Molecular pharmacology of the human prostaglandin D2 receptor, CRTH2

A dual role for CRTH2 in acute lung injury

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening clinical condition defined by rapid-onset respiratory failure following acute lung injury (ALI). The high mortality rate and rising incidence of ARDS due to COVID-19 make it an important research priority. Here we sought to investigate the role of chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2) in ARDS. CRTH2 is a G protein-coupled receptor best studied in the context of type 2 immunity, but it also exerts effects on neutrophilic inflammation. To evaluate its role in mouse models of ARDS, we first examined its expression pattern on murine neutrophils. We found it is expressed on neutrophils, but only after extravasation into the lung. Next, we showed that CRTH2 expression on extravasated lung neutrophils promotes cell survival, as genetic deletion of CRTH2 and pharmacologic inhibition of CRTH2 using fevipiprant both led to increased apoptosis in vitro. We then evaluated the role of CRTH2 in vivo using a murine model of LPS-induced ALI. In line with the pro-inflammatory effects of CRTH2 in vitro, we observed improvement of lung injury in CRTH2-deficient mice in terms of vascular leak, weight loss and survival after LPS administration. However, neutrophilic inflammation was elevated, not suppressed in the CRTH2 KO. This finding indicated a second mechanism offsetting the pro-survival effect of CRTH2 on neutrophils. Bulk RNAseq of lung tissue indicated impairments in type 2 immune signaling in the CRTH2 KO, and qPCR and ELISA confirmed downregulation of IL-4, which is known to suppress neutrophilic inflammation. Thus, CRTH2 may play a dual role in ALI, directly promoting neutrophil cell survival, but indirectly suppressing neutrophil effector function via IL-4.

DP2 receptor activity sensor suited for antagonist screening and measurement of receptor dynamics in real-time

The DP2 receptor is a G-protein coupled receptor involved in allergic inflammation and is the target of recently developed antagonists already being tested in clinics. To get insights into DP2 receptor dynamics and to study its pharmacology on the level of the receptor, we constructed a fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based conformation sensor. The sensor reflects the selectivity profile of the DP2 receptor-wt and is suited for screening of agonists and antagonists due to its robust response. Furthermore, the sensor enables the direct measurement of DP2 receptor dynamics in real-time and revealed markedly distinct on- and off-rates of prostaglandin D2 between DP2 and DP1 receptors, suggesting a different mechanism of ligand receptor interaction.

Metabolism, fibrosis, and apoptosis: The effect of lipids and their derivatives on keloid formation

Keloids, pathological scars resulting from skin trauma, have traditionally posed significant clinical management challenges due to their persistence and high recurrence rates. Our research elucidates the pivotal roles of lipids and their derivatives in keloid development, driven by underlying mechanisms of abnormal cell proliferation, apoptosis, and extracellular matrix deposition. Key findings suggest that abnormalities in arachidonic acid (AA) synthesis and non-essential fatty acid synthesis are integral to keloid formation. Further, a complex interplay exists between lipid derivatives, notably butyric acid (BA), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), and the regulation of hyperfibrosis. Additionally, combinations of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) with BA and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-Prostaglandin J2 have exhibited pronounced cytotoxic effects. Among sphingolipids, ceramide (Cer) displayed limited pro-apoptotic effects in keloid fibroblasts (KFBs), whereas sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) was found to promote keloid hyperfibrosis, with its analogue, FTY720, demonstrating contrasting benefits. Both Vitamin D and hexadecylphosphorylcholine (HePC) showed potential antifibrotic and antiproliferative properties, suggesting their utility in keloid management. While keloids remain a prevalent concern in clinical practice, this study underscores the promising potential of targeting specific lipid molecules for the advancement of keloid therapeutic strategies.

Prostaglandin and prostaglandin receptors: present and future promising therapeutic targets for pulmonary arterial hypertension

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), Group 1 pulmonary hypertension (PH), is a type of pulmonary vascular disease characterized by abnormal contraction and remodeling of the pulmonary arterioles, manifested by pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and increased pulmonary arterial pressure, eventually leading to right heart failure or even death. The mechanisms involved in this process include inflammation, vascular matrix remodeling, endothelial cell apoptosis and proliferation, vasoconstriction, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and hypertrophy. In this study, we review the mechanisms of action of prostaglandins and their receptors in PAH.

MAIN BODY

PAH-targeted therapies, such as endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, activators of soluble guanylate cyclase, prostacyclin, and prostacyclin analogs, improve PVR, mean pulmonary arterial pressure, and the six-minute walk distance, cardiac output and exercise capacity and are licensed for patients with PAH; however, they have not been shown to reduce mortality. Current treatments for PAH primarily focus on inhibiting excessive pulmonary vasoconstriction, however, vascular remodeling is recalcitrant to currently available therapies. Lung transplantation remains the definitive treatment for patients with PAH. Therefore, it is imperative to identify novel targets for improving pulmonary vascular remodeling in PAH. Studies have confirmed that prostaglandins and their receptors play important roles in the occurrence and development of PAH through vasoconstriction, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, inflammation, and extracellular matrix remodeling.

CONCLUSION

Prostacyclin and related drugs have been used in the clinical treatment of PAH. Other prostaglandins also have the potential to treat PAH. This review provides ideas for the treatment of PAH and the discovery of new drug targets.

One-Step Automatic Radiosynthesis and Evaluation of [18F]TM-30089 as GPR44 Radiotracer

Recently, a G-protein coupled receptor 44 (GPR44) was discovered to play a significant role in the process of inflammation-related diseases, including cancer and diabetes. However, the precise role of GPR44 has yet to be fully elucidated. Currently, there is a strong and urgent need for the development of GPR44 radiotracers as a non-invasive methodology to explore the exact mechanism of GPR44 on inflammation-related diseases and monitor the progress of therapy. TM-30089 is a potent GPR44 antagonist that exhibits a high specificity and selectivity for GPR44. Its structure contains a fluorine nuclide, which could potentially be replaced with 18F. In the present study, we successfully took a highly effective synthesis strategy that pretreated the unprotected carboxylic acid group of the precursor and developed a feasible one-step automatic radiosynthesis strategy for [18F]TM-30089 with a high radiochemical purity and a good radiochemical yield. We further evaluated this radiotracer using mice models implanted with 1.1 B4 cell lines (GPR44-enriched cell lines) and human islets (high GPR44 expression), respectively. The results revealed the persistent and specific uptake of [18F]TM-30089 in GPR44 region, indicating that [18F]TM-30089 is a promising candidate for targeting GPR44. Further evaluation is ongoing.

Activation of GPR44 decreases severity of myeloid leukemia via specific targeting of leukemia initiating stem cells

Relapse of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remains a significant concern due to persistent leukemia-initiating stem cells (LICs) that are typically not targeted by most existing therapies. Using a murine AML model, human AML cell lines, and patient samples, we show that AML LICs are sensitive to endogenous and exogenous cyclopentenone prostaglandin-J (CyPG), Δ12-PGJ2, and 15d-PGJ2, which are increased upon dietary selenium supplementation via the cyclooxygenase-hematopoietic PGD synthase pathway. CyPGs are endogenous ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and GPR44 (CRTH2; PTGDR2). Deletion of GPR44 in a mouse model of AML exacerbated the disease suggesting that GPR44 activation mediates selenium-mediated apoptosis of LICs. Transcriptomic analysis of GPR44-/- LICs indicated that GPR44 activation by CyPGs suppressed KRAS-mediated MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways, to enhance apoptosis. Our studies show the role of GPR44, providing mechanistic underpinnings of the chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic properties of selenium and CyPGs in AML.

Exhaled breath condensate profiles of U.S. Navy divers following prolonged hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) and nitrogen-oxygen (Nitrox) chamber exposures

Prolonged exposure to hyperbaric hyperoxia can lead to pulmonary oxygen toxicity (PO2tox). PO2tox is a mission limiting factor for special operations forces divers using closed-circuit rebreathing apparatus and a potential side effect for patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) treatment. In this study, we aim to determine if there is a specific breath profile of compounds in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) that is indicative of the early stages of pulmonary hyperoxic stress/PO2tox. Using a double-blind, randomized 'sham' controlled, cross-over design 14 U.S. Navy trained diver volunteers breathed two different gas mixtures at an ambient pressure of 2 ATA (33 fsw, 10 msw) for 6.5 h. One test gas consisted of 100% O2(HBO) and the other was a gas mixture containing 30.6% O2with the balance N2(Nitrox). The high O2stress dive (HBO) and low O2stress dive (Nitrox) were separated by at least seven days and were conducted dry and at rest inside a hyperbaric chamber. EBC samples were taken immediately before and after each dive and subsequently underwent a targeted and untargeted metabolomics analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Following the HBO dive, 10 out of 14 subjects reported symptoms of the early stages of PO2tox and one subject terminated the dive early due to severe symptoms of PO2tox. No symptoms of PO2tox were reported following the nitrox dive. A partial least-squares discriminant analysis of the normalized (relative to pre-dive) untargeted data gave good classification abilities between the HBO and nitrox EBC with an AUC of 0.99 (±2%) and sensitivity and specificity of 0.93 (±10%) and 0.94 (±10%), respectively. The resulting classifications identified specific biomarkers that included human metabolites and lipids and their derivatives from different metabolic pathways that may explain metabolomic changes resulting from prolonged HBO exposure.

Phospholipid Composition of Fingerlings of Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar during Growth and Development in Aquaculture: The Effect of Different Lighting and Feeding Regimes

The effect of different feeding and lighting regimes (natural and continuous) on the phospholipid composition of Atlantic salmon fingerlings reared in commercial aquaculture in the summer-autumn period in North Ossetia-Alania was studied. Qualitative and quantitative determination of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, lysophosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. A decrease (September-November) in the content of the studied phospholipids in fingerlings decreased, which should be considered primarily as a biochemical adaptation of development and preparation of juveniles for the upcoming smoltification. The effects of lighting and feeding regime on phospholipid composition were found mainly in the fish reared under constant lighting and 24/7 feeding and the fish reared under natural light and feeding during daylight hours. However, the observed changes were not specific to a particular experimental group of fish in the framework of this study.

Prostaglandin D2 metabolites activate asthmatic patient-derived type 2 innate lymphoid cells and eosinophils via the DP2 receptor

BACKGROUND

Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) signaling via prostaglandin D2 receptor 2 (DP2) contributes to atopic and non-atopic asthma. Inhibiting DP2 has shown therapeutic benefit in certain subsets of asthma patients, improving eosinophilic airway inflammation. PGD2 metabolites prolong the inflammatory response in asthmatic patients via DP2 signaling. The role of PGD2 metabolites on eosinophil and ILC2 activity is not fully understood.

METHODS

Eosinophils and ILC2s were isolated from peripheral blood of atopic asthmatic patients. Eosinophil shape change, ILC2 migration and IL-5/IL-13 cytokine secretion were measured after stimulation with seven PGD2 metabolites in presence or absence of the selective DP2 antagonist fevipiprant.

RESULTS

Selected metabolites induced eosinophil shape change with similar nanomolar potencies except for 9α,11β-PGF2. Maximal values in forward scatter of eosinophils were comparable between metabolites. ILC2s migrated dose-dependently in the presence of selected metabolites except for 9α,11β-PGF2 with EC50 values ranging from 17.4 to 91.7 nM. Compared to PGD2, the absolute cell migration was enhanced in the presence of Δ12-PGD2, 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGD2, PGJ2, Δ12-PGJ2 and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ2. ILC2 cytokine production was dose dependent as well but with an average sixfold reduced potency compared to cell migration (IL-5 range 108.1 to 526.9 nM, IL-13 range: 125.2 to 788.3 nM). Compared to PGD2, the absolute cytokine secretion was reduced in the presence of most metabolites. Fevipiprant dose-dependently inhibited eosinophil shape change, ILC2 migration and ILC2 cytokine secretion with (sub)-nanomolar potencies.

CONCLUSION

Prostaglandin D2 metabolites initiate ILC2 migration and IL-5 and IL-13 cytokine secretion in a DP2 dependent manner. Our data indicate that metabolites may be important for in vivo eosinophil activation and ILC2 migration and to a lesser extent for ILC2 cytokine secretion.

In situ imaging reveals disparity between prostaglandin localization and abundance of prostaglandin synthases

Prostaglandins are important lipids involved in mediating many physiological processes, such as allergic responses, inflammation, and pregnancy. However, technical limitations of in-situ prostaglandin detection in tissue have led researchers to infer prostaglandin tissue distributions from localization of regulatory synthases, such as COX1 and COX2. Herein, we apply a novel mass spectrometry imaging method for direct in situ tissue localization of prostaglandins, and combine it with techniques for protein expression and RNA localization. We report that prostaglandin D₂, its precursors, and downstream synthases co-localize with the highest expression of COX1, and not COX2. Further, we study tissue with a conditional deletion of transformation-related protein 53 where pregnancy success is low and confirm that PG levels are altered, although localization is conserved. Our studies reveal that the abundance of COX and prostaglandin D₂ synthases in cellular regions does not mirror the regional abundance of prostaglandins. Thus, we deduce that prostaglandins tissue localization and abundance may not be inferred by COX or prostaglandin synthases in uterine tissue, and must be resolved by an in situ prostaglandin imaging.

Duncan et al. use a mass spectrometry imaging method to assess the localization and concentration of prostaglandins (PGs) in mouse tissues during pregnancy. This study brings new biological insights into the spatial evaluation of PGs in tissues, which could reveal the functional significance of each PGs during different stages of embryo development/pregnancy.

Molecular basis for lipid recognition by the prostaglandin D2 receptor CRTH2

Prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂) signals through the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) CRTH2 to mediate various inflammatory responses. CRTH2 is the only member of the prostanoid receptor family that is phylogenetically distant from others, implying a nonconserved mechanism of lipid action on CRTH2. Here, we report a crystal structure of human CRTH2 bound to a PGD₂ derivative, 15R-methyl-PGD₂ (15mPGD₂), by serial femtosecond crystallography. The structure revealed a "polar group in"-binding mode of 15mPGD₂ contrasting the "polar group out"-binding mode of PGE₂ in its receptor EP3. Structural comparison analysis suggested that these two lipid-binding modes, associated with distinct charge distributions of ligand-binding pockets, may apply to other lipid GPCRs. Molecular dynamics simulations together with mutagenesis studies also identified charged residues at the ligand entry port that function to capture lipid ligands of CRTH2 from the lipid bilayer. Together, our studies suggest critical roles of charge environment in lipid recognition by GPCRs.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors and Ischemic Stroke: a Focus on Molecular Function and Therapeutic Potential

In ischemic stroke, there is only one approved drug, tissue plasminogen activator, to be used in clinical conditions for thrombolysis. New neuroprotective therapies for ischemic stroke are desperately needed. Several targets and pathways have been shown to confer neuroprotective effects in ischemic stroke. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are one of the most frequently targeted receptors for developing novel therapeutics for central nervous system disorders. GPCRs are a large family of cell surface receptors that response to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. GPCRs are involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes. More than 90% of the identified non-sensory GPCRs are expressed in the brain, where they play important roles in regulating mood, pain, vision, immune responses, cognition, and synaptic transmission. There is also good evidence that GPCRs are implicated in the pathogenesis of stroke. This review narrates the pathophysiological role and possible targeted therapy of GPCRs in ischemic stroke.

Rat prostaglandin EP3 receptor is highly promiscuous and is the sole prostanoid receptor family member that regulates INS-1 (832/3) cell glucose-stimulated insulin secretion

Chronic elevations in fatty acid metabolites termed prostaglandins can be found in circulation and in pancreatic islets from mice or humans with diabetes and have been suggested as contributing to the β‐cell dysfunction of the disease. Two‐series prostaglandins bind to a family of G‐protein‐coupled receptors, each with different biochemical and pharmacological properties. Prostaglandin E receptor (EP) subfamily agonists and antagonists have been shown to influence β‐cell insulin secretion, replication, and/or survival. Here, we define EP3 as the sole prostanoid receptor family member expressed in a rat β‐cell‐derived line that regulates glucose‐stimulated insulin secretion. Several other agonists classically understood as selective for other prostanoid receptor family members also reduce glucose‐stimulated insulin secretion, but these effects are only observed at relatively high concentrations, and, using a well‐characterized EP3‐specific antagonist, are mediated solely by cross‐reactivity with rat EP3. Our findings confirm the critical role of EP3 in regulating β‐cell function, but are also of general interest, as many agonists supposedly selective for other prostanoid receptor family members are also full and efficacious agonists of EP3. Therefore, care must be taken when interpreting experimental results from cells or cell lines that also express EP3.

A plausible involvement of plasmalemmal voltage-dependent anion channel 1 in the neurotoxicity of 15-deoxy-Δ12,14 -prostaglandin J2

INTRODUCTION

15-deoxy-Δ^12,14 -prostaglandin J₂ (15d-PGJ₂ ) causes neuronal apoptosis independently of its nuclear receptor, peroxysome-proliferator activated receptor γ. Its membrane receptor, chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2), did not also mediate the neurotoxicity of 15d-PGJ₂ . In the present study, we ascertained whether membrane targets beside CRTH2 were involved in the neurotoxicity of 15d-PGJ₂ .

METHODS

Neuronal membrane targets for 15d-PGJ₂ were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis, identified by proteomic approach. Their localizations were detected by microscopic immunofluorescence study. Cell viability and apoptosis was evaluated by MTT-reducing activity and caspase-3 activity, respectively.

RESULTS

Voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) was identified as one of membrane targets for 15d-PGJ₂ . Modification of VDAC1 with 15d-PGJ₂ was detected by pull-down assay. VDAC1 was detected in the plasma membrane and localized on the neuronal cell surface. VDAC1 was partially colocalized with membrane targets for 15d-PGJ₂ . The anti-VDAC antibody significantly attenuated the neurotoxicity of 15d-PGJ₂ , accompanied by the suppression of the 15d-PGJ₂ -stimulated caspase-3.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that the plasmalemmal VDAC might be involved in the neurotoxicity of 15d-PGJ₂ .

A Review of Prostanoid Receptors: Expression, Characterization, Regulation, and Mechanism of Action

Prostaglandin signaling controls a wide range of biological processes from blood pressure homeostasis to inflammation and resolution thereof to the perception of pain to cell survival. Disruption of normal prostanoid signaling is implicated in numerous disease states. Prostaglandin signaling is facilitated by G-protein-coupled, prostanoid-specific receptors and the array of associated G-proteins. This review focuses on the expression, characterization, regulation, and mechanism of action of prostanoid receptors with particular emphasis on human isoforms.

Prostaglandin D2 signaling in dendritic cells is critical for the development of EAE

Priming of autoreactive T cells in lymph nodes by dendritic cells (DCs) is critical for the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE). DC activation reflects a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory signals. One anti-inflammatory factor is prostaglandin D2 signaling through its cognate receptor, D-prostanoid receptor 1 (PTGDR), on myeloid cells. Loss of PTGDR signaling might be expected to enhance DC activation and EAE but here we show that PTGDR^−/− mice developed only mild signs of MOG_35-55 peptide immunization-induced EAE. Compared to wild type mice, PTGDR^−/− mice exhibited less demyelination, decreased leukocyte infiltration and diminished microglia activation. These effects resulted from increased pro-inflammatory responses in the lymph nodes, most notably in IL-1β production, with the unexpected consequence of increased activation-induced apoptosis of MOG_35-55 peptide-specific T cells. Conditional deletion of PTGDR on DCs, and not other myeloid cells ameliorated EAE. Together, these results demonstrate the indispensable role that PGD₂/PTGDR signaling on DCs has in development of pathogenic T cells in autoimmune demyelination.

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Increased T cell activation occurred in PTGDR^−/- mice resulting in T cell apoptosis.

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AICD decreased T cell infiltration into, and demyelination in CNS during EAE.

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Decreased PGD₂/PTGDR signaling in DCs resulted in increased IL-1β expression.

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Anakinra treatment in PTGDR^−/- mice increased EAE severity.

The Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Prostaglandin D2-Induced Neuritogenesis in Motor Neuron-Like NSC-34 Cells

Prostaglandins are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds derived from arachidonic acid. Our previous study has found that prostaglandin E2 promotes neurite outgrowth in NSC-34 cells, which are a model for motor neuron development. However, the effects of other prostaglandins on neuronal differentiation are poorly understood. The present study investigated the effect of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) on neuritogenesis in NSC-34 cells. Exposure to PGD2 resulted in increased percentages of neurite-bearing cells and neurite length. Although D-prostanoid receptor (DP) 1 and DP2 were dominantly expressed in the cells, BW245C (a DP1 agonist) and 15(R)-15-methyl PGD2 (a DP2 agonist) had no effect on neurite outgrowth. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay demonstrated that PGD2 was converted to 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) under cell-free conditions. Exogenously applied 15d-PGJ2 mimicked the effect of PGD2 on neurite outgrowth. GW9662, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) antagonist, suppressed PGD2-induced neurite outgrowth. Moreover, PGD2 and 15d-PGJ2 increased the protein expression of Islet-1 (the earliest marker of developing motor neurons), and these increases were suppressed by co-treatment with GW9662. These results suggest that PGD2 induces neuritogenesis in NSC-34 cells and that PGD2-induced neurite outgrowth was mediated by the activation of PPARγ through the metabolite 15d-PGJ2.

Indomethacin Enhances Type 1 Cannabinoid Receptor Signaling

In addition to its known actions as a non-selective cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2 inhibitor, we hypothesized that indomethacin can act as an allosteric modulator of the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) because of its shared structural features with the known allosteric modulators of CB1R. Indomethacin enhanced the binding of [³H]CP55940 to hCB1R and enhanced AEA-dependent [³⁵S]GTPγS binding to hCB1R in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell membranes. Indomethacin (1 μM) also enhanced CP55940-dependent βarrestin1 recruitment, cAMP inhibition, ERK1/2 and PLCβ3 phosphorylation in HEK293A cells expressing hCB1R, but not in cells expressing hCB2R. Finally, indomethacin enhanced the magnitude and duration of CP55940-induced hypolocomotion, immobility, hypothermia, and anti-nociception in C57BL/6J mice. Together, these data support the hypothesis that indomethacin acted as a positive allosteric modulator of hCB1R. The identification of structural and functional features shared amongst allosteric modulators of CB1R may lead to the development of novel compounds designed for greater CB1R or COX selectivity and compounds designed to modulate both the prostaglandin and endocannabinoid systems.

Targeting cell signaling in allergic asthma

Asthma is chronic inflammation of the airways characterized by airway hyper-responsiveness, wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. Asthma affects >350 million people worldwide. The Th2 immune response is a major contributor to the pathophysiology of asthma. Targeted therapy modulating cell signaling pathways can be a powerful strategy to design new drugs to treat asthma. The potential molecular pathways that can be targeted include IL-4-IL-13-JAK-STAT-MAP kinases, adiponectin-iNOS-NF-κB, PGD2-CRTH2, IFNs-RIG, Wnt/β-catenin-FAM13A, FOXC1-miR-PI3K/AKT, JNK-Gal-7, Nrf2-ROS, Foxp3-RORγt, CysLTR, AMP, Fas-FasL, PTHrP/PPARγ, PAI-1, FcɛRI-LAT-SLP-76, Tim-3-Gal-9, TLRs-MyD88, PAR2, and Keap1/Nrf2/ARE. Therapeutic drugs can be designed to target one or more of these pathways to treat asthma.

Crth2 receptor signaling down-regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced NF-κB activation in murine macrophages via changes in intracellular calcium

Prostaglandin D₂ and its cyclopentenone metabolites [cyclopentenone prostaglandins (CyPGs)], Δ¹²prostaglandin J₂ and 15-deoxy-Δ^12,14-prostaglandin J₂, act through 2 GPCRs, d-type prostanoid 1 and the chemoattractant receptor homologous molecule expressed on type 2 T-helper cells (Crth2). In addition to its role in allergy and asthma, the role of Crth2 in the resolution of inflammation, to mediate the proresolving functions of endogenous CyPGs, is not well understood. We investigated the regulation of LPS or zymosan-induced inflammatory response by signals from the Crth2 receptor in macrophages that lack Crth2 expression [knockout (KO)]. Increased expression of proinflammatory genes, including Tnf-α, was observed in Crth2 KO cells. Targeting the endogenous biosynthetic pathway of CyPGs with indomethacin or HQL79, which inhibit cyclooxygenases or hematopoietic prostaglandin D synthase, respectively, or use of Crth2 antagonists recapitulated the proinflammatory phenotype as in Crth2 KO cells. Ligand-dependent activation of Crth2 by 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-prostaglandin D₂ increased Ca²⁺ influx through store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) accompanied by the up-regulation of stromal interaction molecule 1 and calcium release-activated calcium modulator 1 expression, suggesting that the proresolution effects of CyPG-dependent activation of SOCE could be mediated by Crth2 during inflammation. Interestingly, Crth2 signaling down-regulated the Ca²⁺-regulated heat stable protein 1 that stabilizes Tnf-α mRNA via the increased expression of microRNA 155 to dampen inflammatory responses triggered through the TNF-α-NF-κB axis. In summary, these studies present a novel regulatory role for Crth2 during inflammatory response in macrophages.-Diwakar, B. T., Yoast, R., Nettleford, S., Qian, F., Lee, T.-J., Berry, S., Huffnagle, I., Rossi, R. M., Trebak, M., Paulson, R. F., Prabhu, K. S. Crth2 receptor signaling down-regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced NF-κB activation in murine macrophages via changes in intracellular calcium.

The Role of Eicosanoids in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders known. Estimates from the Alzheimer's Association suggest that there are currently 5.8 million Americans living with the disease and that this will rise to 14 million by 2050. Research over the decades has revealed that AD pathology is complex and involves a number of cellular processes. In addition to the well-studied amyloid-β and tau pathology, oxidative damage to lipids and inflammation are also intimately involved. One aspect all these processes share is eicosanoid signaling. Eicosanoids are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids by enzymatic or non-enzymatic means and serve as short-lived autocrine or paracrine agents. Some of these eicosanoids serve to exacerbate AD pathology while others serve to remediate AD pathology. A thorough understanding of eicosanoid signaling is paramount for understanding the underlying mechanisms and developing potential treatments for AD. In this review, eicosanoid metabolism is examined in terms of in vivo production, sites of production, receptor signaling, non-AD biological functions, and known participation in AD pathology.

Role of the L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1 receptor axis in sleep regulation and neurologic outcomes

To meet the new challenges of modern lifestyles, we often compromise a good night's sleep. In preclinical models as well as in humans, a chronic lack of sleep is reported to be among the leading causes of various physiologic, psychologic, and neurocognitive deficits. Thus far, various endogenous mediators have been implicated in inter-regulatory networks that collectively influence the sleep-wake cycle. One such mediator is the lipocalin-type prostaglandin D2 synthase (L-PGDS)-Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2)-DP1 receptor (L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1R) axis. Findings in preclinical models confirm that DP1R are predominantly expressed in the sleep-regulating centers. This finding led to the discovery that the L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1R axis is involved in sleep regulation. Furthermore, we showed that the L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1R axis is beneficial in protecting the brain from ischemic stroke. Protein sequence homology was also performed, and it was found that L-PGDS and DP1R share a high degree of homology between humans and rodents. Based on the preclinical and clinical data thus far pertaining to the role of the L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1R axis in sleep regulation and neurologic conditions, there is optimism that this axis may have a high translational potential in human therapeutics. Therefore, here the focus is to review the regulation of the homeostatic component of the sleep process with a special focus on the L-PGDS-PGD2-DP1R axis and the consequences of sleep deprivation on health outcomes. Furthermore, we discuss whether the pharmacological regulation of this axis could represent a tool to prevent sleep disturbances and potentially improve outcomes, especially in patients with acute brain injuries.

CRTH2 promotes endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis through m-calpain

Apoptotic death of cardiac myocytes is associated with ischemic heart disease and chemotherapy‐induced cardiomyopathy. Chemoattractant receptor‐homologous molecule expressed on T helper type 2 cells (CRTH2) is highly expressed in the heart. However, its specific role in ischemic cardiomyopathy is not fully understood. Here, we demonstrated that CRTH2 disruption markedly improved cardiac recovery in mice postmyocardial infarction and doxorubicin challenge by suppressing cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Mechanistically, CRTH2 activation specifically facilitated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress‐induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis via caspase‐12‐dependent pathway. Blockage of m‐calpain prevented CRTH2‐mediated cardiomyocyte apoptosis under ER stress by suppressing caspase‐12 activity. CRTH2 was coupled with G_αq to elicit intracellular Ca²⁺ flux and activated m‐calpain/caspase‐12 cascade in cardiomyocytes. Knockdown of caspase‐4, an alternative to caspase‐12 in humans, markedly alleviated CRHT2 activation‐induced apoptosis in human cardiomyocyte response to anoxia. Our findings revealed an unexpected role of CRTH2 in promoting ER stress‐induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, suggesting that CRTH2 inhibition has therapeutic potential for ischemic cardiomyopathy.

Lipocalin-Like Prostaglandin D Synthase but Not Hemopoietic Prostaglandin D Synthase Deletion Causes Hypertension and Accelerates Thrombogenesis in Mice

Prostaglandin (PG) D₂ is formed by two distinct PGD synthases (PGDS): lipocalin-type PGDS (L-PGDS), which acts as a PGD₂-producing enzyme and as extracellular lipophilic transporter, and hematopoietic PGDS (H-PGDS), a σ glutathione-S-transferase. PGD₂ plays an important role in the maintenance of vascular function; however, the relative contribution of L-PGDS– and H-PGDS–dependent formation of PGD₂ in this setting is unknown. To gain insight into the function played by these distinct PGDS, we assessed systemic blood pressure (BP) and thrombogenesis in L-Pgds and H-Pgds knockout (KO) mice. Deletion of L-Pgds depresses urinary PGD₂ metabolite (PGDM) by ∼35%, whereas deletion of H-Pgds does so by ∼90%. Deletion of L-Pgds, but not H-Pgds, elevates BP and accelerates the thrombogenic occlusive response to a photochemical injury to the carotid artery. HQL-79, a H-PGDS inhibitor, further depresses PGDM in L-Pgds KO mice, but has no effect on BP or on the thrombogenic response. Gene expression profiling reveals that pathways relevant to vascular function are dysregulated in the aorta of L-Pgds KOs. These results indicate that the functional impact of L-Pgds deletion on vascular homeostasis may result from an autocrine effect of L-PGDS–dependent PGD₂ on the vasculature and/or the L-PGDS function as lipophilic carrier protein.

The prostaglandin D2 receptor 2 pathway in asthma: a key player in airway inflammation

Asthma is characterised by chronic airway inflammation, airway obstruction and hyper-responsiveness. The inflammatory cascade in asthma comprises a complex interplay of genetic factors, the airway epithelium, and dysregulation of the immune response.Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) is a lipid mediator, predominantly released from mast cells, but also by other immune cells such as TH2 cells and dendritic cells, which plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of asthma. PGD2 mainly exerts its biological functions via two G-protein-coupled receptors, the PGD2 receptor 1 (DP1) and 2 (DP2). The DP2 receptor is mainly expressed by the key cells involved in type 2 immune responses, including TH2 cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells and eosinophils. The DP2 receptor pathway is a novel and important therapeutic target for asthma, because increased PGD2 production induces significant inflammatory cell chemotaxis and degranulation via its interaction with the DP2 receptor. This interaction has serious consequences in the pulmonary milieu, including the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and harmful cationic proteases, leading to tissue remodelling, mucus production, structural damage, and compromised lung function. This review will discuss the importance of the DP2 receptor pathway and the current understanding of its role in asthma.

DP1 receptor signaling prevents the onset of intrinsic apoptosis in eosinophils and functions as a transcriptional modulator

Prostaglandin (PG) D₂ is the ligand for the G-protein coupled receptors DP1 (D-type prostanoid receptor 1) and DP2 (also known as chemoattractant receptor homologous molecule, expressed on Th2 cells; CRTH2). Both, DP1 and DP2 are expressed on the cellular surface of eosinophils; although it has become quite clear that PGD₂ induces eosinophil migration mainly via DP2 receptors, the role of DP1 in eosinophil responses has remained elusive. In this study, we addressed how DP1 receptor signaling complements the pro-inflammatory effects of DP2. We found that PGD₂ prolongs the survival of eosinophils via a DP1 receptor-mediated mechanism that inhibits the onset of the intrinsic apoptotic cascade. The DP1 agonist BW245c prevented the activation of effector caspases in eosinophils and protected mitochondrial membranes from depolarization which-as a consequence-sustained viability of eosinophils. DP1 activation in eosinophils enhanced the expression of the anti-apoptotic gene BCL-X_L , but also induced pro-inflammatory genes, such as VLA-4 and CCR3. In HEK293 cells that overexpress recombinant DP1 and/or DP2 receptors, activation of DP1, but not DP2, delayed cell death and stimulated proliferation, along with induction of serum response element (SRE), a regulator of anti-apoptotic, early-response genes. We conclude that DP1 receptors promote the survival via SRE induction and induction of pro-inflammatory genes. Therefore, targeting DP1 receptors, along with DP2, may contribute to anti-inflammatory therapy in eosinophilic diseases.

Lack of beta-arrestin signaling in the absence of active G proteins

G protein-independent, arrestin-dependent signaling is a paradigm that broadens the signaling scope of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) beyond G proteins for numerous biological processes. However, arrestin signaling in the collective absence of functional G proteins has never been demonstrated. Here we achieve a state of “zero functional G” at the cellular level using HEK293 cells depleted by CRISPR/Cas9 technology of the Gs/q/12 families of Gα proteins, along with pertussis toxin-mediated inactivation of Gi/o. Together with HEK293 cells lacking β-arrestins (“zero arrestin”), we systematically dissect G protein- from arrestin-driven signaling outcomes for a broad set of GPCRs. We use biochemical, biophysical, label-free whole-cell biosensing and ERK phosphorylation to identify four salient features for all receptors at “zero functional G”: arrestin recruitment and internalization, but—unexpectedly—complete failure to activate ERK and whole-cell responses. These findings change our understanding of how GPCRs function and in particular of how they activate ERK1/2.

Arrestins terminate signaling from GPCRs, but several lines of evidence suggest that they are also able to transduce signals independently of G proteins. Here, the authors systematically ablate G proteins in cell lines, and show that arrestins are unable to act as genuine signal initiators.

Prostaglandins D2 and E2 have opposite effects on alveolar macrophages infected with Histoplasma capsulatum

Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) suppresses macrophage effector mechanisms; however, little is known about the function of PGD₂ in infected alveolar macrophages (AMs). Using serum-opsonized Histoplasma capsulatum (Ops-H. capsulatum) in vitro, we demonstrated that AMs produced PGE₂ and PGD₂ in a time-dependent manner, with PGE₂ levels exceeding those of PGD₂ by 48 h postinfection. Comparison of the effects of both exogenous PGs on AMs revealed that PGD₂ increased phagocytosis and killing through the chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 lymphocytes receptor, whereas PGE₂ had opposite effects, through E prostanoid (EP) receptor 2 (EP2)/EP4-dependent mechanisms. Moreover, PGD₂ inhibited phospholipase C-γ (PLC-γ) phosphorylation, reduced IL-10 production, and increased leukotriene B4 receptor expression. In contrast, exogenous PGE₂ treatment reduced PLC-γ phosphorylation, p38 and nuclear factor κB activation, TNF-α, H₂O₂, and leukotriene B₄, but increased IL-1β production. Using specific compounds to inhibit the synthesis of each PG in vitro and in vivo, we found that endogenous PGD₂ contributed to fungicidal mechanisms and controlled inflammation, whereas endogenous PGE₂ decreased phagocytosis and killing of the fungus and induced inflammation. These findings demonstrate that, although PGD₂ acts as an immunostimulatory mediator to control H. capsulatum infection, PGE₂ has immunosuppressive effects, and the balance between these two PGs may limit collateral immune damage at the expense of microbial containment.

The therapeutic potential of CRTH2/DP2 beyond allergy and asthma

Prostaglandin (PG) D₂ has been in the focus of research for quite a long time, but its biological effects and its roles in human disease are still not fully characterized. When in 2001 a second major PGD₂ receptor termed chemoattractant receptor homologue expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2; alternative name DP2) was discovered, diverse investigations started to shed more light on the complex and often controversial actions of the prostaglandin. With various immunomodulating effects, such as induction of migration, activation, and cytokine release of leukocytes observed both in vivo and in vitro, CRTH2 has emerged as a promising target for the treatment of allergic diseases. However, with more and more research being performed on CRTH2, it has also become clear that its biological actions are far more diverse than expected at the beginning. In this review, we aim to summarize the roles that PGD₂ - and CRTH2 in particular - might play in diseases of the central nervous system, kidney, intestine, lung, hair and skin, bone and cartilage, and in cancer. Based on current data we propose that blocking CRTH2 might be a potential therapeutic approach to numerous conditions beyond classical allergic diseases and asthma.

Prostaglandins and Their Receptors in Eosinophil Function and As Therapeutic Targets

Of the known prostanoid receptors, human eosinophils express the prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂) receptors DP1 [also D-type prostanoid (DP)] and DP2 (also chemoattractant receptor homologous molecule, expressed on Th2 cells), the prostaglandin E₂ receptors EP2 and EP4, and the prostacyclin (PGI₂) receptor IP. Prostanoids can bind to either one or multiple receptors, characteristically have a short half-life in vivo, and are quickly degraded into metabolites with altered affinity and specificity for a given receptor subtype. Prostanoid receptors signal mainly through G proteins and naturally activate signal transduction pathways according to the G protein subtype that they preferentially interact with. This can lead to the activation of sometimes opposing signaling pathways. In addition, prostanoid signaling is often cell-type specific and also the combination of expressed receptors can influence the outcome of the prostanoid impulse. Accordingly, it is assumed that eosinophils and their (patho-)physiological functions are governed by a sensitive prostanoid signaling network. In this review, we specifically focus on the functions of PGD₂, PGE₂, and PGI₂ and their receptors on eosinophils. We discuss their significance in allergic and non-allergic diseases and summarize potential targets for drug intervention.

Virus-induced inflammasome activation is suppressed by prostaglandin D2/DP1 signaling

Prostaglandin D2 (PGD₂), an eicosanoid with both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties, is the most abundantly expressed prostaglandin in the brain. Here we show that PGD₂ signaling through the D-prostanoid receptor 1 (DP1) receptor is necessary for optimal microglia/macrophage activation and IFN expression after infection with a neurotropic coronavirus. Genome-wide expression analyses indicated that PGD₂/DP1 signaling is required for up-regulation of a putative inflammasome inhibitor, PYDC3, in CD11b⁺ cells in the CNS of infected mice. Our results also demonstrated that, in addition to PGD₂/DP1 signaling, type 1 IFN (IFN-I) signaling is required for PYDC3 expression. In the absence of Pydc3 up-regulation, IL-1β expression and, subsequently, mortality were increased in infected DP1^-/- mice. Notably, survival was enhanced by IL1 receptor blockade, indicating that the effects of the absence of DP1 signaling on clinical outcomes were mediated, at least in part, by inflammasomes. Using bone marrow-derived macrophages in vitro, we confirmed that PYDC3 expression is dependent upon DP1 signaling and that IFN priming is critical for PYDC3 up-regulation. In addition, Pydc3 silencing or overexpression augmented or diminished IL-1β secretion, respectively. Furthermore, DP1 signaling in human macrophages also resulted in the up-regulation of a putative functional analog, POP3, suggesting that PGD₂ similarly modulates inflammasomes in human cells. These findings demonstrate a previously undescribed role for prostaglandin signaling in preventing excessive inflammasome activation and, together with previously published results, suggest that eicosanoids and inflammasomes are reciprocally regulated.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ is essential for secretion of ANP induced by prostaglandin D2 in the beating rat atrium

Prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂) may act against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and play an anti-inflammatory role in the heart. Although the effect of PGD₂ in regulation of ANP secretion of the atrium was reported, the mechanisms involved are not clearly identified. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether PGD₂ can regulate ANP secretion in the isolated perfused beating rat atrium, and its underlying mechanisms. PGD₂ (0.1 to 10 µM) significantly increased atrial ANP secretion concomitantly with positive inotropy in a dose-dependent manner. Effects of PGD₂ on atrial ANP secretion and mechanical dynamics were abolished by AH-6809 (1.0 µM) and AL-8810 (1.0 µM), PGD₂ and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) receptor antagonists, respectively. Moreover, PGD₂ clearly upregulated atrial peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and the PGD₂ metabolite 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ₂ (15d-PGJ₂, 0.1 µM) dramatically increased atrial ANP secretion. Increased ANP secretions induced by PGD₂ and 15d-PGJ₂ were completely blocked by the PPARγ antagonist GW9662 (0.1 µM). PD98059 (10.0 µM) and LY294002 (1.0 µM), antagonists of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling, respectively, significantly attenuated the increase of atrial ANP secretion by PGD₂. These results indicated that PGD₂ stimulated atrial ANP secretion and promoted positive inotropy by activating PPARγ in beating rat atria. MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways were each partially involved in regulating PGD₂-induced atrial ANP secretion.

Lipid Mediators of Allergic Disease: Pathways, Treatments, and Emerging Therapeutic Targets

Bioactive lipids are critical regulators of inflammation. Over the last 75 years, these diverse compounds have emerged as clinically-relevant mediators of allergic disease pathophysiology. Animal and human studies have demonstrated the importance of lipid mediators in the development of asthma, allergic rhinitis, urticaria, anaphylaxis, atopic dermatitis, and food allergy. Lipids are critical participants in cell signaling events which influence key physiologic (bronchoconstriction) and immune phenomena (degranulation, chemotaxis, sensitization). Lipid-mediated cellular mechanisms including: (1) formation of structural support platforms (lipid rafts) for receptor signaling complexes, (2) activation of a diverse family of G-protein coupled receptors, and (3) mediating intracellular signaling cascades by acting as second messengers. Here, we review four classes of bioactive lipids (platelet activating factor, the leukotrienes, the prostanoids, and the sphingolipids) with special emphasis on lipid synthesis pathways and signaling, atopic disease pathology, and the ongoing development of atopy treatments targeting lipid mediator pathways.

Discovery of anti-inflammatory role of prostaglandin D2

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including aspirin are one of the most frequently used classes of drug worldwide and inhibit prostaglandin (PG) production by inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity. Although NSAIDs are broadly used against inflammatory diseases, they have side effects including alimentary canal disorders, kidney damage, infection and cardiovascular disorders. Thus, it is necessary to elucidate the pathophysiological role of each PG in various diseases to develop better therapies with fewer and milder side effects. PGD₂ is a PG that was identified in 1973 by Hamberg and is produced by the activities of cyclooxygenase and either hematopoietic or lipocalin-type PGD synthase. PGD₂ exerts its physiological effects by stimulating two distinct G protein-coupled receptors, namely D prostanoid receptor (DP) and chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2). The physiological role of PGD₂ remains controversial. Some studies have reported that PGD₂ has bronchoconstrictory and pro-inflammatory effects inducing immune cell accumulation. In contrast, other groups have reported that PGD₂ has anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the recruitment of dendritic cells and neutrophils. We have investigated the pathophysiological role of PGD₂ using various disease models and reported on its anti-inflammatory actions. Here, we review the anti-inflammatory roles of PGD₂ and the underlying mechanisms.

Prostaglandin D2 is a novel repressor of IFNγ induced indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase via the DP1 receptor and cAMP pathway

Expression of elevated levels of Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is well established as a mechanism of cancer induced immunosuppression. Pharmacological inhibition of IDO activity is thus a promising alternative in the treatment of cancer. Previously we demonstrated that cyclooxygenase derived metabolites of arachidonic acid inhibited the interferon-gamma mediated induction of IDO in both THP-1 cells and human monocytes. Here we identified that of the five primary prostanoids produced by COX-1/COX-2, only PGD2 displayed significant repressor activity. PGD2 inhibited IDO activity with an IC50 of 7.2µM in THP-1 cells and 5.2µM in monocytes. PGD2 caused a significant decrease in both IDO mRNA and protein. Using receptor specific agonists, PGD2 was found to act via the DP1 receptor, while the CRTH2 receptor was not involved. A DP1 antagonist significantly reduced the activity of PGD2, while CRTH2 agonists were ineffective. PGD2 increased intracellular cAMP levels and exogenous N(6)-cAMP was also found to be highly inhibitory. The effects of PGD2 via cAMP were blocked by Rp-cAMP indicating involvement of PKA. PGD2 also stimulated CREB phosphorylation, a PKA dependent transcription factor. This is the first report demonstrating that PGD2, a prostanoid typically associated with allergy, can inhibit IDO activity via the DP1/cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway. Our findings suggest that PGD2 and its derivatives may form the basis of novel repressors of IFNγ-mediated IDO expression.

Preclinical Safety Profile of a Depleting Antibody against CRTh2 for Asthma: Well Tolerated Despite Unexpected CRTh2 Expression on Vascular Pericytes in the Central Nervous System and Gastric Mucosa

CRTh2 is expressed on immune cells that drive asthma pathophysiology. Current treatment options for severe asthma are inadequate and therapeutic antibody-mediated depletion of CRTh2-expressing cells represents a promising new therapeutic strategy. Here we report for the first time that CRTh2 is not only expressed on immune cells, but also on microvasculature in the central nervous system (CNS) and gastric mucosa in humans. Microvascular expression of CRTh2 raises a safety concern because a therapeutic antiCRTh2 antibody with enhanced depletion capacity could lead to vascular damage. To evaluate this safety risk, we characterized microvascular expression in human and in transgenic mice expressing human CRTh2 protein (hCRTh2.BAC.Tg) and found that CRTh2 is not localized to microvascular endothelium that is directly exposed to circulating therapeutic antibody, but rather, to pericytes that in the CNS are shielded from direct circulatory exposure by the blood-brain barrier. Immunohistochemical visualization of an intravenously administered antiCRTh2 antibody in transgenic mice revealed localization to microvascular pericytes in the gastric mucosa but not in the CNS, suggesting the blood-brain barrier effectively limits pericyte exposure to circulating therapeutic antibody in the CNS. Repeated dosing with a depleting antiCRTh2 antibody in hCRTh2.BAC.Tg mice revealed linear pharmacokinetics and no drug-related adverse findings in any tissues, including the CNS and gastric mucosa, despite complete depletion of CRTh2 expressing circulating eosinophils and basophils. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that the likelihood of drug-related CNS or gastrointestinal toxicity in humans treated with a therapeutic depleting antiCRTh2 antibody is low despite pericyte expression of CRTh2 in these tissues.

Pathophysiological Roles of Cyclooxygenases and Prostaglandins in the Central Nervous System

Cyclooxygenases (COXs) oxidize arachidonic acid to prostaglandin (PG) G2 and H2 followed by PG synthases that generates PGs and thromboxane (TX) A2. COXs are divided into COX-1 and COX-2. In the central nervous system, COX-1 is constitutively expressed in neurons, astrocytes, and microglial cells. COX-2 is upregulated in these cells under pathophysiological conditions. In hippocampal long-term potentiation, COX-2, PGE synthase, and PGE2 are induced in post-synaptic neurons. PGE2 acts pre-synaptic EP2 receptor, generates cAMP, stimulates protein kinase A, modulates voltage-dependent calcium channel, facilitates glutamatergic synaptic transmission, and potentiates long-term plasticity. PGD2, PGE2, and PGI2 exhibit neuroprotective effects via Gs-coupled DP1, EP2/EP4, and IP receptors, respectively. COX-2, PGD2, PGE2, PGF2α, and TXA2 are elevated in stroke. COX-2 inhibitors exhibit neuroprotective effects in vivo and in vitro models of stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, suggesting neurotoxicities of COX products. PGE2, PGF2α, and TXA2 can contribute to the neurodegeneration via EP1, FP, and TP receptors, respectively, which are coupled with Gq, stimulate phospholipase C and cleave phosphatidylinositol diphosphate to produce inositol triphosphate and diacylglycerol. Inositol triphosphate binds to inositol triphosphate receptor in endoplasmic reticulum, releases calcium, and results in increasing intracellular calcium concentrations. Diacylglycerol activates calcium-dependent protein kinases. PGE2 disrupts Ca(2+) homeostasis by impairing Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange via EP1, resulting in the excess Ca(2+) accumulation. Neither PGE2, PGF2α, nor TXA2 causes neuronal cell death by itself, suggesting that they might enhance the ischemia-induced neurodegeneration. Alternatively, PGE2 is non-enzymatically dehydrated to a cyclopentenone PGA2, which induces neuronal cell death. Although PGD2 induces neuronal apoptosis after a lag time, neither DP1 nor DP2 is involved in the neurotoxicity. As well as PGE2, PGD2 is non-enzymatically dehydrated to a cyclopentenone 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14)-PGJ2, which induces neuronal apoptosis without a lag time. However, neurotoxicities of these cyclopentenones are independent of their receptors. The COX-2 inhibitor inhibits both the anchorage-dependent and anchorage-independent growth of glioma cell lines regardless of COX-2 expression, suggesting that some COX-2-independent mechanisms underlie the antineoplastic effect of the inhibitor. PGE2 attenuates this antineoplastic effect, suggesting that the predominant mechanism is COX-dependent. COX-2 or EP1 inhibitors show anti-neoplastic effects. Thus, our review presents evidences for pathophysiological roles of cyclooxygenases and prostaglandins in the central nervous system.

Mast cell regulation of Na-glutamine co-transporters B0AT1 in villus and SN2 in crypt cells during chronic intestinal inflammation

Background

In the chronically inflamed rabbit small intestine, brush border membrane (BBM) Na-glutamine co-transport is inhibited in villus cells (mediated by B0AT1), while it is stimulated in crypt cells (mediated by SN2/SNAT5). How mast cells, known to be enhanced in the chronically inflamed intestine, may regulate B0AT1 in villus and SN2/SNAT5 in crypt cell is unknown. Thus, the aim of the present study is to determine the regulation of B0AT1 and SN2/SNAT5 by mast cells during chronic enteritis.

Methods

Chronic intestinal inflammation was induced in male rabbits with intra-gastric inoculation of Eimeria magna oocytes. Rabbits with chronic inflammation were treated with ketotifen (10 mg/day) or saline (Placebo) for 2 days. Villus and crypts cells were isolated from the rabbit intestine using the Ca++ chelation technique. Na/K-ATPase activity was measured as Pi from cellular homogenate. BBM vesicles (BBMV) were prepared from villus and crypt cells and uptake studies were performed using rapid filtration technique with ³H-Glutamine. Western blot analyses were done using B0AT1 and SN2 specific antibodies.

Results

In villus cells, Na-glutamine co-transport inhibition observed during inflammation was completely reversed by ketotifen, a mast cell stabilizer. In contrast, in crypt cells, Na-glutamine co-transport stimulation was reversed to normal levels by ketotifen. Kinetic studies demonstrated that ketotifen reversed the inhibition of B0AT1 in villus cells by restoring co-transporter numbers in the BBM, whereas the stimulation of SN2/SNAT5 in crypts cells was reversed secondary to restoration of affinity of the co-transporter. Western blot analysis showed that ketotifen restored immune-reactive levels of B0AT1 in villus cells, while SN2/SNAT5 levels from crypts cell remained unchanged.

Conclusion

In the present study we demonstrate that mast cells likely function as a common upstream immune pathway regulator of the Na-dependent glutamine co-transporters, B0AT1 in villus cells and SN2 in crypts cells that are uniquely altered in the chronically inflamed small intestine.

Prostaglandin D2 and the role of the DP1, DP2 and TP receptors in the control of airway reflex events

Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) causes cough and levels are increased in asthma suggesting that it may contribute to symptoms. Although the prostaglandin D2 receptor 2 (DP2) is a target for numerous drug discovery programmes little is known about the actions of PGD2 on sensory nerves and cough. We used human and guinea pig bioassays, in vivo electrophysiology and a guinea pig conscious cough model to assess the effect of prostaglandin D2 receptor (DP1), DP2 and thromboxane receptor antagonism on PGD2 responses. PGD2 caused cough in a conscious guinea pig model and an increase in calcium in airway jugular ganglia. Using pharmacology and receptor-deficient mice we showed that the DP1 receptor mediates sensory nerve activation in mouse, guinea pig and human vagal afferents. In vivo, PGD2 and a DP1 receptor agonist, but not a DP2 receptor agonist, activated single airway C-fibres. Interestingly, activation of DP2 inhibited sensory nerve firing to capsaicin in vitro and in vivo. The DP1 receptor could be a therapeutic target for symptoms associated with asthma. Where endogenous PGD2 levels are elevated, loss of DP2 receptor-mediated inhibition of sensory nerves may lead to an increase in vagally associated symptoms and the potential for such adverse effects should be investigated in clinical studies with DP2 antagonists.

Opposing roles of prostaglandin D2 receptors in ulcerative colitis

Proresolution functions were reported for PGD2 in colitis, but the role of its two receptors, D-type prostanoid (DP) and, in particular, chemoattractant receptor homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2), is less well defined. We investigated DP and CRTH2 expression and function during human and murine ulcerative colitis (UC). Expression of receptors was measured by flow cytometry on peripheral blood leukocytes and by immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting in colon biopsies of patients with active UC and healthy individuals. Receptor involvement in UC was evaluated in a mouse model of dextran sulfate sodium colitis. DP and CRTH2 expression changed in leukocytes of patients with active UC in a differential manner. In UC patients, DP showed higher expression in neutrophils but lower in monocytes as compared with control subjects. In contrast, CRTH2 was decreased in eosinophils, NK, and CD3(+) T cells but not in monocytes and CD3(+)/CD4(+) T cells. The decrease of CRTH2 on blood eosinophils clearly correlated with disease activity. DP correlated positively with disease activity in eosinophils but inversely in neutrophils. CRTH2 internalized upon treatment with PGD2 and 11-dehydro TXB2 in eosinophils of controls. Biopsies of UC patients revealed an increase of CRTH2-positive cells in the colonic mucosa and high CRTH2 protein content. The CRTH2 antagonist CAY10595 improved, whereas the DP antagonist MK0524 worsened inflammation in murine colitis. DP and CRTH2 play differential roles in UC. Although expression of CRTH2 on blood leukocytes is downregulated in UC, CRTH2 is present in colon tissue, where it may contribute to inflammation, whereas DP most likely promotes anti-inflammatory actions.