents; and autologous marrow for acute radiation syndrome (ARS). CONCLUSIONS Current radiation protection technology is not yet optimized, but nevertheless offers substantial protection to crews based on Lunar or Mars design reference missions. With additional research and human testing, the space radiation risk can be further mitigated to allow for long-duration exploration of the solar system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Radina Khalid
- School of Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA;
| | - Octav Cristea
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA;
| | - Joel S. Greenberger
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburg Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; (J.S.G.); (M.W.E.)
| | - Michael W. Epperly
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburg Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; (J.S.G.); (M.W.E.)
| | - Jennifer A. Lemon
- Medical Sciences Division, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada; (J.A.L.); (D.R.B.)
| | - Douglas R. Boreham
- Medical Sciences Division, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada; (J.A.L.); (D.R.B.)
| | - Dmitri Popov
- Advanced Medical Technologies and Systems Inc., Richmond Hill, ON L4B 1N1, Canada;
| | | | - Nandita Ramkumar
- Center for Space Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Jeffrey A. Jones
- Center for Space Medicine, Department of Urology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Correspondence:
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