Control of Fur synthesis by the non-coding RNA RyhB and iron-responsive decoding

Are Bacterial Processes Dependent on Global Ribosome Pausing Affected by tRNA Modification Defects?

By integrating a literature review with transcriptomic, proteomic, and phenotypic data from two model bacteria, Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae, we put forward the hypothesis that defects in tRNA modification broadly impact processes that are evolutionarily tuned to be sensitive to translation speed. These include the translation of regulatory proteins associated with motility, iron homeostasis, and leader peptide-driven attenuation mechanisms. Some of these translation speed-dependent processes are influenced by the absence of a single modification, while others are affected by the absence of multiple modifications. Although further experiments are needed to clarify the mechanisms involved in each case, this work provides a foundational framework to guide future research.

Aminoglycoside tolerance in Vibrio cholerae engages translational reprogramming associated with queuosine tRNA modification

Tgt is the enzyme modifying the guanine (G) in tRNAs with GUN anticodon to queuosine (Q). tgt is required for optimal growth of Vibrio cholerae in the presence of sub-lethal aminoglycoside concentrations. We further explored here the role of the Q34 in the efficiency of codon decoding upon tobramycin exposure. We characterized its impact on the overall bacterial proteome, and elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of Q34 modification in antibiotic translational stress response. Using molecular reporters, we showed that Q34 impacts the efficiency of decoding at tyrosine TAT and TAC codons. Proteomics analyses revealed that the anti-SoxR factor RsxA is better translated in the absence of tgt. RsxA displays a codon bias toward tyrosine TAT and overabundance of RsxA leads to decreased expression of genes belonging to SoxR oxidative stress regulon. We also identified conditions that regulate tgt expression. We propose that regulation of Q34 modification in response to environmental cues leads to translational reprogramming of transcripts bearing a biased tyrosine codon usage. In silico analysis further identified candidate genes which could be subject to such translational regulation, among which DNA repair factors. Such transcripts, fitting the definition of modification tunable transcripts, are central in the bacterial response to antibiotics.

Tiny but mighty: Diverse functions of uORFs that regulate gene expression

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are critical cis-acting regulators of downstream gene expression. Specifically, uORFs regulate translation by disrupting translation initiation or mediating mRNA decay. We herein summarize the effects of several uORFs that regulate gene expression in microbes to illustrate the detailed mechanisms mediating uORF functions. Microbes are ideal for uORF studies because of their prompt responses to stimuli. Recent studies revealed uORFs are ubiquitous in higher eukaryotes. Moreover, they influence various physiological processes in mammalian cells by regulating gene expression, mostly at the translational level. Research conducted using rapidly evolving methods for ribosome profiling combined with protein analyses and computational annotations showed that uORFs in mammalian cells control gene expression similar to microbial uORFs, but they also have unique tumorigenesis-related roles because of their protein-encoding capacities. We briefly introduce cutting-edge research findings regarding uORFs in mammalian cells.

Staphylococcal sRNA IsrR downregulates methylthiotransferase MiaB under iron-deficient conditions

Staphylococcus aureus is a major contributor to bacterial-associated mortality, owing to its exceptional adaptability across diverse environments. Iron is vital to most organisms but can be toxic in excess. To manage its intracellular iron, S. aureus, like many pathogens, employs intricate systems. We have recently identified IsrR as a key regulatory RNA induced during iron starvation. Its role is to reduce the synthesis of non-essential iron-containing proteins under iron-depleted conditions. In this study, we unveil IsrR's regulatory action on MiaB, an enzyme responsible for methylthio group addition to specific sites on transfer RNAs (tRNAs). We use predictive tools and reporter fusion assays to demonstrate IsrR's binding to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence of miaB RNA, thereby impeding its translation. The effectiveness of IsrR hinges on the integrity of a specific C-rich region. As MiaB is non-essential and has iron-sulfur clusters, IsrR induction spares iron by downregulating miaB. This may improve S. aureus fitness and aid in navigating the host's nutritional immune defenses.IMPORTANCEIn many biotopes, including those found within an infected host, bacteria confront the challenge of iron deficiency. They employ various strategies to adapt to this scarcity of nutrients, one of which involves regulating iron-containing proteins through the action of small regulatory RNAs. Our study shows how IsrR, a small RNA from S. aureus, prevents the production of MiaB, a tRNA-modifying enzyme containing iron-sulfur clusters. With this illustration, we propose a new substrate for an iron-sparing small RNA, which, when downregulated, should reduce the need for iron and save it to essential functions.

TusA influences Fe-S cluster assembly and iron homeostasis in E. coli by reducing the translation efficiency of Fur

All sulfur transfer pathways have generally a l-cysteine desulfurase as an initial sulfur-mobilizing enzyme in common, which serves as a sulfur donor for the biosynthesis of numerous sulfur-containing biomolecules in the cell. In Escherichia coli, the housekeeping l-cysteine desulfurase IscS has several interaction partners, which bind at different sites of the protein. So far, the interaction sites of IscU, Fdx, CyaY, and IscX involved in iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster assembly have been mapped, in addition to TusA, which is required for molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and mnm5s2U34 tRNA modifications, and ThiI, which is involved in thiamine biosynthesis and s4U8 tRNA modifications. Previous studies predicted that the sulfur acceptor proteins bind to IscS one at a time. E. coli TusA has, however, been suggested to be involved in Fe-S cluster assembly, as fewer Fe-S clusters were detected in a ∆tusA mutant. The basis for this reduction in Fe-S cluster content is unknown. In this work, we investigated the role of TusA in iron-sulfur cluster assembly and iron homeostasis. We show that the absence of TusA reduces the translation of fur, thereby leading to pleiotropic cellular effects, which we dissect in detail in this study.IMPORTANCEIron-sulfur clusters are evolutionarily ancient prosthetic groups. The ferric uptake regulator plays a major role in controlling the expression of iron homeostasis genes in bacteria. We show that a ∆tusA mutant is impaired in the assembly of Fe-S clusters and accumulates iron. TusA, therefore, reduces fur mRNA translation leading to pleiotropic cellular effects.

Small RNAs, Large Networks: Posttranscriptional Regulons in Gram-Negative Bacteria

Small regulatory RNA (sRNAs) are key mediators of posttranscriptional gene control in bacteria. Assisted by RNA-binding proteins, a single sRNA often modulates the expression of dozens of genes, and thus sRNAs frequently adopt central roles in regulatory networks. Posttranscriptional regulation by sRNAs comes with several unique features that cannot be achieved by transcriptional regulators. However, for optimal network performance, transcriptional and posttranscriptional control mechanisms typically go hand-in-hand. This view is reflected by the ever-growing class of mixed network motifs involving sRNAs and transcription factors, which are ubiquitous in biology and whose regulatory properties we are beginning to understand. In addition, sRNA activity can be antagonized by base-pairing with sponge RNAs, adding yet another layer of complexity to these networks. In this article, we summarize the regulatory concepts underlying sRNA-mediated gene control in bacteria and discuss how sRNAs shape the output of a network, focusing on several key examples.

Interplay between the RNA Chaperone Hfq, Small RNAs and Transcriptional Regulator OmpR Modulates Iron Homeostasis in the Enteropathogen Yersinia enterocolitica

Iron is both essential for and potentially toxic to bacteria, so the precise maintenance of iron homeostasis is necessary for their survival. Our previous study indicated that in the human enteropathogen Yersinia enterocolitica, the regulator OmpR directly controls the transcription of the fur, fecA and fepA genes, encoding the ferric uptake repressor and two transporters of ferric siderophores, respectively. This study was undertaken to determine the significance of the RNA chaperone Hfq and the small RNAs OmrA and RyhB1 in the post-transcriptional control of the expression of these OmpR targets. We show that Hfq silences fur, fecA and fepA expression post-transcriptionally and negatively affects the production of FLAG-tagged Fur, FecA and FepA proteins. In addition, we found that the fur gene is under the negative control of the sRNA RyhB1, while fecA and fepA are negatively regulated by the sRNA OmrA. Finally, our data revealed that the role of OmrA results from a complex interplay of transcriptional and post-transcriptional effects in the feedback circuit between the regulator OmpR and the sRNA OmrA. Thus, the expression of fur, fecA and fepA is subject to complex transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation in order to maintain iron homeostasis in Y. enterocolitica.

Prokaryotic ncRNAs: Master regulators of gene expression

ncRNA plays a very pivotal role in various biological activities ranging from gene regulation to controlling important developmental networks. It is imperative to note that this small molecule is not only present in all three domains of cellular life, but is an important modulator of gene regulation too in all these domains. In this review, we discussed various aspects of ncRNA biology, especially their role in bacteria. The last two decades of scientific research have proved that this molecule plays an important role in the modulation of various regulatory pathways in bacteria including the adaptive immune system and gene regulation. It is also very surprising to note that this small molecule is also employed in various processes related to the pathogenicity of virulent microorganisms.

A zero-sum game or an interactive frame? Iron competition between bacteria and humans in infection war

ABSTRACT

Iron is an essential trace element for both humans and bacteria. It plays a vital role in life, such as in redox reactions and electron transport. Strict regulatory mechanisms are necessary to maintain iron homeostasis because both excess and insufficient iron are harmful to life. Competition for iron is a war between humans and bacteria. To grow, reproduce, colonize, and successfully cause infection, pathogens have evolved various mechanisms for iron uptake from humans, principally Fe 3+ -siderophore and Fe 2+ -heme transport systems. Humans have many innate immune mechanisms that regulate the distribution of iron and inhibit bacterial iron uptake to help resist bacterial invasion and colonization. Meanwhile, researchers have invented detection test strips and coupled antibiotics with siderophores to create tools that take advantage of this battle for iron, to help eliminate pathogens. In this review, we summarize bacterial and human iron metabolism, competition for iron between humans and bacteria, siderophore sensors, antibiotics coupled with siderophores, and related phenomena. We also discuss how competition for iron can be used for diagnosis and treatment of infection in the future.

Cellular RNA Targets of Cold Shock Proteins CspC and CspE and Their Importance for Serum Resistance in Septicemic Escherichia coli

The RNA chaperones, cold shock proteins CspC and CspE, are important in stress response and adaptation. We studied their role in the pathogenesis of a virulent Escherichia coli, representative of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) which are serum resistant and septicemic. We performed a global analysis to identify transcripts that interact with these cold shock proteins (CSPs), focusing on virulence-related genes. We used CLIP-seq, which combines UV cross-linking, immunoprecipitation and RNA sequencing. A large number of transcripts bound to the CSPs were identified, and many bind both CspC and CspE. Many transcripts were of genes involved in protein synthesis, transcription and energy metabolism. In addition, there were virulence-related genes, (i.e., fur and ryhB), essential for iron homeostasis. The CLIP-seq results were validated on two transcripts, clpX and tdcA, reported as virulence-associated. Deletion of either CspC or CspE significantly decreased their transcript levels and in a double deletion mutant cspC/cspE, the transcript stability of tdcA and clpX was reduced by 32-fold and 10-fold, respectively. We showed that these two genes are important for virulence, as deleting either of them resulted in loss of serum resistance, a requirement for sepsis. As several virulence-related transcripts interact with CspC or CspE, we determined the importance of these proteins for growth in serum and showed that deletion of either gene significantly reduced serum survival. This phenotype could be partially complemented by cspE and fully complemented by cspC. These results indicate that the two RNA chaperones are essential for virulence, and that CspC particularly critical.

IMPORTANCE Virulent Escherichia coli strains that cause infections outside the intestinal tract—extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC)—constitute a major clinical problem worldwide. They are involved in several distinct conditions, including urinary tract infections, newborn meningitis, and sepsis. Due to increasing antibiotic resistance, these strains are a main factor in hospital and community-acquired infections. Because many strains, which do not cross-react immunologically are involved, developing a simple vaccine is not possible. Therefore, it is essential to understand the pathogenesis of these bacteria to identify potential targets for developing drugs or vaccines. One of the least investigated systems involves RNA binding proteins, important for stability of transcripts and global gene regulation. Two such proteins are CspC and CspE (“cold shock proteins”), RNA chaperones involved in stress adaptation. Here we performed a global analysis to identify the transcripts which are affected by these two chaperones, with focus on virulence-associated transcripts.

Fur Protein Regulates the Motility of Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli AE17 Through Promoter Regions of the Flagella Key Genes flhD

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) is an important pathogen causing several diseases in birds. It is responsible for local and systemic infections in poultry, seriously impeding the development of the poultry industry, and poses a potential risk to public health. The iron absorption regulatory protein Fur and the noncoding RNA, RyhB, that it negatively regulates are important factors in bacterial iron uptake, but the regulation of bacterial virulence genes varies greatly among different bacteria. We found that Fur is very important for the mobility of APEC. The expression of fur and RyhB is extensively regulated in APEC, and RyhB expression is also negatively regulated by Fur. A transcriptomic analysis showed that the genes significantly differentially regulated by Fur are related to cell movement, including pilus- or flagellum-dependent cell motility. To verify these results, we examined the effects of fur knockdown on cell movement by measuring the diameter of the bacteria colonies. Consistent with the RNA sequencing results, the mobility of AE17Δfur was significantly reduced compared with that of the wild type, and it had almost lost its ability to move. Using an electrophoretic mobility assay, we confirmed that the Fur protein directly binds to the promoter region of the key flagellum-related gene flhD, thereby affecting the assembly and synthesis of the APEC flagellum. This study extends our understanding of gene regulation in APEC.

Inferring the contribution of small RNAs to changes in gene expression in response to stress

A main strategy of bacteria adapting to environmental changes is the remodeling of their transcriptome. Changes in the transcript levels of specific genes are due to combined effects of various regulators, including small RNAs (sRNAs). sRNAs are post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression that mainly control translation, but also directly and indirectly affect the levels of their target transcripts. Yet, the relative contribution of an sRNA to the total change in the transcript level of a gene upon an environmental change has not been assessed. We present a design of differential gene expression analysis by RNA-seq that allows extracting the contribution of an sRNA to the total change in the transcript level of each gene in response to an environmental change by fitting a linear model to the data. We exemplify this for the sRNA RyhB in cells growing under iron limitation and show a variation among genes in the relative contribution of RyhB to the change in their transcript level upon iron limitation, from subtle to very substantial. Extracting the relative contribution of an sRNA to the total change in expression of genes is important for understanding the integration of regulation by sRNAs with other regulatory mechanisms in the cell.

Quorum sensing and iron-dependent coordinated control of autoinducer-2 production via small RNA RyhB in Vibrio vulnificus

Roles for the non-coding small RNA RyhB in quorum-sensing and iron-dependent gene modulation in the human pathogen V. vulnificus were assessed in this study. Both the quorum sensing master regulator SmcR and the Fur-iron complex were observed to bind to the region upstream of the non-coding small RNA RyhB gene to repress expression, which suggests that RyhB is associated with both quorum-sensing and iron-dependent signaling in this pathogen. We found that expression of LuxS, which is responsible for the biosynthesis of autoinducer-2 (AI-2), was higher in wild type than in a ryhB-deletion isotype. RyhB binds directly to the 5′-UTR (untranslated region) of the luxS transcript to form a heteroduplex, which not only stabilizes luxS mRNA but also disrupts the secondary structure that normally obscures the translational start codon and thereby allows translation of LuxS to begin. The binding of RyhB to luxS mRNA requires the chaperone protein Hfq, which stabilizes RyhB. These results demonstrate that the small RNA RyhB is a key element associated with feedback control of AI-2 production, and that it inhibits quorum-sensing signaling in an iron-dependent manner. This study, taken together with previous studies, shows that iron availability and cell density signals are funneled to SmcR and RyhB, and that these regulators coordinate cognate signal pathways that result in the proper balance of protein expression in response to environmental conditions.

Iron Transport and Metabolism in Escherichia, Shigella, and Salmonella

Iron is an essential element for Escherichia, Salmonella, and Shigella species. The acquisition of sufficient amounts of iron is difficult in many environments, including the intestinal tract, where these bacteria usually reside. Members of these genera have multiple iron transport systems to transport both ferrous and ferric iron. These include transporters for free ferrous iron, ferric iron associated with chelators, and heme. The numbers and types of transport systems in any species reflect the diversity of niches that it can inhabit. Many of the iron transport genes are found on mobile genetic elements or pathogenicity islands, and there is evidence of the spread of the genes among different species and pathotypes. This is notable among the pathogenic members of the genera in which iron transport systems acquired by horizontal gene transfer allow the bacteria to overcome host innate defenses that act to restrict the availability of iron to the pathogen. The need for iron is balanced by the need to avoid iron overload since excess iron is toxic to the cell. Genes for iron transport and metabolism are tightly regulated and respond to environmental cues, including iron availability, oxygen, and temperature. Master regulators, the iron sensor Fur and the Fur-regulated small RNA (sRNA) RyhB, coordinate the expression of iron transport and cellular metabolism genes in response to the availability of iron.

Riboregulation in bacteria: From general principles to novel mechanisms of the trp attenuator and its sRNA and peptide products

Gene expression strategies ensuring bacterial survival and competitiveness rely on cis- and trans-acting RNA-regulators (riboregulators). Among the cis-acting riboregulators are transcriptional and translational attenuators, and antisense RNAs (asRNAs). The trans-acting riboregulators are small RNAs (sRNAs) that bind proteins or base pairs with other RNAs. This classification is artificial since some regulatory RNAs act both in cis and in trans, or function in addition as small mRNAs. A prominent example is the archetypical, ribosome-dependent attenuator of tryptophan (Trp) biosynthesis genes. It responds by transcription attenuation to two signals, Trp availability and inhibition of translation, and gives rise to two trans-acting products, the attenuator sRNA rnTrpL and the leader peptide peTrpL. In Escherichia coli, rnTrpL links Trp availability to initiation of chromosome replication and in Sinorhizobium meliloti, it coordinates regulation of split tryptophan biosynthesis operons. Furthermore, in S. meliloti, peTrpL is involved in mRNA destabilization in response to antibiotic exposure. It forms two types of asRNA-containing, antibiotic-dependent ribonucleoprotein complexes (ARNPs), one of them changing the target specificity of rnTrpL. The posttranscriptional role of peTrpL indicates two emerging paradigms: (1) sRNA reprograming by small molecules and (2) direct involvement of antibiotics in regulatory RNPs. They broaden our view on RNA-based mechanisms and may inspire new approaches for studying, detecting, and using antibacterial compounds. This article is categorized under: RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Small Molecule-RNA Interactions RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > Regulatory RNAs.

Metabolic regulation and optimization of oxygen supply enhance the 2,3-butanediol yield of the novel Klebsiella sp. isolate FSoil 024

BACKGROUND

Biogenic 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BDO) is a high-value-added compound that can be used as a liquid fuel and a platform chemical. Bioproduction of 2,3-BDO is an environmentally friendly choice.

METHOD AND RESULTS

Three recombinant derivatives of the novel Klebsiella sp. isolate FSoil 024 (WT) were constructed via different strategies including deletion of lactate dehydrogenase by λ-Red homologous recombination technology, overexpression of the small-noncoding RNA RyhB and a combination of both. The 2,3-BDO productivity of the mutants increased by 61.3-79%, and WT-Δldh/ryhB displayed the highest 2,3-BDO yield of 42.36 mM after 24 h of shake-flask fermentation. Glucose was shown as the best carbon source for 2,3-BDO production by WT-Δldh/ryhB. In addition, higher oxygenation was favorable for ideal product synthesis. The maximal 2,3-BDO yield of WT and WT-Δldh/ryhB were increased by 23.3 and 52.5% respectively compared to the control group in the presence of 70% oxygen (V:V' = O₂ :(O₂ +N₂ )).

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

According to the present study, deletion of lactate dehydrogenase, RyhB overexpression and manipulation of oxygen supply showed great impacts on cell growth, 2,3-BDO productivity and cellular metabolism of the novel isolated strain Klebsiella sp. FSoil 024. This work would also provide insights for promoting 2,3-BDO biosynthesis for industrial applications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Escherichia coli Small Proteome

Escherichia coli was one of the first species to have its genome sequenced and remains one of the best-characterized model organisms. Thus, it is perhaps surprising that recent studies have shown that a substantial number of genes have been overlooked. Genes encoding more than 140 small proteins, defined as those containing 50 or fewer amino acids, have been identified in E. coli in the past 10 years, and there is substantial evidence indicating that many more remain to be discovered. This review covers the methods that have been successful in identifying small proteins and the short open reading frames that encode them. The small proteins that have been functionally characterized to date in this model organism are also discussed. It is hoped that the review, along with the associated databases of known as well as predicted but undetected small proteins, will aid in and provide a roadmap for the continued identification and characterization of these proteins in E. coli as well as other bacteria.

Positive regulation of Type III secretion effectors and virulence by RyhB paralogs in Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis

Small non-coding RNA RyhB is a key regulator of iron homeostasis in bacteria by sensing iron availability in the environment. Although RyhB is known to influence bacterial virulence by interacting with iron metabolism related regulators, its interaction with virulence genes, especially the Type III secretion system (T3SS), has not been reported. Here, we demonstrate that two RyhB paralogs of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis upregulate Type III secretion system (T3SS) effectors, and consequently affect Salmonella invasion into intestinal epithelial cells. Specifically, we found that RyhB-1 modulate Salmonella response to stress condition of iron deficiency and hypoxia, and stress in simulated intestinal environment (SIE). Under SIE culture conditions, both RyhB-1 and RyhB-2 are drastically induced and directly upregulate the expression of T3SS effector gene sipA by interacting with its 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR) via an incomplete base-pairing mechanism. In addition, the RyhB paralogs upregulate the expression of T3SS effector gene sopE. By regulating the invasion-related genes, RyhBs in turn affect the ability of S. Enteritidis to adhere to and invade into intestinal epithelial cells. Our findings provide evidence that RyhBs function as critical virulence factors by directly regulating virulence-related gene expression. Thus, inhibition of RyhBs may be a potential strategy to attenuate Salmonella.

The Regulator OmpR in Yersinia enterocolitica Participates in Iron Homeostasis by Modulating Fur Level and Affecting the Expression of Genes Involved in Iron Uptake

In this study, we found that the loss of OmpR, the response regulator of the two-component EnvZ/OmpR system, increases the cellular level of Fur, the master regulator of iron homeostasis in Y. enterocolitica. Furthermore, we demonstrated that transcription of the fur gene from the YePfur promoter is subject to negative OmpR-dependent regulation. Four putative OmpR-binding sites (OBSs) were indicated by in silico analysis of the fur promoter region, and their removal affected OmpR-dependent fur expression. Moreover, OmpR binds specifically to the predicted OBSs which exhibit a distinct hierarchy of binding affinity. Finally, the data demonstrate that OmpR, by direct binding to the promoters of the fecA, fepA and feoA genes, involved in the iron transport and being under Fur repressor activity, modulates their expression. It seems that the negative effect of OmpR on fecA and fepA transcription is sufficient to counteract the indirect, positive effect of OmpR resulting from decreasing the Fur repressor level. The expression of feoA was positively regulated by OmpR and this mode of action seems to be direct and indirect. Together, the expression of fecA, fepA and feoA in Y. enterocolitica has been proposed to be under a complex mode of regulation involving OmpR and Fur regulators.

Naturally occurring modified ribonucleosides

The chemical identity of RNA molecules beyond the four standard ribonucleosides has fascinated scientists since pseudouridine was characterized as the "fifth" ribonucleotide in 1951. Since then, the ever-increasing number and complexity of modified ribonucleosides have been found in viruses and throughout all three domains of life. Such modifications can be as simple as methylations, hydroxylations, or thiolations, complex as ring closures, glycosylations, acylations, or aminoacylations, or unusual as the incorporation of selenium. While initially found in transfer and ribosomal RNAs, modifications also exist in messenger RNAs and noncoding RNAs. Modifications have profound cellular outcomes at various levels, such as altering RNA structure or being essential for cell survival or organism viability. The aberrant presence or absence of RNA modifications can lead to human disease, ranging from cancer to various metabolic and developmental illnesses such as Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome, Bowen-Conradi syndrome, or Williams-Beuren syndrome. In this review article, we summarize the characterization of all 143 currently known modified ribonucleosides by describing their taxonomic distributions, the enzymes that generate the modifications, and any implications in cellular processes, RNA structure, and disease. We also highlight areas of active research, such as specific RNAs that contain a particular type of modification as well as methodologies used to identify novel RNA modifications. This article is categorized under: RNA Processing > RNA Editing and Modification.

Regulation outside the box: New mechanisms for small RNAs

Regulation at the post‐transcriptional level is an important mode of gene expression control in bacteria. Small RNA regulators (sRNAs) that act via intramolecular base‐pairing with target mRNAs are key players in this process and most often sequester the target's ribosome binding site (RBS) to down‐regulate translation initiation. Over the past few years, several exceptions from this mechanism have been reported, revealing that sRNAs are able to influence translation initiation from a distance. In this issue of Molecular Microbiology, Azam and Vanderpool show that repression of the manY mRNA by the sRNA SgrS relies on an unconventional mechanism involving a translational enhancer element and ribosomal protein S1. Binding of S1 to an AU‐rich sequence within the 5ʹ untranslated region of the manY transcript promotes translation of the mRNA, and base‐pairing of SgrS to the same site can interfere with this process. Therefore, instead of blocking translation initiation by occluding the manY RBS, SgrS reduces ManY synthesis by inhibiting S1‐dependent translation activation. These findings increase the base‐pairing window for sRNA‐mediated gene expression control in bacteria and highlight the role of ribosomal protein S1 for translation initiation.

Extracurricular Functions of tRNA Modifications in Microorganisms

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are essential adaptors that mediate translation of the genetic code. These molecules undergo a variety of post-transcriptional modifications, which expand their chemical reactivity while influencing their structure, stability, and functionality. Chemical modifications to tRNA ensure translational competency and promote cellular viability. Hence, the placement and prevalence of tRNA modifications affects the efficiency of aminoacyl tRNA synthetase (aaRS) reactions, interactions with the ribosome, and transient pairing with messenger RNA (mRNA). The synthesis and abundance of tRNA modifications respond directly and indirectly to a range of environmental and nutritional factors involved in the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis. The dynamic landscape of the tRNA epitranscriptome suggests a role for tRNA modifications as markers of cellular status and regulators of translational capacity. This review discusses the non-canonical roles that tRNA modifications play in central metabolic processes and how their levels are modulated in response to a range of cellular demands.

Functions of Bacterial tRNA Modifications: From Ubiquity to Diversity

Modified nucleotides in tRNA are critical components of the translation apparatus, but their importance in the process of translational regulation had until recently been greatly overlooked. Two breakthroughs have recently allowed a fuller understanding of the importance of tRNA modifications in bacterial physiology. One is the identification of the full set of tRNA modification genes in model organisms such as Escherichia coli K12. The second is the improvement of available analytical tools to monitor tRNA modification patterns. The role of tRNA modifications varies greatly with the specific modification within a given tRNA and with the organism studied. The absence of these modifications or reductions can lead to cell death or pleiotropic phenotypes or may have no apparent visible effect. By linking translation through their decoding functions to metabolism through their biosynthetic pathways, tRNA modifications are emerging as important components of the bacterial regulatory toolbox.

Comparative tRNA sequencing and RNA mass spectrometry for surveying tRNA modifications

Chemical modifications of the nucleosides that comprise transfer RNAs are diverse. However, the structure, location and extent of modifications have been systematically charted in very few organisms. Here, we describe an approach in which rapid prediction of modified sites through reverse transcription-derived signatures in high-throughput transfer RNA-sequencing (tRNA-seq) data is coupled with identification of tRNA modifications through RNA mass spectrometry. Comparative tRNA-seq enabled prediction of several Vibrio cholerae modifications that are absent from Escherichia coli and also revealed the effects of various environmental conditions on V. cholerae tRNA modification. Through RNA mass spectrometric analyses, we showed that two of the V. cholerae-specific reverse transcription signatures reflected the presence of a new modification (acetylated acp³U (acacp³U)), while the other results from C-to-Ψ RNA editing, a process not described before. These findings demonstrate the utility of this approach for rapid surveillance of tRNA modification profiles and environmental control of tRNA modification.

sRNA EsrE Is Transcriptionally Regulated by the Ferric Uptake Regulator Fur in Escherichia coli

Small RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread and play major roles in regulation circuits in bacteria. Previously, we have demonstrated that transcription of esrE is under the control of its own promoter. However, the regulatory elements involved in EsrE sRNA expression are still unknown. In this study, we found that different cis-regulatory elements exist in the promoter region of esrE. We then screened and analyzed seven potential corresponding trans-regulatory elements by using pull-down assays based on DNA affinity chromatography. Among these candidate regulators, we investigated the relationship between the ferric uptake regulator (Fur) and the EsrE sRNA. Electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSAs) and β-galactosidase activity assays demonstrated that Fur can bind to the promoter region of esrE, and positively regulate EsrE sRNA expression in the presence of Fe²⁺.

The protein regulator ArgR and the sRNA derived from the 3'-UTR region of its gene, ArgX, both regulate the arginine deiminase pathway in Lactococcus lactis

Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) and their enormous potential and versatility have provided us with an astounding insight in the complexity of bacterial transcriptomes. sRNAs have been shown to be involved in a variety of cellular processes that range from stress to general metabolism. Here we report that the gene encoding the transcriptional regulator ArgR is immediately followed by the gene of the small regulatory RNA ArgX. The latter is transcribed from its own promoter. The production of ArgX is induced by increasing arginine concentrations and repressed by CcpA. Previously, ArgR was shown to act as a transcriptional repressor of the catabolic arginine deiminase pathway (arc operon) by binding in the promoter region of arcA. Here we demonstrate that ArgX downregulates arc mRNA levels. Furthermore, ArgX putatively blocks the translation of one of the genes in the operon, arcC1, a process that would redirect an intermediate in arginine degradation, carbamoyl phosphate, towards pyrimidine synthesis. Our findings exemplify, for the first time, the combinatorial power of a transcription factor and a small regulatory RNA derived from the 3’-UTR region. The regulators ArgR and ArgX share a common target, but act on transcription and on RNA level, respectively.

EsR240, a non-coding sRNA, is required for the resistance of Edwardsiella tarda to stresses in macrophages and for virulence

Bacterial small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) are gene expression modulators that respond to environmental changes and pathogenic conditions. In this study, 13 novel sRNAs were identified in the intracellular pathogen, Edwardsiella tarda (E. tarda) ET13 strain, based on RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analyses. Eight of the 13 putative sRNAs from the ET13 strain were transcribed (as indicated by RT-PCR) following exposure to different stresses. The transcription levels of three sRNAs (EsR128, EsR139 and EsR240) were all highly induced under these stress conditions. Northern blot hybridization was employed to verify that EsR240 was expressed in the ET13 strain under both logarithmic and stationary growth phases, and that it formed a single copy transcript in the chromosomes of the ET13 strain. The precise start and end points of EsR240 were determined using 5'and 3' RACE. The conservation of EsR240 was in agreement with the characteristics of sRNA, as indicated by a BLAST analysis. Furthermore, the survival rates of EsR240 mutant were lower than the rates of the wild type ET13 under stress conditions. When the infection time was extended 4 or 6 h, the CFUs of the wild type bacteria increased more significantly within macrophages compared to the mutant. When the intra-peritoneal (i.p.) route of infection was used in mice, the bacterial loads of the tissues in the mice infected with the wild type bacteria were significantly higher than in the mice infected with the mutants. The virulence of the EsR240 mutant was 6.79-fold lower than the wild type bacterium based on the LD₅₀. In addition, the IntaRNA program was used to predict the target genes of EsR240. Out of the top 10 predicted target genes, 9 genes were regulated by EsR240. These target genes may encode FtsH protease modulator YccA, Na⁺ and H⁺ antiporters, FtsX-like permease family protein, glycoside hydrolases or various other proteins. Therefore, EsR240 may positively regulate its target genes in E. tarda to maintain intracellular survival within host macrophages and to increase its virulence.

The RNA degradosome promotes tRNA quality control through clearance of hypomodified tRNA

The factors and mechanisms that govern tRNA stability in bacteria are not well understood. Here, we investigated the influence of posttranscriptional modification of bacterial tRNAs (tRNA modification) on tRNA stability. We focused on ThiI-generated 4-thiouridine (s⁴U), a modification found in bacterial and archaeal tRNAs. Comprehensive quantification of Vibrio cholerae tRNAs revealed that the abundance of some tRNAs is decreased in a ΔthiI strain in a stationary phase-specific manner. Multiple mechanisms, including rapid degradation of a subset of hypomodified tRNAs, account for the reduced abundance of tRNAs in the absence of thiI Through transposon insertion sequencing, we identified additional tRNA modifications that promote tRNA stability and bacterial viability. Genetic analysis of suppressor mutants as well as biochemical analyses revealed that rapid degradation of hypomodified tRNA is mediated by the RNA degradosome. Elongation factor Tu seems to compete with the RNA degradosome, protecting aminoacyl tRNAs from decay. Together, our observations describe a previously unrecognized bacterial tRNA quality control system in which hypomodification sensitizes tRNAs to decay mediated by the RNA degradosome.

The regulation of Moco biosynthesis and molybdoenzyme gene expression by molybdenum and iron in bacteria

The regulation of the operons involved in Moco biosynthesis is dependent on the availability of Fe–S clusters in the cell.

Quantitative Characteristic of ncRNA Regulation in Gene Regulatory Networks

RNA is mostly known for its role in protein synthesis, where it encodes information for protein sequence in its messenger RNA (mRNA) form (translation). Yet, RNA molecules regulate several cellular processes other than translation. Here, we present an overview of several mathematical models that help understanding and characterizing the role of noncoding RNA molecules (ncRNAs) in regulating gene expression and protein synthesis. First, we discuss relatively simple models where ncRNAs can modulate protein synthesis via targeting a mRNA. Then, we consider the case of feedback interactions between ncRNAs and their target proteins, and discuss several biological applications where these feedback architectures modulate a cellular phenotype and control the levels of intrinsic and extrinsic noise. Building from these simple circuit motifs, we examine feed-forward circuit motifs involving ncRNAs that generate precise spatial and temporal patterns of protein expression. Further, we investigate the competition between ncRNAs and other endogenous RNA molecules and show that the cross talk between coding and noncoding RNAs can form large genetic circuits that involve up to hundreds of chemical species. Finally, we discuss the role of ncRNAs in modulating cell-cell signaling pathways and therefore the dynamics of spatiotemporal pattern formation in a tissue.

Can Protein Expression Be Regulated by Modulation of tRNA Modification Profiles?

tRNAs are the central adaptor molecules in translation. Their decoding properties are influenced by post-transcriptional modifications, particularly in the critical anticodon-stem-loop (ASL) region. Synonymous codon choice, also called codon usage bias, affects both translation efficiency and accuracy, and ASL modifications play key roles in both of these processes. In combination with a handful of historical examples, recent studies integrating ribosome profiling, proteomics, codon-usage analyses, and modification quantifications show that levels of tRNA modifications can change under stress, during development, or under specific metabolic conditions and can modulate the expression of specific genes. Deconvoluting the different responses (global or specific) to tRNA modification deficiencies can be difficult because of pleiotropic effects, but, as more cases emerge, it does seem that tRNA modification changes could add another layer of regulation in the transfer of information from DNA to protein.

Poly(A) polymerase is required for RyhB sRNA stability and function in Escherichia coli

Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are an important class of bacterial post-transcriptional regulators that control numerous physiological processes, including stress responses. In Gram-negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, the RNA chaperone Hfq binds many sRNAs and facilitates pairing to target transcripts, resulting in changes in mRNA transcription, translation, or stability. Here, we report that poly(A) polymerase (PAP I), which promotes RNA degradation by exoribonucleases through the addition of poly(A) tails, has a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression by Hfq-dependent sRNAs. Specifically, we show that deletion of pcnB, encoding PAP I, paradoxically resulted in an increased turnover of certain Hfq-dependent sRNAs, including RyhB. RyhB instability in the pcnB deletion strain was suppressed by mutations in hfq or ryhB that disrupt pairing of RyhB with target RNAs, by mutations in the 3' external transcribed spacer of the glyW-cysT-leuZ transcript (3'ETS^LeuZ) involved in pairing with RyhB, or an internal deletion in rne, which encodes the endoribonuclease RNase E. Finally, the reduced stability of RyhB in the pcnB deletion strain resulted in impaired regulation of some of its target mRNAs, specifically sodB and sdhCDAB. Altogether our data support a model where PAP I plays a critical role in ensuring the efficient decay of the 3'ETS^LeuZ In the absence of PAP I, the 3'ETS^LeuZ transcripts accumulate, bind Hfq, and pair with RyhB, resulting in its depletion via RNase E-mediated decay. This ultimately leads to a defect in RyhB function in a PAP I deficient strain.

Bacterial Small RNAs in Mixed Regulatory Networks

Small regulatory RNAs are now recognized as key regulators of gene expression in bacteria. They accumulate under specific conditions, most often because their synthesis is directly controlled by transcriptional regulators, including but not limited to alternative sigma factors and response regulators of two-component systems. In turn, small RNAs regulate, mostly at the posttranscriptional level, expression of multiple genes, among which are genes encoding transcriptional regulators. Small RNAs are thus embedded in mixed regulatory circuits combining transcriptional and posttranscriptional controls, and whose properties are discussed here.

Biogenesis and iron-dependency of ribosomal RNA hydroxylation

Post-transcriptional modifications of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are involved in ribosome biogenesis and fine-tuning of translation. 5-Hydroxycytidine (ho5C), a modification of unknown biogenesis and function, is present at position 2501 of Escherichia coli 23S rRNA. We conducted a genome-wide screen in E. coli to identify genes required for ho5C2501 formation, and found a previously-uncharacterized gene, ydcP (renamed rlhA), iron-sulfur cluster (isc) genes, and a series of genes responsible for prephenate biosynthesis, indicating that iron-sulfur clusters and prephenate are required for ho5C2501 formation. RlhA interacted with precursors of the 50S ribosomal subunit, suggesting that this protein is directly involved in formation of ho5C2501. RlhA belongs to a family of enzymes with an uncharacterized peptidase U32 motif and conserved Cys residues in the C-terminal region. These elements were essential for ho5C2501 formation. We also found that the frequency of ho5C2501 is modulated by environmental iron concentration. Together, our results reveal a novel biosynthetic pathway for RNA hydroxylation and its response to iron.

Impact of bacterial sRNAs in stress responses

Bacterial life is harsh and involves numerous environmental and internal challenges that are perceived as stresses. Consequently, adequate responses to survive, cope with, and counteract stress conditions have evolved. In the last few decades, a class of small, non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) has been shown to be involved as key players in stress responses. This review will discuss — primarily from an enterobacterial perspective — selected stress response pathways that involve antisense-type sRNAs. These include themes of how bacteria deal with severe envelope stress, threats of DNA damage, problems with poisoning due to toxic sugar intermediates, issues of iron homeostasis, and nutrient limitation/starvation. The examples discussed highlight how stress relief can be achieved, and how sRNAs act mechanistically in regulatory circuits. For some cases, we will propose scenarios that may suggest why contributions from post-transcriptional control by sRNAs, rather than transcriptional control alone, appear to be a beneficial and universally selected feature.

Ironing Out the Unconventional Mechanisms of Iron Acquisition and Gene Regulation in Chlamydia

The obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, along with its close species relatives, is known to be strictly dependent upon the availability of iron. Deprivation of iron in vitro induces an aberrant morphological phenotype termed "persistence." This persistent phenotype develops in response to various immunological and nutritional insults and may contribute to the development of sub-acute Chlamydia-associated chronic diseases in susceptible populations. Given the importance of iron to Chlamydia, relatively little is understood about its acquisition and its role in gene regulation in comparison to other iron-dependent bacteria. Analysis of the genome sequences of a variety of chlamydial species hinted at the involvement of unconventional mechanisms, being that Chlamydia lack many conventional systems of iron homeostasis that are highly conserved in other bacteria. Herein we detail past and current research regarding chlamydial iron biology in an attempt to provide context to the rapid progress of the field in recent years. We aim to highlight recent discoveries and innovations that illuminate the strategies involved in chlamydial iron homeostasis, including the vesicular mode of acquiring iron from the intracellular environment, and the identification of a putative iron-dependent transcriptional regulator that is synthesized as a fusion with a ABC-type transporter subunit. These recent findings, along with the noted absence of iron-related homologs, indicate that Chlamydia have evolved atypical approaches to the problem of iron homeostasis, reinvigorating research into the iron biology of this pathogen.

Integration of Bacterial Small RNAs in Regulatory Networks

Small RNAs (sRNAs) are central regulators of gene expression in bacteria, controlling target genes posttranscriptionally by base pairing with their mRNAs. sRNAs are involved in many cellular processes and have unique regulatory characteristics. In this review, we discuss the properties of regulation by sRNAs and how it differs from and combines with transcriptional regulation. We describe the global characteristics of the sRNA-target networks in bacteria using graph-theoretic approaches and review the local integration of sRNAs in mixed regulatory circuits, including feed-forward loops and their combinations, feedback loops, and circuits made of an sRNA and another regulator, both derived from the same transcript. Finally, we discuss the competition effects in posttranscriptional regulatory networks that may arise over shared targets, shared regulators, and shared resources and how they may lead to signal propagation across the network.

Identification and validation of sRNAs in Edwardsiella tarda S08

Bacterial small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) are known as novel regulators involved in virulence, stress responsibility, and so on. Recently, a lot of new researches have highlighted the critical roles of sRNAs in fine-tune gene regulation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Edwardsiella tarda (E. tarda) is a gram-negative, intracellular pathogen that causes edwardsiellosis in fish. Thus far, no sRNA has been reported in E. tarda. The present study represents the first attempt to identify sRNAs in E. tarda S08. Ten sRNAs were validated by RNA sequencing and quantitative PCR (qPCR). ET_sRNA_1 and ET_sRNA_2 were homolous to tmRNA and GcvB, respectively. However, the other candidate sRNAs have not been reported till now. The cellular abundance of 10 validated sRNA was detected by qPCR at different growth phases to monitor their biosynthesis. Nine candidate sRNAs were expressed in the late-stage of exponential growth and stationary stages of growth (36~60 h). And the expression of the nine sRNAs was growth phase-dependent. But ET_sRNA_10 was almost expressed all the time and reached the highest peak at 48 h. Their targets were predicted by TargetRNA2 and each sRNA target contains some genes that directly or indirectly relate to virulence. These results preliminary showed that sRNAs probably play a regulatory role of virulence in E. tarda.

Small proteins in cyanobacteria provide a paradigm for the functional analysis of the bacterial micro-proteome

Background

Despite their versatile functions in multimeric protein complexes, in the modification of enzymatic activities, intercellular communication or regulatory processes, proteins shorter than 80 amino acids (μ-proteins) are a systematically underestimated class of gene products in bacteria. Photosynthetic cyanobacteria provide a paradigm for small protein functions due to extensive work on the photosynthetic apparatus that led to the functional characterization of 19 small proteins of less than 50 amino acids. In analogy, previously unstudied small ORFs with similar degrees of conservation might encode small proteins of high relevance also in other functional contexts.

Results

Here we used comparative transcriptomic information available for two model cyanobacteria, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714 for the prediction of small ORFs. We found 293 transcriptional units containing candidate small ORFs ≤80 codons in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, also including the known mRNAs encoding small proteins of the photosynthetic apparatus. From these transcriptional units, 146 are shared between the two strains, 42 are shared with the higher plant Arabidopsis thaliana and 25 with E. coli. To verify the existence of the respective μ-proteins in vivo, we selected five genes as examples to which a FLAG tag sequence was added and re-introduced them into Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. These were the previously annotated gene ssr1169, two newly defined genes norf1 and norf4, as well as nsiR6(nitrogen stress-induced RNA 6) and hliR1(high light-inducible RNA 1) , which originally were considered non-coding. Upon activation of expression via the Cu^2+.responsive petE promoter or from the native promoters, all five proteins were detected in Western blot experiments.

Conclusions

The distribution and conservation of these five genes as well as their regulation of expression and the physico-chemical properties of the encoded proteins underline the likely great bandwidth of small protein functions in bacteria and makes them attractive candidates for functional studies.

Role of Small Noncoding RNAs in Bacterial Metabolism

The study of prokaryotic small RNAs is one of the most important directions in modern molecular biology. In the last decade, multiple short regulatory transcripts have been found in prokaryotes, and for some of them functional roles have been elucidated. Bacterial small RNAs are implicated in the regulation of transcription and translation, and they affect mRNA stability and gene expression via different mechanisms, including changes in mRNA conformation and interaction with proteins. Most small RNAs are expressed in response to external factors, and they help bacteria to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Bacterial infections of various origins remain a serious medical problem, despite significant progress in fighting them. Discovery of mechanisms that bacteria employ to survive in infected organisms and ways to block these mechanisms is promising for finding new treatments for bacterial infections. Regulation of pathogenesis with small RNAs is an attractive example of such mechanisms. This review considers the role of bacterial small RNAs in adaptation to stress conditions. We pay special attention to the role of small RNAs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, in particular during establishment and maintenance of latent infection.

Mechanistic study of base-pairing small regulatory RNAs in bacteria

In all three kingdoms of life, RNA is not only involved in the expression of genetic information, but also carries out extremely diverse cellular functions. This versatility is essentially due to the fact that RNA molecules can exploit the power of base pairing to allow them to fold into a wide variety of structures through which they can perform diverse roles, but also to selectively target and bind to other nucleic acids. This is true in particular for bacterial small regulatory RNAs that act by imperfect base-pairing with target mRNAs, and thereby control their expression through different mechanisms. Here we outline an overview of in vivo and in vitro approaches that are currently used to gain mechanistic insights into how these sRNAs control gene expression in bacteria.

Small RNAs Regulate Primary and Secondary Metabolism in Gram-negative Bacteria

Over the last decade, small (often noncoding) RNA molecules have been discovered as important regulators influencing myriad aspects of bacterial physiology and virulence. In particular, small RNAs (sRNAs) have been implicated in control of both primary and secondary metabolic pathways in many bacterial species. This chapter describes characteristics of the major classes of sRNA regulators, and highlights what is known regarding their mechanisms of action. Specific examples of sRNAs that regulate metabolism in gram-negative bacteria are discussed, with a focus on those that regulate gene expression by base pairing with mRNA targets to control their translation and stability.

Transcript degradation and noise of small RNA-controlled genes in a switch activated network in Escherichia coli

Post-transcriptional regulatory processes may change transcript levels and affect cell-to-cell variability or noise. We study small-RNA downregulation to elucidate its effects on noise in the iron homeostasis network of Escherichia coli. In this network, the small-RNA RyhB undergoes stoichiometric degradation with the transcripts of target genes in response to iron stress. Using single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization, we measured transcript numbers of the RyhB-regulated genes sodB and fumA in individual cells as a function of iron deprivation. We observed a monotonic increase of noise with iron stress but no evidence of theoretically predicted, enhanced stoichiometric fluctuations in transcript numbers, nor of bistable behavior in transcript distributions. Direct detection of RyhB in individual cells shows that its noise is much smaller than that of these two targets, when RyhB production is significant. A generalized two-state model of bursty transcription that neglects RyhB fluctuations describes quantitatively the dependence of noise and transcript distributions on iron deprivation, enabling extraction of in vivo RyhB-mediated transcript degradation rates. The transcripts’ threshold-linear behavior indicates that the effective in vivo interaction strength between RyhB and its two target transcripts is comparable. Strikingly, the bacterial cell response exhibits Fur-dependent, switch-like activation instead of a graded response to iron deprivation.

Roles of two RyhB paralogs in the physiology of Salmonella enterica

Salmonella has evolved complicated regulatory systems to regulate the expression of virulence determinants that are acquired by horizontal gene transfer in response to various environmental niches. Among these, small RNA (sRNA)-mediated regulation exhibits unique features, distinct from those of protein factor-mediated regulation, which may provide benefits for a pathogen coping with the complex stress conditions encountered during host infection. Specifically, iron acquisition by this pathogenic bacterium is important for cellular processes such as energy metabolism and DNA replication. Many studies on the role of RyhB sRNA have begun to unveil the essential nature of iron acquisition in allowing the organism to persist and develop pathogenicity. The Salmonella genome encodes two RyhB paralogs, RyhB-1 and RyhB-2, which are known to act singularly or together on target expression. Based on the mechanism of Escherichia coli RyhB function, this review proposes a possible model to show how two Salmonella RyhB paralogs regulate the level of target mRNAs by sensing environmental inputs or conditions. This review also describes the involvement of Salmonella RyhBs in diverse functions including nitrate homeostasis, adaptive system to oxidative stress, and intracellular survival. Thus, the two Salmonella RyhBs play a critical role in the regulation of gene expression that appears to be essential for persistence and pathogenesis of Salmonella spp.

Vibrio Iron Transport: Evolutionary Adaptation to Life in Multiple Environments

Iron is an essential element for Vibrio spp., but the acquisition of iron is complicated by its tendency to form insoluble ferric complexes in nature and its association with high-affinity iron-binding proteins in the host. Vibrios occupy a variety of different niches, and each of these niches presents particular challenges for acquiring sufficient iron. Vibrio species have evolved a wide array of iron transport systems that allow the bacteria to compete for this essential element in each of its habitats. These systems include the secretion and uptake of high-affinity iron-binding compounds (siderophores) as well as transport systems for iron bound to host complexes. Transporters for ferric and ferrous iron not complexed to siderophores are also common to Vibrio species. Some of the genes encoding these systems show evidence of horizontal transmission, and the ability to acquire and incorporate additional iron transport systems may have allowed Vibrio species to more rapidly adapt to new environmental niches. While too little iron prevents growth of the bacteria, too much can be lethal. The appropriate balance is maintained in vibrios through complex regulatory networks involving transcriptional repressors and activators and small RNAs (sRNAs) that act posttranscriptionally. Examination of the number and variety of iron transport systems found in Vibrio spp. offers insights into how this group of bacteria has adapted to such a wide range of habitats.

An assessment of bacterial small RNA target prediction programs

Most bacterial regulatory RNAs exert their function through base-pairing with target RNAs. Computational prediction of targets is a busy research field that offers biologists a variety of web sites and software. However, it is difficult for a non-expert to evaluate how reliable those programs are. Here, we provide a simple benchmark for bacterial sRNA target prediction based on trusted E. coli sRNA/target pairs. We use this benchmark to assess the most recent RNA target predictors as well as earlier programs for RNA-RNA hybrid prediction. Moreover, we consider how the definition of mRNA boundaries can impact overall predictions. Recent algorithms that exploit both conservation of targets and accessibility information offer improved accuracy over previous software. However, even with the best predictors, the number of true biological targets with low scores and non-targets with high scores remains puzzling.

Identification of bacterial sRNA regulatory targets using ribosome profiling

Bacteria express large numbers of non-coding, regulatory RNAs known as ‘small RNAs’ (sRNAs). sRNAs typically regulate expression of multiple target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) through base-pairing interactions. sRNA:mRNA base-pairing often results in altered mRNA stability and/or altered translation initiation. Computational identification of sRNA targets is challenging due to the requirement for only short regions of base-pairing that can accommodate mismatches. Experimental approaches have been applied to identify sRNA targets on a genomic scale, but these focus only on those targets regulated at the level of mRNA stability. Here, we utilize ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) to experimentally identify regulatory targets of the Escherichia coli sRNA RyhB. We not only validate a majority of known RyhB targets using the Ribo-seq approach, but also discover many novel ones. We further confirm regulation of a selection of known and novel targets using targeted reporter assays. By mutating nucleotides in the mRNA of a newly discovered target, we demonstrate direct regulation of this target by RyhB. Moreover, we show that Ribo-seq distinguishes between mRNAs regulated at the level of RNA stability and those regulated at the level of translation. Thus, Ribo-seq represents a powerful approach for genome-scale identification of sRNA targets.

The Staphylococcus aureus protein-coding gene gdpS modulates sarS expression via mRNA-mRNA interaction

Staphylococcus aureus is an important Gram-positive pathogen responsible for numerous diseases ranging from localized skin infections to life-threatening systemic infections. The virulence of S. aureus is essentially determined by a wide spectrum of factors, including cell wall-associated proteins and secreted toxins that are precisely controlled in response to environmental changes. GGDEF domain protein from Staphylococcus (GdpS) is the only conserved staphylococcal GGDEF domain protein that is involved not in c-di-GMP synthesis but in the virulence regulation of S. aureus NCTC8325. Our previous study showed that the inactivation of gdpS generates an extensive change of virulence factors together with, in particular, a major Spa (protein A) surface protein. As reported, sarS is a direct positive regulator of spa. The decreased transcript levels of sarS in the gdpS mutant compared with the parental NCTC8325 strain suggest that gdpS affects spa through interaction with sarS. In this study, site mutation and complementary experiments showed that the translation product of gdpS was not involved in the regulation of transcript levels of sarS. We found that gdpS functioned through direct RNA-RNA base pairing with the 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of sarS mRNA and that a putative 18-nucleotide region played a significant role in the regulatory process. Furthermore, the mRNA half-life analysis of sarS in the gdpS mutant showed that gdpS positively regulates the mRNA levels of sarS by contributing to the stabilization of sarS mRNA, suggesting that gdpS mRNA may regulate spa expression in an RNA-dependent pathway.

Stochastic analysis of bistability in coherent mixed feedback loops combining transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulations

Mixed feedback loops combining transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulations are common in cellular regulatory networks. They consist of two genes, encoding a transcription factor and a small noncoding RNA (sRNA), which mutually regulate each other's expression. We present a theoretical and numerical study of coherent mixed feedback loops of this type, in which both regulations are negative. Under suitable conditions, these feedback loops are expected to exhibit bistability, namely, two stable states, one dominated by the transcriptional repressor and the other dominated by the sRNA. We use deterministic methods based on rate equation models, in order to identify the range of parameters in which bistability takes place. However, the deterministic models do not account for the finite lifetimes of the bistable states and the spontaneous, fluctuation-driven transitions between them. Therefore, we use stochastic methods to calculate the average lifetimes of the two states. It is found that these lifetimes strongly depend on rate coefficients such as the transcription rates of the transcriptional repressor and the sRNA. In particular, we show that the fraction of time the system spends in the sRNA-dominated state follows a monotonically decreasing sigmoid function of the transcriptional repressor transcription rate. The biological relevance of these results is discussed in the context of such mixed feedback loops in Escherichia coli. It is shown that the fluctuation-driven transitions and the dependence of some rate coefficients on the biological conditions enable the cells to switch to the state which is better suited for the existing conditions and to remain in that state as long as these conditions persist.